EE3101 LAB REPORT EXP#3 26 OCT 2006

-1-
Nonideal
Behavior of Electronic Components at High
Frequencies and Associated Measurement
Problems
Matt xxxxx
Student ID : xxxxxxxx
10/2/06 – 10/16/06
Abstract
Throughout this experiment we take the input and output measurements
of given circuits at
various frequency rates. This is to demonstrate the frequency response of
these circuits. In
other words, the circuits behave differently at different frequencies. At
high frequencies we
can see the effects of shunt capacitance of the measurement terminals
and interconnection
cables, resonance of the circuits, and the nonidealistic
frequency behavior of passive
components. This experiment is designed to explore the response of
circuits at high
frequencies and to modify the circuits to have the proper responses that
are would be required
in electrical circuit design.
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Introduction
AS opposed to dc or low frequencies, the characteristic of the circuits
changes with each
component. This experiment focuses on the aspects of high frequency
measurement divided
into three basic parts. We start with experiments to understand the
characteristic of shunt
capacitance of the interconnection cables and the measuring instruments.
Next we study about
the resonance in RLC circuits. Finally, we look at the nonideal
frequency behavior of passive
circuit components. All of the measurements throughout these three basic
parts use similar
procedures. We vary the input frequency from low to high to gather the
most important value,
either the resonant frequency or the break frequency of the circuit. These
two characters are
results of the capacitance in the circuit that works as a short circuit at
high frequencies.
RC
f B 2p
1
=,
LC
f R 2p
1
=
The break frequency is when the output is the 3dB
of the max value, and the resonant
frequency is the when the phase shift of the input to the output signal is
zero. Throughout the
report you are able to see other characters as Q – factors. Through the
following 7
experiments we are able to gather a broad understanding on high
frequency responses
Body
Part 1 – Shunt Capacitance and the RC Compensator
Experiment 3.1
In the first experiment we measure the transfer function, which would be
the gain, or
| Vo / Vi | of the circuit. We take our measurements from low to high
frequencies. We do this
to see the effects of the shunt capacitance that the oscilloscope and the
interconnecting cables
that occur. We start at the low frequency of 1 kHz and go up to 1MHz. We
construct circuit
Figure 1 to measure the shunt capacitance. We could expect that, because
of the shunt
capacitance, Vout will have a smaller value as the input voltage frequency
increases.
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Fig 3.1.1
1. Data & Results
f(hz) Vin Vout | Vo / Vi |
1000 5.000 2.380 0.476
5000 5.000 2.380 0.476
10000 4.940 2.280 0.462
28160 5.000 1.767 0.353
50000 5.000 1.300 0.260
100000 5.000 0.750 0.150
500000 4.820 0.167 0.035
1000000 4.820 0.099 0.021
Fig 3.1.2
Gain vs Frequency
0.000
0.050
0.100
0.150
0.200
0.250
0.300
0.350
0.400
0.450
0.500
0 200000 400000 600000 800000 1000000 1200000
Frequency (Hz)
Gain (Vout/Vin)
Gain vs Frequency

Fig 3.1.3
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As expected, we can see a decrease of gain that is result of the decrease
in the Vout. This is
the effect of the shunt capacitance as it works as a short circuit.
Now we calculate the exact value of the shunt capacitance we need
further calculations.
2. Shunt Capacitance
In order to calculate the shunt capacitance we look for the break
frequency, which has the
information of the capacitor in the circuit:
RC
f B 2p
1
= , where R = R1||R2 = 50KΩ
VV
V
RR
VR
out
out in
5 0. 7 07 1. 787
2
1
( 70. 7 %)
12
2
=´´=
´´
+
=
Then we pick the closest value from our measurements, which would be:
pF
Rf
C
f KHz
B
B
1 .1 3 10 113
2
1
28. 16
\ = = ´ 10 =
\@
-
p
So the shunt capacitance of the oscilloscope and the interconnecting
wires are 113pF by
measurement. As you can see the shunt capacitance has a very small
value. This is why we
can see the effects of the shunt capacitance only at the high frequency
rates that make the
shunt capacitance work as a short circuit. This effect needs to be
considered when we are
making measurements of circuits at high frequencies as mentioned.
