PROBLEM SOLVING

Created for fulfilling the first task in problem solving

Lecturer Dr. Abadi, M. Sc

Created by : Khoerul Umam

MATHEMATICS EDUCATION GRADUATE SURABAYA STATE UNIVERSITY SURABAYA

PREFACE
Bismilahirrahmannirrahim Alhamdulillahi robbilalamin, an author praises and thanks to Allah SWT who had given facilities, mercies, and fovers for finishing this article. Praying and solutation to the prohpet Muhammad SAW, families, buddies, and his followers until the end of periods. This article created to fulfill the first task in problem solving subject. Additionally, it is also to undertaken for comprehend various steps of

problem solving, progressives sought to extend those understanding. I had attempted to read abundance of articles, books, and search many information via internet.
Recognising of authors limatation, I got a lot of assistances from many people who had given me an opportunity for assiting me in their hectic times. I give special thank for my father and mother who had enlighten and encourage me to keep learning. Hopefully, this article can fulfill the requirement information and knowledge in my first task. Billahittaufiqwalhidayah wal inayah

Sincerely

Khoerul Umam, S.Pd

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. Background
Joseph et al (2007) said the quality of education that teachers provide to student is highly dependent upon what teachers do in the classroom.The quality of mathematics education depends on teacher quality. One of the most important tasks of the teacher is to help his students (G.Polya;1945). This task is not quite easy; it demands time, practice, devotion, and sound principles. The students should acquire as much experience of independent work as possible. But if he is alone with his problem without any assistance or with insufficient help, he may no progress at all. If the teacher help to much, nothing is left to students. Schroeder and Lester (1989) observe that problem-solving situations can be used as a valuable pedagogical tool for helping students construct sophisticated mathematical knowledge. Problem solving encourages both teacher and student to be active in instruction learning process. Students put as subject of problem while teacher put as the guidence. The teacher obligation is to guide the entire learning process of students . This instruction activity called problem solving. It was found by Gorge Polya in 1945. For the last 21th century, many problem solving processes are arised for instance Mason, Dewe, Bell and etc. Mason pointed out his idea of problem solving in three kinds of process. If we compare Polyas step and Masons

step in problem solving, we may find the same idea of them. But we need to know the comparision of those as vividly as possible. As the description above, an author try to articulate the different between Polya steps and Mason steps in problem solving process. Additionally, I write the problem solving approches to be an extra knowledge as well. Hopefully, this article can point out as clearly as possible to everyone who desire to know further about this information.

B. DISCUSSION LIMITATION
In order to direct this article, then an author will limit the disscusion in three kind of things. There are Problem solving approach will be limited to point out the characteristics of problem solving approach and give both example of instruction process from traditional and problem solving approaches.

Problem solving process by Gorge Polya will be limited in giving an explanation and example to figure out the instruction learning process in the classroom.

Problem solving process by Mason et al and Schoenfeld will be limited in giving an explanation and example to figure out the instruction learning process in the classroom.

CHAPTER II
DICUSSION

A. Specific characteristics of a problem-solving approach

Gatot et al (2011) explain the characteristics of a problem solving approach. There are several characteristic of problem solving approach, they are Interactions between students/students and teacher/students (Van Zoest et al., 1994) Mathematical dialogue and consensus between students (Van Zoest et al., 1994) Teachers providing just enough information to establish background/intent of the problem, and students clarifing, interpreting, and attempting to construct one or more solution processes (Cobb et al., 1991) Teachers accepting right/wrong answers in a non-evaluative way (Cobb et al., 1991) Teachers guiding, coaching, asking insightful questions and sharing in the process of solving problems (Lester et al., 1994) Teachers knowing when it is appropriate to intervene, and when to step back and let the pupils make their own way (Lester et al., 1994) A further characteristic is that a problem-solving approach can be used to encourage students to make generalisations about rules and concepts, a process which is central to mathematics (Evan and Lappin, 1994).

