Chapter 1 Systems analysis is the study of sets of interacting entities, including computer systems analysis.

This field is closely related to requirements analysis or operations research. It is also "an explicit formal inquiry carried out to help someone (referred to as the decision maker) identify a better course of action and make a better decision than he might otherwise have made." Systems design is the process of defining the architecture, components, modules, interfaces, and data for a system to satisfy specified requirements. One could see it as the application of systems theory to product development. There is some overlap with the disciplines of systems analysis, systems architecture and systems engineering. A systems analyst researches problems, plans solutions, recommends software and systems, and coordinates development to meet business or other requirements. They will be familiar with multiple variety of programming languages, operating systems, and computer hardware platforms. Because they often write user requests into technical specifications, the systems analysts are the liaisonsbetween vendors and information technology professionals.
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The computer BIOS and device firmware, provides basic functionality to operate and control the hardware connected to or built into the computer.

The operating system (prominent examples being Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and Linux), which allows the parts of a computer to work together by performing tasks like transferring data betweenmemory and disks or rendering output onto a display device. It also provides a platform to run high-level system software and application software.

Utility software, which helps to analyze, configure, optimize and

maintain the computer Application software, also known as an application or an "app", is computer software designed to help the user to perform specific tasks. Examples include enterprise software, accounting software, office suites, graphics software and media players. Many application programs deal principally with documents. Apps may be bundled with the computer and its system software, or may be published separately. Some users are satisfied with the bundled apps and need never install one. Enterprise software, also known as enterprise application software (EAS), is software used in organizations, such as in a business or government,
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They may be responsible for developing

cost analysis, design considerations, and implementation time-lines. A systems analyst may:

contrary to software chosen by individuals

(for example, retail software). Enterprise software is an integral part of a (Computer Based) Information System. Services provided by enterprise software are typically businessoriented tools such as online shopping and online payment processing, interactive product catalogue, automated billing systems, security, content management, IT service management, customer relationship management, resource planning, business intelligence, HR management, manufacturing, application integration, and forms automation. Computer software, or just software, is a collection of computer programs and related data that provide the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. In other words, software is a conceptual entity which is a set of computer programs, procedures, and associated documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system The term data refers to qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of variables. Data (plural of "datum") are typically the results of measurements and can be the basis of graphs, images, or observations of a set of variables. Data are often viewed as the lowest level of abstraction from which information and then knowledge are derived. Raw data, i.e. unprocessed data, refers to a collection of numbers, characters, images or other outputs from devices that collect information to convert physical quantities into symbols. Business Process Modeling (BPM) in systems engineering is the activity of representing processes of an enterprise, so that the current

Plan a system flow from the ground up. Interact with customers to learn and document requirements that are then used to produce business requirements documents.

Write technical requirements from a critical phase. Interact with designers to understand software limitations. Help programmers during system development, ex: provide use cases, flowcharts or even Database design.

Perform system testing. Deploy the completed system. Document requirements or contribute to user manuals. Whenever a development process is conducted, the system analyst is responsible for designing components and providing that information to the developer.

System software is computer software designed to operate the computer hardware and to provide a platform for running application software.
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The most basic types of system software are:

process may be analyzed and improved. BPM is typically performed by business analysts and managers who are seeking to improve process efficiency and quality. The process improvements identified by BPM may or may not requireInformation Technology involvement, although that is a common driver for the need to model a business process, by creating a process master. A business model describes the rationale of how [1] an organization creates, delivers, and captures value (economic, social, or other forms of value). The process of business model construction is part of business strategy.

The volume of B2B (Business-to-Business) transactions is much higher than the volume of B2C transactions.
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The primary reason

for this is that in a typical supply chain there will be many B2B transactions involving sub components or raw materials, and only one B2C transaction, specifically sale of the finished product to the end customer. For example, an automobile manufacturer makes several B2B transactions such as buying tires, glass for windscreens, and