Part 2 – Resonance in RLC Circuits
Experiment 3.2
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We now build our second circuit (Fig 3.2.1) to see the effects of the
resonance in the RLC
circuits that has its resonant frequency at 2 kHz.
Fig 3.2.1
Our two goals here are to:
1. Determine the resonant frequency and Qfactor.
2. Determine the impedance Z in ( jw o ) at the resonant frequency.
We design our circuit to have an R relatively very small R<<1kΩ in order
to make the circuit
dependent more on the inductor and capacitor. So we put our R as 10Ω.
For L we use a
100mH component from our circuit kit. To determine our capacitor value,
we need further
calculations to make the resonant frequency at approximately 2 kHz:
LC
f R 2p
1
=
LC
f R2
2
4
1
p
=
4 22
1
R Lf

C
p
=
For our resonant frequency fr = 2 kHz, and L = 100mH,
nF nF F
Lf
C
R
m
p
63. 33 100 0. 1
4
1
22= = » =

However, in our lab kit the closest value of capacitor we have was 100nF.
With a modified capacitance:
f Hz kHz
C nF F Z
R 1591. 5 1. 6

100 0. 1 (1 04 )
=@
==m
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If we would have used a series of 100nF capacitance we could have
gathered a resonant
frequency closer to 2 kHz. However with the resonant frequency at around
1.6 kHz, we are
still able to see the effect of the resonant frequency at high rates
frequencies. In this
experiment we start with the low frequency at the input and increase the
frequency to see the
effects.
We cannot rely on correct gain values in this situation because of the
parasitic resistance
though the inductor and capacitor. Instead, we will look at the phase shift
between Vin and
Vout. In this case, we know that out break frequencies will occur at phase
shifts of +45° and
45°
and our resonant frequency will occur at a phase shift of 0°.
1. Data & Results
f(hz) Phase Vo >
Vin
1552 45°
1796 45°
1670 0°
Fig 3.2.2
* Determine the resonant frequency and Qfactor.
By measurements circuit Figure 3.2.2 has its resonant frequency at 1.67
kHz because that is
where we have a phase shift of 0°.
f R = 1 .6 7 kHz
If we compare our value with our theoretical value 1591.5 Hz, we can see
we have evaluated a
reasonable result.
To determine the circuit’s Qfactor:
6 .8 44
1. 79 1. 552
1 . 67
=
-
=
D
-=
kk
k
f
f
Q factor o
* Determine the impedance Z in ( jw o ) at the resonant frequency.
To determine the impedance of our circuit (Figure 3.2.1), we can use
another formula for the
Qfactor
and solve for Zin.
2 2 1 .6 7 100 6. 844
=
´´
-==
Zin
k mH
R
fL
Q factor R p p
EE3101 LAB REPORT EXP#3 26 OCT 2006
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Zin = 153. 316W
Since our Zin is R plus the parasitic resistances of the inductor and
capacitor we can calculate
what the parasitic resistance is by subtracting 10W from it.
The calculation will be the following:
Z ( j ) = Z - R = 153. 3 16 - 10 = 142. 316W in o parasitic w
Experiment 3.3
We now modify our circuit (Figure 3.2.1) to have a Qfactor
= 5. Then we drive the resultant
circuit with a 2 kHz square wave to compare the spectra of the input
voltage and the current
waveforms.
1. To modify the circuit to have a Qfactor
at 5:
R
fL
f
f
Q factor o R 2p
=
D
-=
Q
R f R L 2p
= with Q = 5, fr = 1.6kHz, and L = 100mH
=W
´´
= 209
5
R 2p 1 . 670 0. 1
If we look back to our circuit we see the parasitic resistance of the circuit
and the original R.
