SUZALINA KAMARUDDIN

GS31504

ECV5503 QUANTITATIVE REMOTE SENSING: TEST 1. The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the complete range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation emitted from the sun, ranging from the extremely short Gamma rays (billionths of a meter: nanometers, and millionths of a meter: micrometers or 'microns') to the longer radio waves (hundreds of meters). The visible portion of the EM (.4 - .7 micrometers) is especially important in assessing the biomass (health of pigmentation) of vegetation. Multispectral scanners can image from UV through the thermal IR band. The Near Infrared por on of the EM (.7  1.3 micrometers) is sensi ve to leaf structure. Microwave wavelengths, from 1mm to approximately1 meter, have been imaged using RADAR, SLAR (Side Looking Airborne Radar), SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar), SIR (Shuttle Imaging Radar), and SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission). Advantages of RADAR include the ability to penetrate cloud coverage and image surfaces in total darkness.

2. The sun naturally emits the whole range of electromagnetic spectrum from the longest radio waves, then microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultra violet light, X-rays and gamma rays. Whereas the earth naturally emits the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. All objects with temperature above absolute zero emit electromagnetic radiation. But the sun emits a wider range of electromagnetic energy than the earth. Temperature of the sun is obviously much higher than the earth. Therefore, Sun radiate more energy than the earth according to Stefan Boltzmanns Law, M=T4 which states that emitted radiation (M) from an object, measured in Wm2

is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature, measured in degrees K where

is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant(5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4 ). Hotter object also radiate shorter wavelength based on Wiens Displacement Law, max=k/T where k is a constant equal to 2898mK and T is the objects temperature in degree K.

SUZALINA KAMARUDDIN

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3. Radiant Flux () is energy per unit time (dQ/dt) that is radiated from a source over optical wavelengths, which are defined to be from 3x1011 and 3x1016 Hz. This range is approximately equivalent to wavelengths from .01 to 1000 m and includes the regions of the electromagnetic spectrum commonly referred to as Ultra Violet (UV), Visible, and Infra Red (IR). Radiance is radiant flux per unit of solid angle (Watts/seradian).

Irradiance is radiance per unit area (Watts/m2). Exitance is radiant flux per unit area leaving a surface (Watts/m2).

4. Atmospheric Windows are the portions of the electromagnetic spectrum that can pass through the atmosphere with little or no attenuation. The figure below shows areas of the spectrum that can pass through the atmosphere without attenuation (peaks) and areas that are attenuated (valleys).

Blue zones (absorption bands) mark minimal passage of incoming and/or outgoing radiation, whereas, white areas (transmission peaks) denote atmospheric windows, in which the radiation doesn't interact much with air molecules and hence, isn't absorbed.

SUZALINA KAMARUDDIN

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As for another example, the presence of atmospheric windows in the thermal wavelength regions 3 to 5 m and 8 to 14 m is notable in the figure below.

5. i) There is a large difference in infra red response between grass and artificial turf because healthy green vegetation has a unique spectral signature which enables it to be distinguished readily from other types of land cover. In the Near infra red (NIR) region, the reflectance is much more due to the cellular structure in the leaves, the dominant factor controlling leaf reflectance. NIR is scattered or reflected by cell walls in the palisade layer of the grass. Obviously artificial turf is not a natural green vegetation and do not have the cellular structure of the leaves. ii) Asphalt would appear as fine textured black object probably road or pavement on an image. iii) It is possible to differentiate visually on an image of sandy loam soil from fallow field because of the color and the texture difference. Sandy loam soil appears as fine textured because of high water content.
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SUZALINA KAMARUDDIN

GS31504

6. i) Absorption - the taking up and storing of energy, such as radiation, light, or sound, without it being reflected or transmitted. During absorption, the energy may change from one form into another. When radiation strikes the electrons in an atom, the electrons move to a higher orbit or state of excitement by absorption of the radiation's energy. ii) Transmission - the extent to which a body or medium transmits light, sound, or some other form of energy iii) Reflection - the change in direction of a wave front at an interface between two different media so that the wave front returns into the medium from which it originated. iv) Scattering - the process by which small particles suspended in a medium of a different index of refraction diffuse a portion of the incident radiation in all directions. In scattering, no energy transformation results, only a change in the spatial distribution of the radiation.

7. The Landsat Program is a series of Earth-observing satellite missions jointly managed by NASA and the U.S. Geological Survey. Since 1972, Landsat satellites have collected information about Earth from space. Landsat satellites have taken specialized digital photographs of Earths continents and surrounding coastal regions for over three decades, enabling people to study many aspects of our planet and to evaluate the dynamic changes caused by both natural processes and human practices. Since the early 1970s, Landsat has continuously and consistently archived images of Earth; this unparalleled data archive gives scientist the ability to assess changes in Earths landscape.

SUZALINA KAMARUDDIN

GS31504

For 39 years, the Landsat program has collected spectral information from Earths surface, creating a historical archive unmatched in quality, detail, coverage, and length. Landsat sensors have a moderate spatial-resolution. You cannot see individual houses on a Landsat image, but you can see large man-made objects such as highways. This is an important spatial resolution because it is coarse enough for global coverage, yet detailed enough to characterize human-scale processes such as urban growth.

