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ETHNO
PHAR~COIDGY
ELSEVIER Journal of Ethnopharmacoiogy 52 (1996) 45-51
C. D e s m a r c h e l i e r a, A. G u r n i b, G. C i c c i a *a, A . M . G i u l i e t t i a
aC~tedra de Biotecnologla y Microbiologla Industrial, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junin 956, 1113 Buenos Aires, Argentina
bChtedra de Farmacobot~nica, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquimica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junin 956, 1113 Buenos Aires,
Argentina
Abstract
The Ese'eja is a hunter-fisher-gatherer tribe of Amerindians which occupies the south-eastern part of Perti. Their
culture cannot be disassociated from religious beliefs. Disease can be caused by accident, distraction or indolence, or
by evil powers. These evil powers come either from the direct action of a harmful shaman or by interactions with the
Devil. A description of shamanic practices is given to elucidate the position of health practices in Ese'eja culture, which
includes the use of medicinal and ritual plants. Aspects of ayahuasca (Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce) Morton,
Malpighiaceae) ritual in shaman initiation and in healing rituals are presented. Diagnosis and treatment include invoca-
tion to the ayahuasca spirit. Plants used as medicine or invoked for healing are presented.
1. Introduction the forest, for their other needs. Plants have been
very important in the Ese'eja's diet, as well as in
The Ese'eja, a hunter-fisher-gatherer tribe of their rituals to prevent diseases.
Amerindians belonging to the Takana linguistic Medicinal knowledge of plants is strongly re-
family, occupied the area delimited by 10° and 12° lated to the use of 'ayahuasca', a drink made of a
S, and 66 ° and 70° W, in the south-west Amazon vine that grows in the forest, known as
Basin, along the Tambopata, Madre de Dios and Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce) Morton
Heath Rivers in Peni, and the Beni and Madidi (Malpighiaceae), in ritual ceremonies. Because of
Rivers in Bolivia. The Ese'eja culture, including the presence of the alkaloids harmine, harmaline
economic practices, hunting and gathering, has and tetrahidroharmaline in its stembark (Pages
always been associated with the river, namely, for Larraya, 1979), the 'shaman', 'eyami tekua' (pro-
their main transport and communication, and with tector of the people) or healer, after ingestion of
the plant, will fall into a trance, during which he
claims to learn the art of healing the sick by using
* Corresponding author. the plants of the forest.
The use of 'ayahuasca' has been reported for help of the following informants: Agustin Mishaja
several regions of the western Amazon Basin (e.g. (40-50 years old), belonging to the settlement of
Schultes, 1957, 1963, 1967; Prance, 1970; Pages Infierno, and Alfredo Caligua (40-50 years old),
Larraya 1979; Luna, 1984a, 1984b; Garcia Bar- belonging to the settlement of Filadelphia. All the
riga, 1992). The Ese'eja also call it 'jono pase' and medicinal plants were mentioned by these in-
the 'rope of the dead' (in Qu~chua language; 'aya', formants.
dead; 'huasca', rope). Mythic narrations and invocations were record-
At present, the Ese'eja of Perti comprise some ed in Spanish. Plant specimens were collected by
600 individuals settled in Infierno and Filadelfia, the first author and identified by the second
on the Tambopata River, and in Palma Real and author. Voucher specimens (cited in Table 1) have
Soene on the lower Madre de Dios and Heath been deposited in this institution.
Rivers. As recently as 1948, the Ese'eja population
in Madre de Dios was estimated at 15 000 people 3. Results
(Chavarria Mendoza, 1984). Since this number has
been drastically reduced in recent years, and due All plants obtained through the interviews and
to acculturation pressures, their traditional knowl- collected are listed in Table 1 by their scientific
edge on the use of natural resources is being rapid- names and in alphabetical order. Data of these
ly lost. In the literature at hand, no information plants include: scientific name of the plant and its
was found on plants used for medicinal purposes voucher specimen, Ese'eja name and details of use.
by the Ese'eja. Thus, the objective of the present
work was to document the use of medicinal and 3.1. The ayahuasca ritual
magical plants among the Ese'eja, and to record
their shamanic practices, in order to better unders- When an Ese'eja suffers a disease, this person is
tand the state of health practices of this culture, treated and cared for by the shaman. This act takes
particularly as regards the use of medicinal and place in an ayahuasca ritual, in which the healer
hallucinogenic plants. boils the bark of the stem and drinks the macerate
The area of study is located in the subtropical together with the person to be healed. Both the pa-
Amazon biogeographical province of Perti tients and the shaman will fall into a trance, during
(Anonymous, 1994), which comprises two main which they learn the causes of and the remedies for
landscapes: the rainforests to the south and west, the disease. Since this ritual is a strong tabu, it was
and the palm savannas (Pampas de Heath) to the not possible to witness it. However, the authors
north-east. were able to obtain a full description of the ritual
from a shaman, as follows:
2. Methodology
'The soga (rope) must be respected. Eleven
Verbal information was obtained through inter- fragments of the highest part of the plant are cut.