AN EXAMPLE OF THE USE OF PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH Here are two examples how two teachers present a lesson about the equation with one variable. The first teacher used the traditional teaching approach. Meanwhile, the second teacher used problem solving teaching approach.
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I. The First Teacher (Traditional Teaching Approach)

Steps Activities 1 The opening by stating the problem 2 Teacher The teacher starts the class by writing a question what is a if a 4 = 10 on class board. Students Students give attention to what the teacher write on. Students listen to the teacher explanation. Details So far no interaction between the teacher and students. The interaction goes from teacher to students, but not from students to teacher.

Giving The teacher starts to give an explanation explanation to solve the problem. a. First, have a look to the equation a 4 = 10. b. Replace -4 with +4 which is in the left side of equation notation to the right side. c. Finally, do arithmetic sum rule for 6 + 4 and you will find a is 10. Doing Then, the teacher provides exercise some individual exercises and asks students to solve it. Checking for the students answers The closing After a couple minutes, the teacher asks students to submit their work to be checked by the teacher. The teacher gives students work with some correction on it and end the class.

Students write the questions and start to solve them individually. Students finish their work and submit it to the teacher. Students receive their work result and look at the mark given by the teacher.

No any interaction among students.

The teacher checks all students work. The students usually just focus on the mark given by the teacher not on the correction note.

II. The Second Teacher (Problem Solving Teaching Approach)

Steps Activities Teacher Students Details

The opening by stating the problem

The teacher starts the class by presenting a problem taken from students reality life and asks students to discuss it in pairs. Anisa bought some cookies in her schools canteen and gave 4 of them to her close friend, Nabila. There were 6 cookies left. How many cookies did Anisa bought in the canteen? After a few minute discussions, the teacher listens for some different solution given by the students.

Identifyin g students backgrou nd understan ding about the problem. Giving explanatio n by problem solving approach using drawing strategy.

Students listen - The first is carefully to the between the problem teacher and presenting by students. the teacher and - The second is then discuss between students for its solution and students. in pairs. - The students have opportunity to develop their reflective and social intelligence. Students - The interaction is present their between students solution for and the teacher. the problem. - The students have opportunity to develop their verbal skill. Students listen carefully to the teachers explanation, and sometimes take part to express their idea when the teacher asks to do so. The interaction is between teacher and students.

The teacher starts the explanation by giving an illustration. While giving the explanation, teacher involves students to take a part. - Identifying the problem : To determine the number of cookies bought by Anisa if 4 of them given away. - Planning the solution and carrying out the plan: Suppose the cookies bought by Anisa is x illustrated by a bar billow: x 6 4

6 cookies is still 4 cookies is Then from the illustration, given to left Nabila we can conclude that the

number of cookies bought by Anisa in the canteen is

6 + 4 equal to 10. - Review to prove the answer : If the first number of cookies is10 and 4 of them is taken away, the remaining cookies are 6. We can say 10 4 = 6. After students understand the informal form, then the teacher guides students to understand the formal mathematics form. Such as: x + a = b so x = b a x a = b so x = b + a - Teacher provides some exercises in pairs or group requiring students to practice the problem solving approach. - While students are doing the exercise, teacher control the students activity and gives some help when needed. Teacher asks the groups present their solutions, and involves other students to do peer evaluation.

Doing exercises

Students discuss the problem with their groups members.

Checking for the students answer

The closing

- Teacher reviews and puts some emphasis on certain important part of the material. - Teacher provided some individual homework. - Teacher gives praise for the best group, and then closes the lesson.

Students give attention on their friends explanation and express their idea when asked to do so. Students give attention to the teachers explanation and do the homework.

- The interaction is between students and students, and between teacher and students. - The students have opportunity to develop their reflective and social intelligence. The interaction is between students and students, and sometimes between students and teacher.

The interaction is between teacher and students.