rubber hoses for its vehicles. The final transaction, a finished vehicle A business process or business method is a collection of related, structured activities or tasks that produce a specific service or product sold to the consumer, is a single (B2C) transaction. (serve a particular goal) for a particular customer or customers. It often Electronic data interchange (EDI) is the structured transmission of can be visualized with a flowchart as a sequence of activities. data between organizations by electronic means. It is used to transfer electronic documents or business data from one computer system to Business process re-engineering is the analysis and design of another computer system, i.e. from one trading partner to another workflows and processes within an organization. According to trading partner without human intervention. Davenport (1990) a business process is a set of logically related tasks performed to achieve a defined business outcome. Re-engineering is the basis for many recent developments in management. The crossExtensible Markup Language (XML) is a set of rules for encoding functional team, for example, has become popular because of the documents in machine-readable form. It is defined in the XML 1.0 desire to re-engineer separate functional tasks into complete cross[citation needed] [4] functional processes. Also, many recent management Specification produced by the W3C, and several other related information systems developments aim to integrate a wide number of [5] specifications, all gratis open standards. business functions. Enterprise resource planning, supply chain management, knowledge management systems, groupware and The design goals of XML emphasize simplicity, generality, and collaborative systems, Human Resource Management [6] Systems and customer relationship management. usability over the Internet. It is a textual data format with strong Electronic commerce, commonly known as ecommerce, eCommerce or e-comm, refers to the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. However, the term may refer to more than just buying and selling products online. It also includes the entire online process of developing, marketing, selling, delivering, servicing and paying for products and services. The amount of trade conducted electronically has grown extraordinarily with widespread Internet usage. The use of commerce is conducted in this way, spurring and drawing on innovations in electronic funds transfer,supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection systems. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the World Wide Web at least at one point in the transaction's life-cycle, although it may encompass a wider range of technologies such as e-mail, mobile devices and telephones as well. Business to Consumer - A transaction that occurs between a company and a consumer, as opposed to a transaction between companies (called B2B). The term may also describe a company that provides goods or services for consumers. Business-to-business (B2B) describes commerce transactions between businesses, such as between a manufacturer and a wholesaler, or between a wholesaler and a retailer. Contrasting terms are business-to-consumer (B2C) and business-togovernment (B2G). DSSs include knowledge-based systems. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software-based system intended to help decision support via Unicode for the languages of the world. Although the design of XML focuses on documents, it is widely used for the representation of arbitrary data structures, for example in web services. SRM is a discipline of working collaboratively with those suppliers that are vital to the success of your organisation to maximise the potential value of those relationships. SRM is about developing two-way, mutually beneficial relationships with your most strategic supply partners that deliver greater levels of innovation and competitive advantage than could be achieved by operating independently. An operational system is a term used in data warehousing to refer to a system that is used to process the day-to-day transactions of an organization. These systems are designed so processing of day-to-day transactions is performed efficiently and the integrity of the transactional data is preserved. A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-based information system that supports business or organizational decisionmaking activities. DSSs serve the management, operations, and planning levels of an organization and help to make decisions, which may be rapidly changing and not easily specified in advance.

makers compile useful information from a combination of raw data, documents, personal knowledge, or business models to identify and solve problems and make decisions. Typical information that a decision support application might gather

Business support systems (BSS) are the components that a telephone operator or telco uses to run its business operations towards customer. BSS and OSS platforms are linked in the need to support various end to end services. Each area has its own data and service responsibilities. Knowledge Management System (KM System) refers to a (generally

and present are: generated via or through to an IT based program/department or

inventories of information assets (including legacy and relational data sources, cubes, data warehouses, and data marts),

section) system for managing knowledge in organizations for supporting creation, capture, storage and dissemination of information. It can comprise a part (neither necessary nor sufficient) of a Knowledge Management initiative. The idea of a KM system is to enable employees to have ready access to the organization's documented base of facts, sources of information, and solutions. For example a typical claim justifying the creation of a KM system might run something like this: an engineer could know the metallurgical composition of an alloy that reduces sound in gear systems. Sharing this information organization wide can lead to more effective engine design and it could also lead to ideas for new or

comparative sales figures between one period and the next, projected revenue figures based on product sales assumptions.

An executive information system (EIS) is a type of management information system intended to facilitate and support the information and decision-making needs of senior executives by providing easy access to both internal and external information relevant to meeting the strategic goals of the organization. It is commonly considered as a specialized form of decision support system (DSS)
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The emphasis of EIS is on graphical displays and easy-touse user interfaces. They offer strong reporting and drilldown capabilities. In general, EIS are enterprise-wide DSS that help top-level executives analyze, compare, and highlight trends in important variables so that they can monitor performance and identify opportunities and problems. EIS and data warehousing technologies are converging in the

improved equipment. A KM system could be any of the following:

1. Document based i.e. any technology that permits creation/management/sharing of formatted documents such as Lotus Notes, SharePoint, web, distributed databases etc. 2. Ontology/Taxonomy based: these are similar to document

marketplace. A transaction processing system is a type of information system. TPSs collect, store, modify, and retrieve the transactions of an organization. A transaction is an event that generates or modifiesdata that is eventually stored in an information system. To be considered a transaction processing system the computer must pass the ACID test. The essence of a transaction program is that it manages data that must be left in a consistent state, e.g. if an electronic payment is made, the amount must be both withdrawn from one account and added to the other; it cannot complete only one of those steps. Either both must occur, or neither. In case of a failure preventing transaction completion, the partially executed transaction must be 'rolled back' by the TPS. While this type of integrity must be provided also for batch transaction processing, it is particularly important for online processing: if e.g. an airline seat reservation system is accessed by multiple operators, after an empty seat inquiry, the seat reservation data must be locked until the reservation is made, otherwise another user may get the impression a seat is still free while it is actually being booked at the time. Without proper transaction monitoring, double bookings may occur. Other transaction monitor functions include deadlock detection and resolution (deadlocks may be inevitable in certain cases of cross-dependence on data), and transaction logging (in 'journals') for 'forward recovery' in case of massive failures. technologies in the sense that a system of terminologies (i.e. ontology) are used to summarize the document e.g. Author, Subj, Organization etc. as in DAML & other XML based ontologies 3. Based on AI technologies which use a customized representation scheme to represent the problem domain. 4. Provide network maps of the organization showing the flow of communication between entities and individuals 5. Increasingly social computing tools are being deployed to provide a more organic approach to creation of a KM system. A prototype is an early sample or model built to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from. In many fields, there is great uncertainty as to whether a new design will actually do what is desired. New designs often have unexpected problems. A prototype is often used as part of the product design process to allow engineers and designers the ability to explore design alternatives, test theories and confirm performance prior to starting production of a new product. Engineers use their experience to tailor the prototype according to the specific unknowns still present in the

intended design. For example, some prototypes are used to confirm and verify consumer interest in a proposed design whereas other prototypes will attempt to verify the performance or suitability of a specific design approach.

methodologies have been developed to guide the processes involved including the waterfall model (the original SDLC method), rapid application development (RAD), joint application development (JAD), the fountain model and the spiral model. Mostly, several models are combined into some sort of hybrid methodology. Documentation is crucial regardless of the type of model chosen or devised for any Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) is the scientific application, and is usually done in parallel with the development application of a set of tools and methods to a software system which is process. Some methods work better for specific types of projects, but meant to result in high-quality, defect-free, and maintainable software in the final analysis, the most important factor for the success of a [1] products. It also refers to methods for the development of information project may be how closely particular plan was followed. systems together with automated tools that can be used in the software development process The image below is the classic Waterfall model methodology, which is the first SDLC method and it describes the various phases involved in development. The term "computer-aided software engineering" (CASE) can refer to the software used for the automated development of systems Briefly on different Phases: software, i.e., computer code. The CASE functions include analysis, design, and programming. CASE tools automate methods for designing, documenting, and producing structured computer code in Feasibility the desired programming language. The feasibility study is used to determine if the project should get the Structured Analysis (SA) in software engineering and its allied go-ahead. If the project is to proceed, the feasibility study will produce a project plan and budget estimates for the future stages of technique, Structured Design (SD), are methods for analyzing and development. converting business requirements into specifications and ultimately, computer programs, hardware configurations and related manual procedures. Structured analysis is a set of techniques and graphical tools used by the analyst for applying a systematic approach to systems analysis. The traditional approach focuses on cost/benefit and feasibility analyses, project management, hardware and software selection, and personnel considerations. In contrast, structured analysis uses graphical tools such as Data Flow diagram, data dictionary, structured English, Decision tree, and decision tables. The outcome of structured analysis is a new document, called system specifications, which provides the basis for design and implementation. The primary steps included in structured analysis are: 1. Study affected user areas, resulting in a physical DFD. The logical equivalent of the present system results in a logical DFD. 2. Remove the physical checkpoints and replace them with a logical equivalent, resulting in the logical DFD. 3. Model new logical system 4. Establish man/machine interface 5. Quantify costs and benefits and select hardware. The structured specification consists of the DFDs that show the major decomposition of system functions and their interfaces, the data dictionary documenting all interface flows and data stores on the DFDs, and documentation of the intervals of DFDs through structured English, decision trees, and decision tables. System Development Life Cycle The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model used in project management that describes the stages involved in an information system development project from an initial feasibility study through maintenance of the completed application. Various SDLC Inevitably the system will need maintenance. Software will definitely undergo change once it is delivered to the customer. There are many reasons for the change. Change could happen because of some unexpected input values into the system. In addition, the changes in the system could directly affect the software operations. The software Requirement Analysis and Design Analysis gathers the requirements for the system. This stage includes a detailed study of the business needs of the organization. Options for changing the business process may be considered. Design focuses on high level design like, what programs are needed and how are they going to interact, low-level design (how the individual programs are going to work), interface design (what are the interfaces going to look like) and data design (what data will be required). During these phases, the software's overall structure is defined. Analysis and Design are very crucial in the whole development cycle. Any glitch in the design phase could be very expensive to solve in the later stage of the software development. Much care is taken during this phase. The logical system of the product is developed in this phase. Implementation In this phase the designs are translated into code. Computer programs are written using a conventional programming language or an application generator. Programming tools like Compilers, Interpreters, Debuggers are used to generate the code. Different high level programming languages like C, C++, Pascal, Java are used for coding. With respect to the type of application, the right programming language is chosen. Testing In this phase the system is tested. Normally programs are written as a series of individual modules, these subject to separate and detailed test. The system is then tested as a whole. The separate modules are brought together and tested as a complete system. The system is tested to ensure that interfaces between modules work (integration testing), the system works on the intended platform and with the expected volume of data (volume testing) and that the system does what the user requires (acceptance/beta testing). Maintenance