R = 209W = 143. 3 16W + R ¢
So we should put a resistance of value of R ¢ = 65. 6 8W
We can do this by putting two 100W resistors in parallel to give 50W and
then put a 10W
resistor in series to make the equivalent resistance 60 W
R ' = 100W || 100W + 10 W = 60W » 65. 6 8W
We now modify the circuit to have a Q factor of 5 by making our circuit
look like the
following:
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Fig 3.3.1
2. Gather spectra of the input voltage and current waveforms.
Figure 3.3.2
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Figure 3.3.3
Figure 3.3.2 would be the FFT of the input voltage, and Figure 3.3.3 would
be the FFT of the
output voltage. Because the output voltage is a part of the input current
we used the output
voltage of the circuit. If we compare the differences of the two spectra of
the waveforms we
could see that while the input voltage (Figure 3.3.2) is a combination of
several harmonics,
the current (Figure 3.3.3) has only one harmonic as an effect. The other
harmonics could be
assumed to be cut off by the circuit. The combination of the input
harmonics makes the input
to be a square wave, and the only harmonic on the output makes the
wave to look as a
sinusoidal waveform.
Note: In order to gather a clear waveform, we turned on the Noise Rej.,
and put the
center of the FFT at 2 kHz with a Span of 50 kHz.
Experiment 3.4
We now determine the resonant frequencies of the circuit of Figure 3.3.1
for C values from
0.0001uF to 0.1uF to see the relationship between the capacitance of the
circuit with its
resonant frequency. The circuit used in this experiment is identical to
Experiment 3.2.
To make the experiment easy, I observed the circuit phase shift and took
the 0° frequency with
different values of C.
Where fr calculated is:
EE3101 LAB REPORT EXP#3 26 OCT 2006
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2p
1
LC
f r=
C(uf) fr calculated (hz) fr measured (hz) % error
0.001 15916 16130 1.34%
0.01 5033 5066 0.66%
0.1 1592 1776 11.56%
Fig 3.4.1
Frequency vs Capacitance
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Capacitance (uF)
Frequency (Hz)
fr calculated (hz)
fr measured (hz)
Fig 3.4.2
From the results in Fig 3.4.1, Fig 3.4.2, we can see that the resonant
frequency is inversely
proportional to the square of the capacitance:
C
fr
1
µ
Experiment 3.5
Goals for experiment 5.
1. Design a parallel resonant circuit (with R = infinity) with a resonant
frequency of 2
kHz.
2. Determine the Q of the circuit.
3. Modify circuit to make Q = 5.
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4. Measure the modified circuit and gather the resonant frequency and Q
of the circuit
5. Determine the admittance of the circuit at the resonant frequency.
The procedures of this experiment are similar to the earlier experiments.
Fig 3.5.1
Rs is used to derive a current source for the circuit. (L=100mH, without R)
Is = Vs / Rs. We will use 100 kΩ.
1. To make resonant frequency at 2 kHz with L = 100 mH.
LC
f R 2p
1
=
LC
f R2
2
4
1
p
=
4 22
1
R Lf
C
p
=
nF nF
Lf
C
R
63. 33 50
4
1
22= = »

p
However, in our lab kit the closest value of capacitor we have was 100nF
so we will use two
100nF in series to create an equivalent capacitance of 50nF.
With a modified capacitance:
f Hz kHz
C nF nF nF F Z Z
R 2250. 79 2 . 3

100 || 100 50 0. 05 (1 04 || 104 )

=@
===m
EE3101 LAB REPORT EXP#3 26 OCT 2006
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Results (by using the same experimental procedure as outlined in
experiment 3.2):
f(hz) Phase Vo >
Vin
2205 45°
2503 45°
2361 0°
Fig 3.5.2
2. So the cutoff frequencies would be at 2.205kHz and 2.503 kHz.
7. 923
2. 503 2. 205
2 .3 61
=
-
=
D
-=
kk
k
f
f
Q factor o
3. Now to modify Q to be 5.
We know:
==W
-=
R f LQ K
fL
R
Q factor
eff R m
R
eff
2 11. 75
2
p
p with the measured Q = 7.923
@W»+W
=
´´
+
´
=
+
´
-=
RKKK
Hz mH
KR
KR
fL
RR
RR
fL
RR
Q factor
extra
extra
extra
R
eff extra
eff extra
R
eff extra
20. 13 10 10
5
2 2361 100
11. 75
11. 75
2
2
||
pp
p
So we connect an additional Rextra as 20KW that is a series of two 10KW
resistors. We
repeat the experiment to do the measurements to see if the modifying
worked out.
