ALTERNATOR

Description

An alternator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical

energy to alternating current electrical energy. Most alternators use a rotating
magnetic field but linear alternators are occasionally used. In principle, any AC
generator can be called an alternator, but usually the word refers to small rotating
machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion engines.
History

Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from

the discovery of the magnetic induction of electric current. The early machines
were developed by pioneers such as Michael Faraday and Hippolyte Pixii.
Faraday developed the "rotating rectangle", whose operation was heteropolar.
The first public demonstration of a more robust "alternator system" took place in
1886. Large two-phase alternating current generators were built by a British
electrician, J.E.H. Gordon, in 1882. Lord Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti also
developed early alternators, producing frequencies between 100 and 300 hertz.
In 1891, Nikola Tesla patented a practical "high-frequency" alternator (which
operated around 15,000 hertz). After 1891, polyphase alternators were
introduced to supply currents of multiple differing phases. Later alternators were
designed for varying alternating-current frequencies between sixteen and about
one hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting, incandescent lighting and electric
motors.

Alternators are used in automobiles to charge the battery and to power a

car's electric system when its engine is running. Alternators have the great
advantage over direct-current generators of not using a commutator, which
makes them simpler, lighter, less costly, and more rugged than a DC generator.
The stronger construction of automotive alternators allows them to turn twice as
fast as the engine, improving output when the engine is idling. The availability of
low-cost solid-state diodes from about 1960 allowed auto manufacturers to
substitute alternators for DC generators. Automotive alternators use a set of
rectifiers (diode bridge) to convert AC to DC. To provide direct current with low
ripple, automotive alternators have a three-phase winding.
Typical passenger vehicle and light truck alternators use Lundell or claw-pole
field construction, where the field north and south poles are all energized by a
single winding, with the poles looking rather like fingers of two hands interlocked
with each other. Larger vehicles may have salient-pole alternators similar to
larger machines. The automotive alternator is usually belt driven at 2-3 times the
engine crankshaft speed.

Modern automotive alternators have a voltage regulator built into them.

The voltage regulator operates by modulating the small field current in order to

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produce a constant voltage at the stator output. The field current is much smaller
than the output current of the alternator; for example, a 70-amp alternator may
need only 2 amps of field current.

Efficiency of automotive alternators is limited by fan cooling loss, bearing

loss, iron loss, copper loss, and the voltage drop in the diode bridges; at part
load, efficiency is between 50-62% depending on the size of alternator, and
varies with alternator speed.[6] In comparison, the best permanent magnet
generators, such as those used for bicycle lighting systems, achieve an efficiency
of around only 60%.

The field windings are initially supplied via the ignition switch and charge
warning light, which is why the light glows when the ignition is on but the engine
is not running. Once the engine is running and the alternator is generating, a
diode feeds the field current from the alternator main output, thus equalizing the
voltage across the warning light which goes out. The wire supplying the field
current is often referred to as the "exciter" wire. The drawback of this
arrangement is that if the warning light fails or the "exciter" wire is disconnected,
no priming current reaches the alternator field windings and so the alternator will
not generate any power. However, some alternators will self-excite when the
engine is revved to a certain speed. The driver may check for a faulty exciter-
circuit by ensuring that the warning light is glowing with the engine stopped.

Very large automotive alternators used on busses, heavy equipment or

emergency vehicles may produce 300 amperes. Very old automobiles with
minimal lighting and electronic devices may have only a 30 ampere alternator.
Typical passenger car and light truck alternators are rated around 70 amperes,
though higher ratings are becoming more common. Very large automotive
alternators may be water-cooled or oil-cooled.

Many alternators are also linked to the vehicles on board computer

system, and in recent years many other factors including air flow are considered
in adjusting the battery charging voltage supplied by the alternator.

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Parts

The stationary part of a motor or alternator is called the stator and the
rotating part is called the rotor. The coils of wire that are used to produce a
magnetic field are called the field and the coils that produce the power are called
the armature. The coils of wire that are used to create the field and the armature
are sometimes referred to as the “windings”.

