Recent developments in the theory of rolling contact stresses are reviewed.

They follow three main lines: (I) elastic stresses due to slip and friction at the contact interface, (2) pressures developed in elasto-hydrodynamic lubricating films and (3) the influence of inelastic (-&co-elastic or plastic) behaviour of the material of the rolling solids. The theory of dry rolling contact of elastic solids is now at an advanced state of development. Studies of lubricated rolling and inelastic deformation are restricted to the two-dimensional problems of rolling cylinders. It has been possible however to put forward a tentative theoretical load-carrying capacity for lubric.ated metal rollers, above which continuous permanent deformation will take place. It is suggested that the strength of actual rolling surfaces falls below the theoretical limit due to non-homogeneity of the material and the roughness of the surfaces. These effects are at present beyond the scope of theory but would well repay study.
INTRODUCTIOX

Two smooth elastic bodies pressed into contact so that they touch over an area which is small compared with the principal radii of curvature of their surfaces experience local contact stresses given closely by the classical Hertz theory of elastic contact. Under what circumstances, we may ask, does the Hertz theory apply with precision to bodies in rolling contact? The main restrictions may be summarised as follows. (I) Perfectly elastic materials. (2) Both bodies have the same elastic constants. (3) The two surfaces are not closely conforming in the contact region. (4) No tangential (tractive) force is transmitted. -0 relative angular velocity of spin about the common normal to the contacli.flfface. , * (6) No load-bearing hydrodynamic film between the surfaces. (7) Topographically smooth surfaces. It will be appreciated that most of these restrictionseliminate non-conservative forces ; friction at the interface, hysteresis in the material and viscosity of a lubricant
* Prescntcd to the O.E.C.D. Sub-group on Rolling Wear at Dclft, April 1905

THEORY OF ROLLING CONTACT STRESSES film. rolling subject tions becomes between categories, (i) The restrictions (ii) (restriction plastic nature with (z), The (6)). of inelastic properties of the material, further a transient either visco-elastic effects of friction forces and slip at the interface, film thereby the relaxing (3), (4) and (5). influence of a hydrodynamic lubricating between The contact stresses are then not dependent of rolling with process upon contact the history of loading; form

contact Recent

is the same as static developments above, and static are chiefly thereby contact.

contact. stresses, effects. which the it relaxing one or more of the restric-

in the theory concerned the rolling

of this paper, enumerated necessary rolling In presenting

introducing

irreversible

In consequence, and to distinguish them

to consider

in its own right

these developments

it is convenient

to separate

into three

surfaces or

(iii) The influence (restriction Before of steadily followed where studies, steady point which should three can usefully applied the initial

(I)).
to particular problems, distinctions of a general be made. The rolling loads separates of the motion process which is taking and the sequence place under the action of the loads, action tooth the

proceeding

into two parts;

state which is associated with time as long in a rolling in a gear

phase

of application unvarying

by a steady state of contact motion are rapid cycle. so far the proceeds. changes theory in steady flows with that there but state. The deformation

stress which remains or velocity contact

as the rolling engagement

The transient of load effects

state is of importance as, for example, in a number stresses

Transient

have been observed

of experimental only

of rolling rolling steadily the first is

has considered

conveniently
is taken

approached
field

from the Eulerian of coordinates; region

of view.

The

nominal

point time.

of contact

as the origin

material

of both

solids

through

a strain

in the contact

does not change be restricted dimensional. many conditions

It is not surprising

theoretical

treatment All real

of each new problem problems, contact however, are tests which approach

to one It is even

of plane difficult to extend

deformation. to carry The present existing

out laboratory state of rolling theory

plane-strain presents

at all closely.

stress theory

opportunities

into three

dimensions.

TANGENTIAL

TRACTIONS AND MICRO-SLIP

Conditions
It interface a region roll discussed common flows x-axis.

at the interface
is now between or regions relative generally rolling recognised elastic bodies that results the existence of friction within in these tangent rolling which regions forces at the in the division of adhesion conditions of the contact area into have been

of micro-slip, motion. The

and regions boundary

the surfaces

without

by JOHNSON~ and BUFLER~. system used, oxy is the common point of contact. with As steady a velocity plane and oz is the proceeds, parallel have will material to the velocity
(1966)

In the coordinate normal At into the field a point

at the nominal of elastic (x,y)

deformation

U chosen

on the interface

a particle

of one body

Wear, g

4-19

components

Y.~and y!, given b!

where u and 7) are components of elastic displacement of the surface at the point (x, y) in the x andy directions. The components of velocity of slip at any point on the interface are thus
S.r = qq qq

SY= 9Y1- 9Y2

where the subscripts I and z refer to contacting points Clearly, in a region where there is no slip, S,r= s2/= 0 which leads to the conditions

on the surface of each body. (I)

where & and ty are constants Now

independent

of x and y.

and thus represents

the fractional

difference

in rolling

speed of the two surfaces,

which represents a small relative motion of the two surfaces perpendicular to the rolling direction, This phenomenon is commonly known as creep and t5 and tl/ are referred to as the longitudinal and transverse creep ratios respectively. At a point in a region where micro-slip is taking place, the slip velocities ss and s?, are not zero, but the tangential traction Q(x, y) reaches its limiting value, viz.