B. POLYA PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS

For many undergraduates, problem-solving means learning the contents of a set of lecture notes and applying this knowledge to specific problems clearly related to the material taught. For research mathematicians, problem-solving is a more creative activity, which includes the formulation of a likely conjecture, a sequence of activities testing, modifying and refining until it is possible to produce a formal proof of a well-specified theorem. Polya (1945) suggested four phases as a framework for problem-solving: 1. UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM, Understanding the problem (Polya:33) is subdivided into two stages; getting acquanted and working for better understanding. Getting acquated activity is part of the understanding problem process. It begins by offering some question Where should I start? start from the statement of the problem. What can I do? visualize the problem as a whole as clearly and as vividly as you can. Dont concern your self with details for the moment. What can I gain by doing so? what should understand the problem, famaliarize yourself with it, impress its purpose on your mind. The attention bestowed on the problem may also stimulate your memory and prepare for the relocation of relevant point.

2. DEVISE A PLAN Where should I start ? start from the consideration of the principal parts of your problem. Start from these pricipal parts are distinctly arranged, and clearly convienced, thanks to your previous work. What can I do ? consider your problem from various sides and seek contacts with your formerly acquired knowledge. Consider your problem from various sides. Emphasize different parts, examine different details, examine the same details repeatedly but in different ways. What could I perceive ? A helpful idea, perhaps a decisive idea that shows you at a glance the way to the very end. How can an idea be helpful ? it shows you the whole of the way or a part of the way; it suggests to you more or less distinctly how you can proceed. Ideas are more or less complete. You are lucky if you have any idea as all. What can I do with an incomplete idea ? you should consider it. If it looks advantageous you should consider it longer. If it looks reliable you should ascertain how far it leads you, dan reconsider the situation. What can I gain by doing so again ? you may be lucky and have another idea. Perhaps your next idea will lead you to the solution right away. Perhaps you need a few more helpful ideas after the next. Perhaps you will be led astray by some of your ideas. Nevertheless you should be greatful for all new ideas, also for the less ones. 3. CARRY OUT THE PLAN Where should I start ? start from the lucky idea that led you to the solution. Start when you feel sure of your grasp of the main connection

and you feel confident that you can supply the minor details that may be wanting. What can I do ? make your grasp quite secure. Carry through in detail all the algebraic or geometric operations which you have recognized previously as feasible. Convince your self of the correctness of each step by formal reasoning, or by intuitive insight, or both ways if you can. If your problem is very complex you may distinguish great steps and small steps, each great step being composed of several small ones. Chech the first the great steps, and get down to the smaller ones afterwards. What can I gain by doing so ? a presentation of the solution each step of which is correct beyond doubt. 4. LOOK BACK AT THE WORK. Where should I start? From the solution, complete and correct in each details. What can I do ? consider the solution from various slides and seek contacts with your formerly acquired knowledge. Consider the details of the solution and try to make them as simple as you can; survey more extensive parts of the solution and try to make them shorter ; try to see the whole solution at a glance. Try to improve the whole solution, to make it intuitive, to fit it into your formerly acquired knowledge as naturally as possible. What can I gain by doing so ? you may find a new and better solution, you may discover new and interesting facts. In any case, if you get into the habit of surveying and scrutinizing

your solutions in this way, you will acquire some knowledge well ordered and ready to use, and you will developn your ability in problem solving. First, we have to understand the problem ; we have to see how the various items are connected, how the unknown is linked to the data, in order to obtain the idea of solution, to make a plan. Third, we carry out our plan. Fourth, we look back at the completed solution, we review and discuss it.

Example of Polyas step in Problem Solving

In the grap below, a big circle content is the sum of integers located in two small circles close. isi lingkaran besar adalah jumlah bilangan yang terletak pada dua lingkaran kecil terdekat. Please complete two diagram with the same rule.