Function

Exciter

The exciter field coils are on the stator and its armature is on the rotor.
The AC output from the exciter armature is fed through a set of diodes that are
also mounted on the rotor to produce a DC voltage. This is fed directly to the field
coils of the main alternator, which are also located on the rotor. With this
arrangement, brushes and slip rings are not required to feed current to the
rotating field coils. This can be contrasted with a simple automotive alternator
where brushes and slip rings are used to supply current to the rotating field.

Main Alternator

The main alternator has a rotating field as described above and a

stationary armature (power generation windings). With the armature stationary,
the high current output does not have to go through brushes and slip rings.
Although the electrical design is more complex, it results in a very reliable
alternator because the only parts subject to wear are the bearings.

Control System

Varying the amount of current through the stationary exciter field coils
controls the strength of the magnetic field in the exciter. This in turn controls the
output from the exciter. The exciter output is fed into the rotating field of the main
alternator to supply the magnetic field for it. The strength of the magnetic field in
the main alternator then controls its output. The result of all this is that a small

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current, in the field of the exciter indirectly controls the output of the main
alternator and none of it has to go through brushes and slip-rings.

AVR

AVR is an abbreviation for Automatic Voltage Regulator. An AVR serves

the same function as the “voltage regulator” in an automobile or the “regulator” or
“controller” in a home power system.

Hybrid automobiles

Hybrid automobiles replace the separate alternator and starter motor with
a combined motor/generator that performs functions, cranking the internal
combustion engine when starting, providing additional mechanical power for
accelerating, and charging a large storage battery when the vehicle is running at
constant speed. These rotating machines have considerably more powerful
electronic devices for their control than the simple automotive alternator
described above.

Radio alternators

Extending Tesla's work on high-frequency alternators, high frequency

alternators of the variable-reluctance type were applied commercially to radio
transmission in the low-frequency radio bands. These were used for transmission
of Morse code and, experimentally, for transmission of voice and music.

Principle of Operation

Alternators generate electricity by the same principle as DC generators,

namely, when the magnetic field around a conductor changes, a current is
induced in the conductor. Typically a rotating magnet called the rotor turns within
a stationary set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core, called the stator.
The field cuts across the conductors, generating an electrical current, as the
mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.

The rotor magnetic field may be produced by induction (in a "brushless"

alternator), by permanent magnets (in very small machines), or by a rotor
winding energized with direct current through slip rings and brushes. The rotor
magnetic field may even be provided by stationary field winding, with moving
poles in the rotor. Automotive alternators invariably use a rotor winding, which
allows control of the alternator generated voltage by varying the current in the
rotor field winding. Permanent magnet machines avoid the loss due to
magnetizing current in the rotor, but are restricted in size, owing to the cost of the
magnet material. Since the permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal
voltage varies directly with the speed of the generator. Brushless AC generators
are usually larger machines than those used in automotive applications.

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Illustration

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

Description

All 3-phase generators (or motors) use a rotating magnetic field.

In the picture to the left we have installed three electromagnets around a circle.
Each of the three magnets is connected to its own phase in the three phase
electrical grid.
As you can see, each of the three electromagnets alternate between producing a
South Pole and a North Pole towards the centre. The letters are shown in black
when the magnetism is strong and in light grey when the magnetism is weak.
The fluctuation in magnetism corresponds exactly to the fluctuation in voltage of
each phase. When one phase is at its peak, the other two have the current
running in the opposite direction, at half the voltage. Since the timing of current in
the three magnets is one third of a cycle apart, the magnetic field will make one
complete revolution per cycle.

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Parts

The rotor of a synchronous machine contains a winding called the field

winding. For simplicity, we will consider the case of a round rotor (uniform air gap
about the machine). The rotor may be slotted with the turns of the field winding
distributed in those slots. The field winding will be supplied DC current.

Functions

If we imagine that the rotor magnetic field moves past the “a” stator phase
first, we would expect a strong induced voltage for the a-phase. As the rotor turns
and moves its magnetic field past the b and c coils, those coils would also show
a surge in voltage respectively. The sequence of voltages shown in the figure is
termed the abc-sequence since the a-phase takes its peak first, then the b-phase
and finally the c-phase. Note that the voltages all have the same frequency and
equal amplitude but are displaced by 120o. (As the rotor turns and moves past
the a’, b’ and c’, the negative voltage peaks occur.)