4. Now, using the same process as outlined previously, the results show:
EE3101 LAB REPORT EXP#3 26 OCT 2006
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f(hz) Phase Vo >
Vin
2123 45°
2593 45°
2356 0°
Fig 3.5.3
Analysis of Figure 3.5.3:
5. 013
2. 593 2. 123
2 . 356
=
-
=
D
-=
kk
k
f
f
Q factor o
This could be considered as a good result as it is very close to 5.
5. Determine the admittance of the circuit at the resonant frequency.
To do this, we calculate the equivalent resistance of the resistors in
parallel, and then put them
in parallel with the equivalent impedance of the capacitor and inductor.
Then we can put that
impedance in series with Ri. Once we know the total equivalent
impedance of the circuit, we
can take the reciprocal of that to find the admittance.
In phasor form, Zinductor = jwL, and Zcap = 1/(
jwC)
[ ] ( [ ])
100 0. 0042
|| 1 || || 235. 6 || 8488. 9 6 || 20 || 11. 7 5 100
Kj
R R Ri j j K K K
jwC
Zin jwL extra eq
=-
÷÷ + = +
ø
ö
çç
è
æ-
=
j
Zin K j
Yin . 00001 .0 04244
100 0 .0 042
11
=-
-
==
This answer makes sense because resonance is where the impedances of
the circuit
components all cancel out
From part 2 we gathered the relationship between L, C, and R components
of circuits at high
frequencies. We take our experiment further in part 3.
Part 3 – Nonideal
Frequency Behavior of Passive Components
Experiment 3.6
We repeat the measurement of experiment 3.1, however as R1 = 1M Ω
and for R2 = 5 KΩ to
see the effect of the shunt capacitance at R1 at high frequencies. Note
that we are actually
EE3101 LAB REPORT EXP#3 26 OCT 2006
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using two 10KΩ resistors in parallel to represent the 5KΩ R2.
Fig 3.6.1
Note: To minimize the shunt capacitance of the oscilloscope we must use
a 10x probe.
Since the circuit acts as a highpass
voltage divider, we need to normalize the gain relative to
the high passband
gain (~.075) so we will multiply our gains by (1/.075) to normalize them.
The .707 normalized gain will be our 3dB
point. Aside from that, the process is the same as
stated in experiment 1.
The results were as follows.
f(hz) Vin Vout | Vo / Vi | Normalized Gain
10 10.130 0.058 0.006 0.0765
50 10.190 0.059 0.006 0.0768
100 10.190 0.058 0.006 0.0760
500 10.190 0.058 0.006 0.0760
1000 10.190 0.058 0.006 0.0760
5000 10.190 0.058 0.006 0.0760
10000 10.190 0.056 0.005 0.0731
50000 10.190 0.058 0.006 0.0760
100000 10.190 0.069 0.007 0.0900
500000 10.000 0.191 0.019 0.2547
1000000 10.060 0.338 0.034 0.4480
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1897000 10.000 0.530 0.053 0.7067
5000000 11.300 0.830 0.073 0.9794
10000000 13.800 1.030 0.075 0.9952
20000000 17.500 1.250 0.071 0.9524
Fig 3.6.2
Gain vs Frequency
0.0000
0.2000
0.4000
0.6000
0.8000
1.0000
1.2000
0 500000
0
1E+07 1.5E+0
7
2E+07 2.5E+0
7
Frequency (Hz)
Normalized Gain
Gain vs Frequency
Fig 3.6.3
We see from our table (Figure 3.6.2) that the fB is approximately 1.897MHz
fb = 1.897MHz
RC
f B¢ ¢
=
2p
1
Where
R ¢ = R || R L = 4 . 98 K W
C ¢ = C probe + C resistor
EE3101 LAB REPORT EXP#3 26 OCT 2006
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Note: We treat our resistors in parallel because they are seen in parallel
by the probes. The
capacitors are treated in parallel too for the same reason.