should be developed to accommodate changes that could happen during the post implementation period.

Models can use one or more classifiers in trying to determine the probability of a set of data belonging to another set, say spam or 'ham'.

Object-oriented design (OOD) transforms the conceptual model produced in object-oriented analysis to take account of the constraints imposed by the chosen architecture and any non-functional technological or environmental constraints, such as transaction throughput, response time, run-time platform, development environment, or programming language. The concepts in the analysis model are mapped onto implementation classes and interfaces. The result is a model of the solution domain, a detailed description of how the system is to be built.

An adaptive model is a model, which changes the symbol probabilities during the compression process in order to adapt to the changing contexts during the process. Initially the compression process starts with a basic model, so the model doesn't need to be transmitted. During the process, the model gets adapted by the symbols, which have been transmitted already. It is important that the model gets adapted only by the symbols, which have been transmitted already, since the decoder needs to be able to adapt the model in the same way later at the decompression process. Since the decoder knows the before transmitted symbols, he can adapt the model in the same way than the coder did.

Extreme Programming (XP) is a software development methodology which is intended to improve software quality and responsiveness to changing customer requirements. As a type of agile Object-oriented analysis (OOA) looks at the problem domain, with the aim of producing a conceptual model of the information that exists in the area being analyzed. Analysis models do not consider any implementation constraints that might exist, such as concurrency, distribution, persistence, or how the system is to be built. Implementation constraints are dealt during object-oriented design (OOD). Analysis is done before the Design
[citation needed]

software development,

[1][2][3]

it advocates frequent "releases" in short

development cycles (timeboxing), which is intended to improve productivity and introduce checkpoints where new customer requirements can be adopted. Other elements of extreme programming include: programming in pairs or doing extensive code review, unit testing of all code, avoiding programming of features until they are actually needed, a flat

The sources for the analysis can be a written requirements statement, a formal vision document, interviews with stakeholders or other interested parties. A system may be divided into multiple domains, representing different business, technological, or other areas of interest, each of which are analyzed separately. The result of object-oriented analysis is a description of what the system is functionally required to do, in the form of a conceptual model. That will typically be presented as a set of use cases, one or more UML class diagrams, and a number of interaction diagrams. It may also include some kind of user interface mock-up. The purpose of object oriented analysis is to develop a model that describes computer software as it works to satisfy a set of customer defined requirements.

management structure, simplicity and clarity in code, expecting changes in the customer's requirements as time passes and the problem is better understood, and frequent communication with the customer and among programmers.
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The methodology takes its

name from the idea that the beneficial elements of traditional software engineering practices are taken to "extreme" levels, on the theory that if some is good, more is better.

Predictive modelling is the process by which a model is created or chosen to try to best predict the probability of an outcome.
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In many

cases the model is chosen on the basis of detection theoryto try to guess the probability of an outcome given a set amount of input data, for example given an email determining how likely that it is spam.