views with adults recognized as having a high level These are boiled in water for eight hours, far away
of knowledge of the culture. Interviewees had from the prying eyes of strangers, and only in the
spent most of their life in the forest, experiencing presence of a small group, usually two or three, of
their culture in its pristine stage, and had little or highly trusted persons. The healer sings and
no contact with Western civilization. smokes wild tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.,
Field work was carried out in the settlements of Solanaceae) before the ceremony. Once the drink
Infierno and Filadelphia, and in La Ccollpa, dur- is ready, the group drinks it. Soon after, the decoc-
ing the month of January 1994 (Fig. 1). The data tion elicits vomiting. After this, visions of all kinds
were cross-checked during leisurely conversations of animals of the forest are claimed to appear to
with adults and young people, and some of them them, such as the "otorongo" (Panthera onca), the
were confirmed in Puerto Maldonado. "cotomono" (Alouatta seniculus) and the
Most of the field work was carried out with the "guacamayo" (Ara spp). Finally, the spirit of a
C Desmarchelieret al.1 Journal of Ethnopharmacology 52 (1996) 45-51 47
! I
71 ° 69 ~
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Fig. 1. Map of Madre de Dios showing the localities visited. 1, Infierno; 2, Filadelphia; 3, La Ccollpa.
woman shows up; she has a dark skin and dark They will ask questions about unknown things, be
eyes and long hair, which may be curled or able to see things at a distance and distinguish
straight. She is the Madre de la Soga (Mother of good from evil. If the ritual is not taken seriously,
the Rope). She wants to know the purpose of the however, she will punish them. Men dressed in
ritual. The healer asks her for advice to heal the steel armours will come along; they are feared by
sick person. The Mother of the Rope then directs everyone, because the "chonta" (arrows made of
and tells them the causes of the disease and the Gynerium sagittatum Beauv., Poaceae) could not
plants that will cure it. All the patients also see her. harm them.'
48 C Desmarchelier et aL/Journal of Ethnopharmacology 52 (1996) 45-51
Table 1
Medicinal and ritual plants
Scientific name, family and voucher Ese'eja name Disease treated and use
specimen number
Abuta grandifolia (Mart.) Sandwith Abuta The stem is ground and boiled. The infusion is taken
(Menispermaceae) (533) orally to treat tuberculosis.
Aspidosperma excelsa Benth. Remo caspi To treat toothaches, the stem bark is chewed.
(Apocynaceae) (534)
Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce) Morton Ayahuasca, The stem bark is boiled and the macerate is taken
(Malpighiaceae) (535) jono pase orally in healing rituals (see text).
Batocarpus amazonicus (Ducke) Fosberg Mashonaste The stem sap is rubbed on external ulcers.
(Moraceae) (536)
Brunfelsia grandiflora D. Don Chiricsanango To treat colds, the root is boiled in water and the
(Solanaceae) (537) infusion is taken orally.
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Paicco To treat external mycosis, the leaves are rubbed on
(Chenopodiaceae) (538) the body.
Clavariadelphus sp. Hongo Internal water of this mushroom is placed in the ear
(Clavariaceae) (539) to treat earaches.
Copaifera reticulata Ducke Copaiba To treat ulcers and other digestive diseases, the oil is
(Caesalpiniaceae) (540) obtained from the stem, and taken orally.
Croton erythrochilus Muell-Arg. Sangre Grado The stem latex is mixed with water and taken orally
(Euphorbiaceae) (541) to treat internal injuries.
Dracontium sp. Sacha jerg6n To treat snake wounds, the whole plant is boiled and
(Araceae) (542) the macerate is used externally.
Erythrina ulei Harms Amazizo The stem bark is ground and rubbed on sting ray
(Fabaceae) (543) wounds.
Euterpe precatoria Martius Palma huasai To treat anemia, the roots are ground, mixed with
(Palmae) (544) water and taken orally.
Gynerium sagittatum Beauv. Cana agria, chonta The ground leaves put into water are used in a bath
(Poaceae) (546) to treat skin diseases.
Jatropha macrantha Muell-Arg. Huanarpo The root is ground and boiled. The infusion is taken
(Euphorbiaceae) (548) orally as a depurative.
Nicotiana tabacum L. Tabaco Used for ritual purposes. The leaves are smoked in
(Solanaceae) (549) ayahuasca rituals.
C. Desmarchelier et al./ Journal of Ethnopharmacology 52 (1996) 45-51 49
Table 1 (continued)
Scientific name, family and voucher Ese'eja name Disease treated and use
specimen number
Petiveria alliacea L. Mucura The leaves are taken orally as an infusion to treat
(Phytolaccaceae) (550) colds.
Piper angustifolium R. et. P. Matico The leaves are boiled and the infusion is taken
(Piperaceae) (552) orally to treat different diseases.
Pothomorphe peltata (L.) Miq. Hoja Santamaria To treat external ulcers. The leaves are ground,
(Piperaceae) (553) cooked in water and used in external washes.