IQI {X%y) =

+ J'WY))~ =,uZ(x,y)

(4)

where X and Y are components of Q, Z is the normal pressure at the point in question and ,u is the coefficient of limiting friction, usually taken to be constant. In addition, it is necessary to specify that the direction of the frictional traction Q is opposite to that of the velocity of slip s, thus arg. Q = arg. s+n The complete WLW,o (1966)4-19 solution for the contact stresses in a rolling problem (5) involving

THEORY OF ROLLING CONTACT STRESSES

friction must satisfy the conditions governing surface displacement, (a) and (3), in the adhesion region and the conditions governing surface traction, (4) and (s), in the micro-slip region. In view of the mixed boundary conditions, together with the fact tha.t the shape of boundary separating the adhesion region from the slip region is not known in advance, complete solutions have not yet been obtained to any but the simplest two dimensional problems. In order to make progress it has been necessary to follow various approximate procedures. First of all, it is usual to assume that the tangential tractions do not influence the distribution of normal contact pressure. With practical values of Poissons ratio and coefficient of friction, no very serious error is introduced. Exact solutions by BuFLER~ of two special problems discussed later enable the consequences of this simplification to be assessed. To combat the difficulty of an adhesion region of unknown shape three lines of approach have been tried. (I)Solutions are obtained for either or both of the two limiting cases: (a) no slip anywhere in the contact area ,G-+OO and (b) complete slip everywhere ,u-+o. The actual distribution may then be estimated by interpolation. This method is successful where the actual conditions are close to one or other of the two possible extremes. (z) A shape for the region of adhesion is guessed on the basis of experiment or intuition, which makes a solution in closed form possible. The correctness of the guess can subsequently be checked. (3) The contact area is divided into thin strips parallel to the direction of rolling. Two dimensional theory is applied to the slips and interaction between them is ignored. The approximation involved here is close for elliptical contact areas having the major axis perpendicular to the rolling direction. Particular problems will now be reviewed to which solutions have been obtained along these general lines. Rolli~~gbodies ofdiffering elasticity When two bodies having different elastic constants roll freely together the reciprocal pressure which acts on each gives rise, in general, to unequal tangential displacements of the surface. With zero friction slip occurs without restriction and the contact stresses are purely Hertzian. The existence of friction, however, tends to prevent slip and tangential surface tractions are introduced. This problem was discussed qualitatively by Reynolds in 1875. The other extreme case of no slip anywhere, has been studied for contacting cyhnders by BUFLER~~~ and JOHNSON~, and for a circular contact area (e.g. sphere on aplane)by GOODMAN,JEFFERISAND JOHNSON". The magnitude of the tangential traction is proportional to the constant x where
(I--zY~)(I+YI)Ez-(I-ZYZ)(I+YZ)E~ ~=-----(I-vl2)&+(1-v22)E1 ---

The tangential traction and normal pressure distributions obtained by BUFLER are shown in Fig. I (a), X= I.The pressure is compared with the Hertz distribution for which would be obtained by neglecting the influence of the tangential traction on the normal pressure The difference is small, particularly since the highest practical value
Wear, g

(1g66)4-19

Ii.

I,.

~oHs~o\

of K is about 0.4; a result which gives confitlt9cc~ in making the same al)~)roxim;ltiol1 in other prohlcms. I;urther, the tangential traction onl\. ~~xwtds LO,, of thcs norm2 pressure OVCTkss than IO:, of tlw contact arw. Thus for ,j,~,<0.2 tlwrc~ \vill 1~ \cI-\ little slip and tlic present limiting solution is probably CLgood al)l)ro.uinlation to tlkx trW State of affa.irS.
(WefUl

~?qxTinl~IltS by ~EPFERIS

?f d.4 SUppOt?

thk

c~Oll~~llSiotl.

.I problem of practical

inttwst

nhic.11 has many features

in common

with tllc,

one just discussed concerns rollrrs covered \vith a thin layer of more flexible material. An analysis neglecting friction has becii givcw by lAI&HS. .A mow clc$ailcd study is now being made by the author

f! 0.50 2 kz h 5 Q25 E b z

(b)

Dimensionless coord.X=XJa
Dmensionless coord. %=x/a

Fig. 1. The influence of interaction bct\vcen tllc tangential traction ;~n(l the nornlal p-cssun (from 1sUFLEK3). The dotted curve is the Hertz pressure which ncglcxts the Interaction. (a) Different elastic constants, x = 1. (1,) Combined ant1 sliding, it = 1, p =- I.