8
2 6 12

16

14
Solution

18
Picture 2. 1

11

15

Understanding Problem Where should I start? we can start to understand a problem. What is the question we have to answer? Complete two diagram with the same rule. What can I do? I can give a symbol in the vacant small circle such as a, b, and c, then

16
a c b Picture 2 . 2 What can I gain by doing so? by giving symbols in small circle. We can fulfill a + b = 16 b + c = 15 a + c = 11

11

15

Devising Plan Where should I start ? I can to solve the problem by choosing the strategies. What can I do ? I can use the guessing strategy. What could I perceive ?by guesing, I will try a lot of opportunities. How can an idea be helpful ? it can be helpful because I try and try to solve the problem. What can I do with an incomplete idea ? I can re-examine the entire opportunities. What can I gain by doing so again ? I can gain the understanding, and up to others level. Carrying out the plan Where should I start ? I can start by guessing What can I do ? Firstly, I guess to fill the small circle by 10, hence the circle in the right side must be filled by 6 and ended by 9. What can I gain by doing so ? after filling each circle, we can re-eximine that the sum of 9 and 10 are bigger than 11. So our guessing is too big and we can change by the smaller one..

16
10 10

16
6 9 Too big

11

15

11

15

Picture 2 . 3 Where should I start ? I can start again by guessing What can I do ? in this term, I guess to fill the small circle by 5, hence the circle in the right side must be filled by 11 and ended by 4. What can I gain by doing so ? after filling each circle, we can re-eximine that the sum of 5 and 4 are smaller than 11. So our guessing is too small and we can change by the bigger one..

Try small interger 5

16
Too small 5

16
11 4

11

18
Picture 2 . 4

11

15

Where should I start ? I can start again by guessing What can I do ? in this term, I guess to fill the small circle by 6, hence the circle in the right side must be filled by 10 and ended by 5. What can I gain by doing so ? after filling each circle, we can re-eximine that the sum of 5 and 6 are 11. So our guessing is correct.

16
6 10 5 Picture 2. 5 Looking Back the solution The sum of integers in big circle are 16 + 11+ 15 =42, while the sum of integers in small circle are 6 + 10 +5=21. It is half of the total of integers in big circles. It is not supprised since each integer in small circle contributed twice times to the sum of integers in big circle.

11

15

16
. 6 10 6

16
10

11

15
Picture 2.6

11

16

If necessary, I can use another solution

16
a b

11
Picture 2. 7

15

We know the sum of small circles are 21, half sum from the big cirlces. We also know that a + b = 16, so fill from the third small circle will be 21 16 = 5. Hence, the content of small circle can be determined by usual method.

16
a b 5 6

16
10 5

11

16
Picture 2.8

11

16

The example above is the problem solving process versi Polya. In order to see the comparasion we can see other processes.

C. MASON et al and SCHOENFELD PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS This framework has formed the backbone of many subsequent attempts at formulating problem-solving strategies, though Mason et al (1982) and Schoenfeld (1985) have seen the need to make the actual heuristics1 much more explicit and more appropriate for the learner. The idea of devising a plan is extremely daunting for the novice so in order to make it easier we should change

The name of certain branch of study, not circumcribed, beloning to logic or philosophy, or to psychology. The aim of heuristic is to study the methods and rules of discovery and invention.

the way at the same time they get it. More empathetic is the version suggested by Mason, who proposes three phases: entry, attack, review. The entry phase covers the first two stages of Polya whilst attack and review correspond to Polyas third and fourth stage. The further explanation will be figured out in the below paragraph. 1. Entry phase the potential problem-solver gets acquainted with the problem-solving context getting a sense of the problem by playing with the ideas, perhaps through simple specializations, moving to a position which attempts to specify clearly what is known and what is wanted, and considering carefully what can be introduced (notation, procedures of solution, etc.) that might take the problem-solver from what is known to what is wanted. To understand the problem students need to read the problem as carefully as possible. Then a qualitative change occurs with a committed attack. 2. Attack Attacking on the problem using the ideas that have been introduced. This may be successful, but it can more often lead to an impasse, a seeming dead-end from which the individual should review what has been done and return to the entry phase to consider a new attack.