Psidium guajava L. Guayaba The leaves and roots are boiled in water and taken
(Myrtaceae) (554) orally to treat diarrhea.
Sapium marmieri Huber Caucho masham The latex is mixed with water and taken orally as a
(Euphorbiaceae) (555) purgative.
Triplaris americana L. Tangarana The bark is boiled in water and the infusion is taken
(Polygonaceae) (556) orally to prevent different diseases.
heard hissing. If he hisses three short times, The addition of 'Chacruna' (Psychotria viridis
somebody will fall ill or die.' Ruiz et Pav6n, Rubiaceae) (Pages Larraya, 1979;
Luna, 1984a, 1984b; Cabieses, 1993)and 'Chiric-
3.3. Medicinal plants sanango' (Brunfelsia grandiflora) (Luna, 1984a;
Soukup, 1986; Cabieses, 1993) in the preparation
As a result of shamanism, the Ese'eja culture of the beverage has been stressed in other regions
developed and recognizes a number of folk thera- of Amazonia. However, this practice has not been
peutic agents originated from plants and animals. observed by the authors. Tobacco, on the other
For example, the stem sap of 'Oj6' (Ficus in- hand, is a medicine in itself, and must be used in
sipida),'Caucho masham' (Sapium marmieri) and the ayahuasca ritual. Many Amerindian groups
'Catawa' (Hura crepitans) is used as a purgative also use tobacco in healing rituals, and often stay
and to treat intestinal parasitic infections. Diar- at this level of shamanic learning, such as the
rhea is treated with 'Guayaba' (Psidium guajava), Ayoreo in Paraguay (Schmeda-Hirschmann,
ocular infections with the ground bark of 'Farirla 1993).
seca' (Ourantea spp.), and skin itches with 'Carla The latexes of 'Catahua' (Hura crepitans) and
agria' (Gynerium sagittatum). The medicinal and 'Oj6' (Ficus insipida) are considered to be very
ritual plants used by the Ese'eja are listed in Table powerful 'plant-teachers' when taken by
1. Some plants that were mentioned by the infor- themselves in some parts of northwestern Amazon
mants could not be identified, such as (Luna, 1984a). However, the Ese'eja only use these
'Achunihuasca' (taken as an aphrodisiac), 'Ajin- for medicinal purposes. Other plants mentioned
jillo', 'Moronga' and 'Nonsha rao' (for insect bites here have also been considered as having 'moth-
and to treat other skin diseases), 'Pucun gordo'(to ers', such as 'Tangarana' (Triplaris americana),
treat diarrhea) and 'Diente de jerg6n' (to treat 'Abuta' (Abuta grandifolia), 'Amazizo' (Erythrina
snake wounds). uleO, 'Chiricsanango' (Brunfelsia grandiflora) and
'Remo caspi' (Aspidosperma excelsa) (Luna,
4. Discussion and conclusions 1984b). The use of stem bark of 'Chuchuhuasi'
(Heisteria pallida Engl., Olacaceae) as a masculine
The medicinal flora of the Ese'eja consists of a aphrodisiac is very common among the
wide variety of species which potentially may pro- Machiguengas (Rutter, 1990) in the Manu River,
vide therapeutic agents to treat different diseases. also belonging to the region of Madre de Dios.
However, the use of 'ayahuasca' suggests that This use has extended to other regions of Peruvian
many diseases that affect these people appear to be Amazonia. However, it is not a traditional practice
of a psychosomatic nature, as is the case for other among the Ese'eja. 'Abuta' (Abuta grandifolia) is
Amerindian groups (Luna, 1984a, 1984b; Chase- also used by the Machiguengas to treat anemia
Sardi, 1987; Schmeda-Hirschmann, 1993). The ex- (Soukup, 1986) and for birth control. 'Carla
istence of shamans is necessary for an ethnic iden- agria' (Gynerium sagittatum) has been reported to
tity of the Ese'eja. The social role played by a be effective as a diuretic and in the treatment of
shaman (healer) in this culture is quite similar to asthma (Soukup, 1986; Rutter, 1990), while
that in other ethnic groups belonging to different 'Catahua' (Hura crepitans) is considered to have
linguistic families (Arenas, 1981). many uses (Rutter, 1990). Of special interest are
The psychological effects of ayahuasca describ- 'Sangre Grado'(Croton erythrochilus) and 'Sacha
ed here are in concordance with those described by jerg6n' (Dracontium sp.), both of which are con-
Pages Larraya (1979) for the Ese'eja groups in sidered to have anticancer properties (Rutter,
Bolivia. According to this author, there are three 1990; De Feo, 1992). To follow up our field re-
forms of use of ayahuasca, namely communal, search and in order to contribute new knowledge
shamanic and individual (Pages Larraya, 1979). on active principles of these plants, biological and
The present authors have not seen communal use, chemical analyses are currently being undertaken
probably due to scattered distribution of these in our laboratory.
people along the Tambopata river. Medicinal plants discovered by traditional
C. Desmarchelier et al./ Journal of Ethnopharmacology 52 (1996) 45-51 51