The DC current flowing in the field winding will set up a magnetic field on
the rotor (think here North and South poles). The prime mover (mechanical
engine) will then spin the rotor at what we will soon refer to as synchronous
speed. The magnetic field sweeping past, the stationary stator coils will induce
voltages. This phenomenon is described by Faradays law, and was present as
the back EMF in the DC motors you studied previously. Since the phase coils are
spatially displaced, the induced voltages will be time displaced and will constitute
a balanced set (same frequency, equal amplitude, and displaced).

Principle of Operation

If you start forcing the magnet around (instead of letting the current from
the grid move it), you will discover that it works like a generator, sending
alternating current back into the grid. (You should have a more powerful magnet

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to produce much electricity). The more force (torque) you apply, the more
electricity you generate, but the generator will still run at the same speed dictated
by the frequency of the electrical grid.

You may disconnect the generator completely from the grid, and start your
own private 3-phase electricity grid, hooking your lamps up to the three coils
around the electromagnets. (Remember the principle of magnetic / electrical
induction from the reference manual section of this web site). If you disconnect
the generator from the main grid, however, you will have to crank it at a constant
rotational speed in order to produce alternating current with a constant frequency.
Consequently, with this type of generator you will normally want to use an indirect
grid connection of the generator.

In practice, permanent magnet synchronous generators are not used very

much. There are several reasons for this. One reason is that permanent magnets
tend to become demagnetised by working in the powerful magnetic fields inside a
generator. Another reason is that powerful magnets (made of rare earth metals,
e.g. Neodynium) are quite expensive, even if prices have dropped lately.

Wind Turbines with Synchronous Generators

Wind turbines which use synchronous generators normally use
electromagnets in the rotor which are fed by direct current from the electrical grid.
Since the grid supplies alternating current, they first have to convert alternating
current to direct current before sending it into the coil windings around the
electromagnets in the rotor.

The rotor electromagnets are connected to the current by using brushes

and slip rings on the axle (shaft) of the generator.

Illustration

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 INDUCTION MOTOR

Polyphase Motor

Description

Induction Motor (IM) is one kind of ac motor where power is supplied to

the rotating device by induction process. In a motor electrical power is converted
to mechanical power in its rotating part. So it is needed to supply power to the
rotating part of the machine. In case of DC Motor this power is supplied to the
armature directly from a dc source. But in case of ac motor this power is induced
in the rotating device. That means power is supplied by induction process. It can
better be compared with the transformer. Static stator can be considered as the
primary side and rotating device or rotor as the secondary side. That is why
induction motor is sometimes called rotating transformer. It is very widely used of
the motors. Especially polyphase induction motor is frequently used in numerous
industrial drives.

A dc excitation is needed to start a synchronous motor and it operates at

constant speed given that the frequency is fixed. In the case of a normal
induction motor speed is variable. But for a synchronous induction motor, it starts
to operate as an induction motor (emf is induced in the rotor) but after some time
it becomes synchronous. That means the speed becomes constant. It happens
because of the reluctance torque. Once it turns to synchronism, it maintains the
constant speed. This type of motor was constructed for spring the purpose of
constant speed without supplying the dc excitation. As we see no dc excitation is
needed for this motor. It is induced as per the law of induction motor.

Parts

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 The stator in Figure above is wound with pairs of coils corresponding to
the phases of electrical energy available. The 2-phase induction motor stator
above has 2-pairs of coils, one pair for each of the two phases of AC. The
individual coils of a pair are connected in series and correspond to the opposite
poles of an electromagnet. That is, one coil corresponds to a N-pole, the other to
a S-pole until the phase of AC changes polarity. The other pair of coils is oriented
90o in space to the first pair. This pair of coils is connected to AC shifted in time
by 90o in the case of a 2-phase motor. In Tesla's time, the source of the two
phases of AC was a 2-phase alternator.