Tangential

forces forces on rolling contact stresses has the longest in this way, The plane problem with a force in tht independently by
CARTER", Fikn?

The influence of tangential history of any problem considered direction micro-slip of rolling was investigated ICTX. Their results are in agreement

and POIU~ISconclusion

and their solution remains the only one involving This work led to the important

which is in any sense complete.

that, in rolling, the adhesion zone is adjacent to the leading edge of the contact area; in contrast to the static problem where the adhesion zone is centrally placed. Here again it is usual to neglect the effect of the tangential traction upon the distribution of normal pressure, but BVFLER~ has solved the special case of complete sliding in which this interaction is taken into account. The pressure distribution and the tangential traction are shown by the same curve (since the value ,u = I has been used) in Fig. I (b). The difference compared with the Hertz distribution is not great, particularly when it is remembered that practical values of ,Uare appreciably less than unity. Rolling bodies of more general shape have been considered, having an elliptical contact area and transmitting both transverse and longitudinal tangential forces. assumed the adhesion region to be elliptical in shape ~'EK~IEULEK .w~) JoH~~\'sc)N~~~~ and obtained approximate used a strip theory which observed on photo-elastic and obtained exact results small values of tangential surface stresses in closed form. HXINES ANI) OLLERTOX~~ suggested that the adhesion region was lemon shaped, as models. KALKEK 18 studied the limiting problem of no-slip which gave an excellent correlation with experiments at force.

THEORY OF ROLLING CONTACT STRESSES Although problem acceptable rolling a complete thIee-dimensional and existing solution theories is not yet available,

9
this of which at high

is now well understood engineering between accuracy.

are capable concern

of giving

results

Of more immediate predictions

is the discrepancy creep ratios

seems to exist speeds.

the theoretical

and measured

Close conformity
Bodies on which tractions different feature tractions adhesion pressure when whose roll, profiles deep conform groove closely in the transverse for example, points direction introduce lying drew to the track tangential to this surface at appreciably to the they ball-bearings of rotation. and slip with obtained practical in the

and micro-slip distances on the region from basis exists, of ball-bearing

in the contact the axis behaviour of complete particularly

area due to surface

HEATHCOTE~~ a limiting the of the values

attention ellipse. where

solution

throughout centre

contact track

JOHNSON the contact

used a strip-theory

to show that

of conformity effect

an appreciable of conformity the creep ratio

is high. Independently effect

HALLING 15 studied

the combined

and tangential to zero.

force and was able to draw the conclusion of conformity and tangential

that wear could be minimised force reduced

the combined

Spin
An surfaces friction angular velocity of spin oZ about of angular problem the common contact including normal oz to the contact and variable-speed forces was made tractions mechanics. by and A is a well-known drives. An attack extreme showed more when have the latter that and that on this difficult from which no-slip tangential the standpoint was spinning analogous of complete whilst rolling slip. Starting tangential in a straight effect in fluid (eqns. Physical of the from the other line developed feature ball-bearings

LLJTZ~~ and WERNITZ~~ assuming a sphere force treatment

JOHNSON~~~~~ calculated to the Magnus was made

a transverse exact applied then

somewhat

of the same problem to appreciate contact

by KALKER~~. of no-slip define (2) and (3)), conditions made area. slip the state of stress JOHNSONI* contact

It is important

that the conditions of surface leading

to the complete

area, do not uniquely between alternative point

since they are in terms of the derivitives to be invoked traction it vanish approaches edge, made to choose vanish more tangential condition at the closely

displacements. solutions.

(-a,~)
edge necessity solution.

KALKER13

at all points

on the leading the physical exact problem

of the contact It would

area. This thus appear via the pu-tco. Unfortuboth paraspin is

of no impending be reached of friction theory

at the leading complete A no-slip nately

and thus results solution only slip, by taking when interest though

in a more the limit

the unequivocal solution solution with

to the no-slip

can only

as the coefficient velocity the small-spin complete would and

applies

the angular lie between

of spin is small. solution be of great rolling

many

cases of practical slip theory even will

of KALKER,

and the complete adhesion meters This section

of WERNITZ.

A more

involving value.+ when

and micro-slip, which govern

approximate, by a statement tractions X

be concluded

of the non-dimensional Y during

the tangential

+ An interesting new approach to this p-ioblem has been presented by KALKER,

see p. 20. g (1966) 4-19

Wear,

thus \vrite:

(01 where ZO is the maximum

of the tangential force,

normal pressure, ,Y the normal force, Y,, 7, the components

Ii the rolling LUBRI(ATION radius and I the rolling velocity.