8. Tone can be defined as each distinguishable variation from white to black. Color may be defined as each distinguishable variation on an image produced by a multitude of combinations of hue, value and chroma. Many factors influence the tone or color of objects or features recorded on photographic emulsions. But, if there is not sufficient contrast between an object and it's background to permit, at least, detection there can be no identification. While a human interpreter may only be able to distinguish between ten and twenty shades of gray; interpreters can distinguish many more colors. Interpreters might distinguish at least 100 times more variations of color on color photography than shades of gray on black and white photography. Texture is the frequency of change and arrangement of tones. This is a micro image characteristic. The visual impression of smoothness or roughness of an area can often be a valuable clue in image interpretation. Still water bodies are typically fine textured, grass medium, brush rough. There are always exceptions though and scale can and does play a role; grass could be smooth, brush medium and forest rough on higher altitude aerial photograph of the same area. Object C is the brightest object with smooth surface. C reflects light of most wave length. C is probably a white concrete building. Object D is the darkest among all indicate that it reflects less amount of light and appear to be very fine in texture too. D is probably still water in a pond. Object A and B are both vegetation. B appears in darker grey than A because the reflectance is lower due to higher absorption of chlorophyll for photosynthesis, and minimum Transmittance. Texture of object B is rough and B is probably a big tree. Object A probably one type of plants.

SUZALINA KAMARUDDIN

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9.

A very common type of "multi-sensing" is "multi-temporal", meaning that periodic

repeat looks at the same ground area can be used to extract information otherwise more difficult to procure. An obvious example is in crop studies, where imagery from different times in the growing cycle can be used to better identify the crops present and estimate their biomass state or anticipated yield. This pair of Landsat TM scenes show close-ups of the burned area on November 14, 1991 and March 3, 1995. In the 1995 image, you can see that some of the damaged area is being restored by natural and planted grass land cover.

This next image is a further enlargement of the Burgan field area in which the color patterns denote discernible changes between 1987 and 1993, brought out by a change detection merge of images from those two dates.

SUZALINA KAMARUDDIN

GS31504

Multi-spectral data means sets of data obtained simultaneously, but each set obtained by sensing a different part of the electromagnetic spectrum. For the past 10 years the Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies (CIMSS) at the University of Wisconsin - Madison has used the GOES series of satellites to monitor fires and smoke in the Western Hemisphere. To date most of our investigations have concentrated on using multi-spectral GOES-8 imagery (visible, 3.9 10.7, and 12 microns) to identify and catalogue fire activity in South America associated with deforestation, grassland management, and agricultural applications.

GOES-8 Multispectral Fire Detection in South America This 4-panel composite shows how fires are observed in South America in multi-spectral GOES imagery. Each panel represents a region 780 by 800 km centered in central Brazil at 1:45 P.M. local time on 24 August 1995.

SUZALINA KAMARUDDIN

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The milky regions in the GOES-8 "visible" panel show smoke plumes emanating from fires burning along the boundary between the selva (forest, on the left) and the cerrado (grassland, on the right). The GOES-8 3.9 and 10.7 micron bands are located in the infrared window region of the electromagnetic spectrum. In cloud-free conditions these bands provide a "window" through the atmosphere that enable us to better observe the earth's surface. In the 4-panel composite the 11 (or 10.7) and 4 (or 3.9) micron panels have been color enhanced to highlight the variations in GOES-8 observed brightness temperatures along the boundary between the selva and cerrado. The color scale is located below the 4 micron panel. Both the 4 and 11 micron panels show the contrast between the cooler tropical forest in the west and the warmer grassland in the east. The 4 micron panel also shows a number of hotter regions corresponding to fires along the forest/grassland boundary and along a road in the west. The 4-11 micron panel shows the differences between the 3.9 and 10.7 micron bands. Typically the difference is about 5 Kelvin due to differences in atmospheric transmittance, surface emissivity, and solar contamination (during the day) in the 3.9 micron band. The differences become larger when part of the pixel contains fire activity. The 3.9 micron band is much more sensitive to sub-pixel hot spots. The hotter portion of the pixel will contribute relatively more radiance in the shorter wavelengths than in the longer wavelengths (Prins and Menzel, 1992; 1994)

10.

Collateral information is secondary but important information required or made available for the full or proper use of primary information. Collateral information often used in the interpretation of aerial photography and other remotely sensed data in the United States. Example, for Geodetic Control, collateral information been gathered are USGS digital line-graph elevation and NGS nautical and Bathymetric charts.

SUZALINA KAMARUDDIN

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11.
a)

Radiometric resolution The number of different intensities of radiation the sensor is able to distinguish. Typically, this ranges from 8 to 14 bits, corresponding to 256 levels of the gray scale and up to 16,384 intensities or "shades" of color, in each band. It also depends on the instrument noise. Radiometric resolution also defined as the sensitivity of a sensor to incoming reflectance and refers to the number of divisions of bit depth (for example, 255 for 8-bit, 65,536 for 16-bit, and so on) in data collected by a sensor.

b)

Spatial resolution The size of a pixel that is recorded in a raster image typically pixels may correspond to square areas ranging in side length from 1 to 1,000 metres (3.3 to 3,300 ft). It is also defined as a measure of the detail captured in a digital image (represented by dots per inch).

c)

Spectral resolution The wavelength width of the different frequency bands recorded usually, this is related to the number of frequency bands recorded by the platform.

Current Landsat collection is that of seven bands, including several in the infra-red spectrum, ranging from a spectral resolution of 0.07 to 2.1 m. The Hyperion sensor on Earth Observing-1 resolves 220 bands from 0.4 to 2.5 m, with a spectral resolution of 0.10 to 0.11 m per band.

d)

Temporal resolution The frequency of flyovers by the satellite or plane, and is only relevant in time-series studies or those requiring an averaged or mosaic image as in deforesting monitoring. This was first used by the intelligence community where repeated coverage revealed changes in infrastructure, the deployment of units or the modification/introduction of equipment. Cloud cover over a given area or object makes it necessary to repeat the collection of said location.
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