The stator in Figure above has salient, obvious protruding poles, as used
on Tesla's early induction motor. This design is used to this day for sub-fractional
horsepower motors (<50 watts). However, for larger motors less torque pulsation
and higher efficiency results if the coils are embedded into slots cut into the
stator laminations.

Functions

The stator and the rotor are electrical circuits that perform as
electromagnets. The stator is the stationary electrical part of the motor. The
stator core of a NEMA motor is made up of several hundred thin laminations.

Principle of Operation

A short explanation of operation is that the stator creates a rotating

magnetic field which drags the rotor around.

The theory of operation of induction motors is based on a rotating

magnetic field. One means of creating a rotating magnetic field is to rotate a
permanent magnet as shown in Figure below. If the moving magnetic lines of flux
cut a conductive disk, it will follow the motion of the magnet. The lines of flux
cutting the conductor will induce a voltage, and consequent current flow, in the
conductive disk. This current flow creates an electromagnet whose polarity
opposes the motion of the permanent magnet-- Lenz's Law. The polarity of the

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electromagnet is such that it pulls against the permanent magnet. The disk
follows with a little less speed than the permanent magnet.

Illustration

Single-phase Motor

Description

In order for an induction motor to operate, we need to have a rotor with a

short circuited winding inside a stator with a rotating magnetic field.

There are probably more single-phase ac induction motors in use today

than the total of all the other types put together. It is logical that the least
expensive, lowest maintenance type of ac motor should be used most often. The
single-phase ac induction motor fits that description. Unlike polyphase induction
motors, the stator field in the single-phase motor does not rotate. Instead it
simply alternates polarity between poles as the ac voltage changes polarity.
Voltage is induced in the rotor as a result of magnetic induction, and a magnetic
field is produced around the rotor. This field will always be in opposition to the

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stator field (Lenz’s law applies). The interaction between the rotor and stator
fields will not produce rotation, however. The interaction is shown by the double-
ended arrow in figure 4-10, view A. Because this force is across the rotor and
through the pole pieces, there is no rotary motion, just a push and/or pull along
this line.

Parts

Single-phase induction motors are not self-starting without an auxiliary

stator winding driven by an out of phase current of near 90o. Once started the
auxiliary winding is optional. The auxiliary winding of a permanent-split capacitor
motor has a capacitor in series with it during starting and running.

Functions

A single-phase power system has one coil in the generator. Therefore, one
alternating voltage is generated. The voltage curve of a single-phase AC
generator is shown in Figure 16.

Single-phase motors are generally motors with horsepower ratings of one

or below. (These are generally called fractional horsepower motors.) They are
generally used to operate mechanical devices and machines requiring a
relatively small amount of power.

Types of single-phase motors include: shaded-pole, capacitor, split-phase,

repulsion, series (AC or universal) and synchronous.

However, the single-phase motor is generally not used because it is

inefficient, expensive to operate, and is not self starting.

We will not go into detail here regarding how each single-phase motor
type functions.

Principle of Operation

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 Once the rotor is up to full speed, it will continue to run with the second
winding disconnected. This is because the rotor circuit is both resistive and
inductive. If we consider the magnetic field rotating in the same direction as the
rotor, the frequency of the current will be low, so the rotor current will be primarily
limited by the rotor resistance. In the case of the counter rotating field, the
frequency of the induced current will be almost twice line frequency and so the
inductance of the rotor will play a much greater role in limiting the rotor current. In
other words, once the motor is up to speed, it will lock on to one field only and
the second winding can be disconnected. If the second winding remains in
circuit, the displaced field reduces the magnetic fluctuations in the gap and
therefore provides a more even torque and less vibration. Some "start" windings
are only designed for intermittent operation and they must be disconnected at the
end of the start. Continuous operation using these windings would cause a
winding failure. Most single phase motors are fitted with a centrifugal switch to
disconnect the start winding once the motor is close to full speed.

Illustration

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

Description

An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The

reverse process, that of converting mechanical energy into electrical energy, is
accomplished by a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on locomotives
often perform both tasks if the locomotive is equipped with dynamic brakes
.
Electric motors are found in household appliances such as fans,
refrigerators, washing machines, pool pumps and fan-forced ovens.