Once some kind of solution is achieved the mood changes yet again to one of sober review 3. Review Review is checking the results to make sure no error has been made, reviewing what has been done to learn of strategies that may prove useful on other occasions and then being prepared to extend the problem to new levels of sophistication, re-starting the entry cycle at a more sophisticated level. David Tall has had several years of experience teaching problemsolving within this framework. It has proved possible to get undergraduates to develop original ways of solving problems although the process requires longer initial periods for the students to reach a point of insight than may be apparent when giving the information in a lecture. However, the pay-off is in the way it can stimulate reflective thinking and develop an internal monitor within the students mind to sense the progress and appropriate direction of the solution process.

Example of mathematics
How many hours will a car traveling at 65 miles per hour take to catch up with a car traveling at 55 miles per hour if the slower car starts one hour before the faster car?

1. Entry Demonstrate that the first step is the entry point. This involves identifying the key pieces of information needed to find the answer and considering carefully what can be introduced that might take the problemsolver from what is known to what is wanted. This may require students to read the problem several times or put the problem into their own words.

In this problem, students need to understand that there is a slower car going 55 miles per hour and a faster car going 65 miles per hour. The slower car starts one hour before the faster car. Students need to find how many hours it will take the faster car to catch up to the slower car. Because there are three sets of data to organize, we should use the Make a Table strategy. Generally, if there is data associated with a certain category, it can be organized easily by making a table. This strategy also overlaps with the find a pattern strategy because it is often easier to find a pattern when the data is organized in a table.

2. Attack

Make a table to organize the data. For this example, create a row for the slower car, a row for the faster car, and a column for each hour. Find the distance traveled during each hour by looking at the distances listed in each column. The distance of the faster car was more than the distance of the slower car in hour seven. The faster car traveled six hours to catch up to the slower car.

Hour

Slower Car 55 110 165 220 275 330 385 Faster Car 0 65 130 195 260 325 390

Picture 2. 10 3. Review Read the problem again to be sure the question was answered. Did you find the number of hours it took for the faster car to catch up? Yes, it took 6 hours. Check the math to be sure it is correct.

55 x 2 = 110, 55 x 3 = 165, 55 x 4 = 220, 55 x 5 = 275, 55 x 6 = 330, 55 x 7 = 385 65 x 2 = 130, 65 x 3 = 195, 65 x 4 = 260, 65 x 5 = 325, 65 x 6 = 390

Determine if the best strategy was chosen for this problem or if there was another way to solve the problem.

D. Conclusion
The different between Polyas step and Masonsteps are not quite distinct. Mason et al and Schoenfeld just try to find other kind of words to change divising plan. He had seen the necessity to make the actual heuristics much more explicit and more appropriate for the learner in 21st century. The idea of devising a plan is extremely daunting for the novice so in order to make it easier we should change the term but at the same time they do the problem solving process as well. To figure out the difference as vividly as possible, I will give more explanation. In the entry phase in Masons first stage had covered the first two stages of Polya whilst attack in Mason second stage had covered the third stage

of Polya. The last stage in Mason stage is review. It is also covered the last Polya stage which is called looking back. For problem solving approach, I started to define the characteristics of problem solving approach. To extend the comprehension of problem solving approach, I had given the comparision both traditional and problem solving approaches in the learning instruction process. Hopefully, it had already answered the first task in problem solving subject.

REFERENCES
Budhi, W. S. 2003. Langkah Awal Menuju ke Olimpiade Matematika. Jakarta : Ricardo. David Tall. 2001. Advanced Mathematical Thinking. Boston : Kluwer Academic Publishers Joseph M. Furner and David D. Kumar.2007. The Mathematics and Science Integration Argument: A Stand for Teacher education. Florida : Atlantic University. Mason, J. with Burton, L. & Stacey, K.1982. Thinking Mathematically,. London : Addison-Wesley. Polya, G.1945. How to solve it. New Jersey : Princeton University Press.

Schoenfeld, A. H.1985. Mathematical Problem Solving, Orlando: Academic Press. Schroeder, T.L., and Lester, F.K., 1990. Developing understanding in mathematics via problem solving. In P.R. Trafton (ed.) New directions for elementary school mathematics,1989 yearbook of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Reston, VA: NCTM.