Since we know Cprobe = 15pF (as stated on the device), we can plug in all
of our values and
solve for Cresistor.
( )( ) ( )( ) MHz
R R C C M K pF C
f
L probe resistor resistor
B1. 897
2 1 || 5 15
1
2 ||
1
=
+
=
+
=
pp
C resistor = 1 .8 6 pF
Experiment 3.7
Use the circuit shown below to determine |Z(jw)| of the impedance of the
inductor from 100
Hz to 1 MHz.
Fig 3.7.1
For the inductor, (Figure 3.7.2) with the parasitic capacitance and
resistance (Figure 3.7.3)
=>
Fig 3.7.2 Fig 3.7.3
To obtain the Rw we use dc voltage across the inductor from Figure 3.7.3.
Rw = 97.89Ω
Now we do another measurement to get the impedance of the circuit:
f(hz) Vin Vout | Vo / Vi | Phase (°)
100 10.000 9.200 0.920 5
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500 10.000 8.800 0.880 180
1000 10.000 8.000 0.800 30
5000 10.300 3.400 0.330 74
10000 10.300 1.900 0.184 90
50000 10.300 0.340 0.033 89
100000 10.300 0.138 0.013 90
136000 10.300 0.006 0.001 unreadable
500000 10.300 0.425 0.041 85
1000000 10.300 0.920 0.089 76
Fig 3.7.4
Gain vs Frequency
0.200
0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
0 200000 400000 600000 800000 1000000 1200000
Frequency (Hz)
Gain
Gain vs
Frequency
Fig 3.7.4
We could see from the measurements that the resonant frequency is
where gain is its
minimum value. That is 136 KHz (Figure 3.7.4 & 3.7.5).
EE3101 LAB REPORT EXP#3 26 OCT 2006
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C pF
LC
f kHz R
13. 7
2
136 1
\=
==
w
p where L = 100mH, fr = 136 KHz
Now we could characterize the 100mH inductor that we used through out
the experiments
that has 97.89Ω parasitic resistance and 13.7pF parasitic capacitance
(Figure 3.7.3).
We can calculate |Z(jw)| by plugging these values into a phasor form
equivalent equation.
()() () ÷÷
ø
ö
çç
è
æ
´
÷=+-
ø
ö
ç
è
= + + = + æ - 13. 7 10 -12
1 1 98 .1 1
w
jw
wC
R j wL
jwC
Z jw R jwL
Conclusion
First we looked at the effects of the shunt capacitance of the
interconnecting cables and
oscilloscope. By measuring the transfer function of a basic series
connection of resistance we
were able to obtain a shunt capacitance of 113pF, which would be able to
be a reasonable
value of the cables. The break frequency was gathered at the 3dB (70.7%)
point of the circuit.
Next we checked the resonance of the RLC circuits and we were able to
see that the resonant
frequency is inversely proportional to the square root of C. We also saw
the input and output
spectra differences from the RLC circuit by using the FFT math function on
the oscilloscope.
We found out that through the circuit we are only able to gather one
harmonic that results a
sinusoidal waveform at the output. Further we made an understanding
that in order to modify
a circuit to give an expected or proper response at high frequencies, we
need to consider the
more specific components of the circuit, such as the resistance of the
function generator or the
impedance of the components, and so forth.
Finally, we obtained the knowledge on how to gather the exact
characteristics of passive
circuit components that are used for circuit designing. Typically a resistor
has extra shunt
capacitance. For the component we used (R=1M W ), we were able to see
a parasitic
capacitance of 1.86pF. An inductor has extra parasitic capacitance and
resistance contained
within the component. And for the component given in our lab kit
(L=100mH) we were able
to see the 98.89W resistance and the 13.7pF capacitance.
In this experiment, we have successfully practiced the process of
interpreting the high
frequency response of a circuit. This information should be used on further
circuit analysis or
EE3101 LAB REPORT EXP#3 26 OCT 2006
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designing projects to gather more accurate results.
References
1) Sedra/Smith, “Microelectronic Circuits”, Fifth Edition