Most electric motors work by electromagnetism, but motors based on other

electromechanical phenomena, such as electrostatic forces and the piezoelectric
effect, also exist. The fundamental principle upon which electromagnetic motors
are based is that there is a mechanical force on any current-carrying wire

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contained within a magnetic field. The force is described by the Lorentz force law
and is perpendicular to both the wire and the magnetic field. Most magnetic
motors are rotary, but linear motors also exist. In a rotary motor, the rotating part
(usually on the inside) is called the rotor, and the stationary part is called the
stator. The rotor rotates because the wires and magnetic field are arranged so
that a torque is developed about the rotor’s axis.

Parts

Functions

The principle of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by

electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael
Faraday in 1821 and consisted of a free-hanging wire dipping into a pool of
mercury. A permanent magnet was placed in the middle of the pool of mercury.
When a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the
magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a circular magnetic field around the
wire. This motor is often demonstrated in school physics classes, but brine (salt
water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest form
of a class of electric motors called homopolar motors. A later refinement is the
Barlow's Wheel. These were demonstration devices, unsuited to practical
applications due to limited power.

The first commutator-type direct-current electric motor capable of a

practical application was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in
1832. Following Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor
made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American Thomas
Davenport and patented in 1837. Although several of these motors were built and
operated equipment, such as a printing press, due to the high cost of primary
battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went
bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors
but all encountered the same cost issues with primary battery power, no electrcity

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distribution had been developed at the time. Like Sturgeon's motor, there was no
practical commercial market for these motors.

The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when Zénobe

Gramme connected a spinning dynamo to a second similar unit, driving it as a
motor. The Gramme machine was the first industrially useful electric motor;
earlier inventions were used as toys or laboratory curiosities.

Principle of Operation

The strong rotating magnetic field attracts the strong rotor field activated
by the dc. This results in a strong turning force on the rotor shaft. The rotor is
therefore able to turn a load as it rotates in step with the rotating magnetic field. It
works this way once it’s started. However, one of the disadvantages of a
synchronous motor is that it cannot be started from a standstill by applying three-
phase ac power to the stator. When ac is applied to the stator, a high-speed
rotating magnetic field appears immediately. This rotating field rushes past the
rotor poles so quickly that the rotor does not have a chance to get started. In
effect, the rotor is repelled first in one direction and then the other. A synchronous
motor in its purest form has no starting torque. It has torque only when it is
running at synchronous speed. A squirrel-cage type of winding is added to the
rotor of a synchronous motor to cause it to start. The squirrel cage is shown as
the outer part of the rotor in figure 4-7. It is so named because it is shaped and
looks something like a turn able squirrel cage. Simply, the windings are heavy
copper bars shorted

Synchronous motors are made in sizes ranging from sub fractional self-
excited units to large-horsepower, direct-current-excited motors for industrial
drives. In the fractional-horsepower range, synchronous motors are used
primarily where precise constant speed is required.

In large horsepower sizes applied to industrial loads, synchronous motors

serve two important functions. First, it is a highly efficient means of converting ac
energy to mechanical power. Second, it can operate at leading or unity power
factor, thereby providing power-factor correction.

Illustration

REFERENCES

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Books:

Donald G. Fink and H. Wayne Beaty, Standard Handbook for Electrical

Engineers, Eleventh Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978, ISBN 0-07-020974-
X.

Edwin J. Houston and Arthur Kennelly, Recent Types of Dynamo-Electric

Machinery, copyright American Technical Book Company 1897, published by
P.F. Collier and Sons New York, 1902

Kuphaldt, Tony R. (2000-2006). "Chapter 13 AC MOTORS", Lessons In Electric

Circuits — Volume II.
Thompson, Sylvanus P., Dynamo-Electric Machinery, A Manual for Students of
Electrotechnics, Part 1, Collier and Sons, New York, 1902

White, Thomas H.,"Alternator-Transmitter Development (1891-1920)".

EarlyRadioHistory.us.

Internet:

http://www.wikipedia.org/

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