ELtlSTO-HvDROI)TNARI~

It is now well established that load-bearing hydrodynamic films of practical thickness (> 10-4 cm) are developed between rolling surfaces at normal speeds and at loads sufficient to take hard steels up to their elastic limit. This is a consequence of the rapid rise in the viscosity of typical lubricating oils with contact pressure. From the point of view of this review, we are concerned only with the distribution of pressure and tangential traction in the loaded region from which the contact stresses can be obtained. To obtain a theoretical pressure distribution it is necessary to solve, simultaneously, Reynolds equation for the pressure in the film and the elastic deformation of the rolling surfaces under the action of this pressure. In pure rolling very little heat is generated behaviour.
viscosity ature parallel only

in the film and it has been found to be satisfactory

CROOK~O first

to assume isothermal by the oil

is by the temperof the rollers is approximately is fairly but deformation that

showed that the film thickness

region, high which is effectively loads the elastic of the oil film; At

was determined
controlled the film deformation

at entry

to the contact surfaces. than

of the rolling greater through

considerably

the thickness Increasing

the contact contact the film

and in consequence thickness. of work done

the pressure

distribution

close to a Hertz slightly

pressure.

load causes more elastic on this problem, in terms

reduces

Of the considerable et al. 21,2% the most complete is have expressed IliZ. P =@(U*, where G, W) the contact

amount pressure

of DO~SON The)

and relevant

to the question

of stress distribution.

non-dimensionally

of three parameters,

(7)

P =9/E,
I F=
=-

U* =r UIER,G

= EhandW

= NIERandpis

thecontactpressure

at any point. equivalent I 2 I F=

[ I--Y12 ----+f

elastic

modulus

I-vy2'L

El

Ez radius

equivalent

of rollers

=k+; iii = normal 0~ = pressure Wear, g (IgG6) 4-19

? load per unit width at inlet index

q. = oil viscosity

viscosity

THEORY OF ROLLIKiC CONTACT STRESSES

II

RLOK has pointed out that the three parameters used by DOWSON et al. are not independent. It is therefore possible to express the pressure in simpler form:

GP = @I (G2W, G4 U*)

(8)

The parameter G has a value of about 5000 for steel rollers lubricated by a typical mineral oil and permits little variation. Pressure distributions and elastic stress fields have been calculated3 for various values of U* and W. Typical pressure distributions are shown in Fig. z. Tangential tractions were found to be negligibly

Fig. 2, Elasto-hydrodynamic pressure distributions (from DOWSON, HIGGINSON AND 'iliHITAKERz3). (a) Pressure distributions for lesser load; U = (o), o (dry contact) ; (I),10-l~; (z),10~~~; (3).IO-~'; for (4), IO-'0; (5), IO-9;(5#, IO-9.3; (6), 10-s; w = 3 . IO-J; G = 5000. (b) Pressure distributions greater load; U = (0). o {dry contact); (3), IO-; (5) 10-9; W = 3 . 10-4; G = 5000.

small. With high loads and not excessive speed the pressure distribution is basically Hertzian, but with one surprising distinction, an intense, but highly localised, pressure spike occurs on the exit side. This feature of the theory of elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication has given rise to much speculation. It is not possible to state with certainty, whether or not it really exists and its effect upon the strength of the rolling surfaces. CROOKS measurement of the deformed profile of lubricated rollers exhibited the sort of re-entrant shape towards the trailing edge which is consistent with a second pressure peak. However, even if the fine spike does exist, it does not appear to have a serious influence upon the stress field. The maximum shear stress in the rollers is not located beneath the spike except at the highest values of the speed parameter U*. A concentration of shear stress close to the surface is a consequence of
Wear, g (1966) 4-19

I .!

Ii.

I..

JOHSSOS

where fiO is the maximum

Hertzian

pressure under the same load,

In the range of loads and speeds computed it appears that the form of the pressure distribution p/,$0 is determined primarily by the parameter CJ*/JVz, With the data available, this hypothesis must remain rather tentative for the time being. If it is substantially correct, however, we may conclude that that distribution of contact both speed stress may be expressed in terms of a single parameter taking into account and load. This conclusion is made use of in the next section.

Sliding combined with rolling presents a difficult theoretical problem since it is no longer adequate to assume isothermal conditions. A first attempt by CHEXG ANI)
%ERNLICHT24 has just been presented. As expected, the film thickness for a given load and speed is little different from isothermal predictions since the film thickness is set

by conditions at entry. Rather more surprising, the pressure spike remains. We are likely to hear much more on this problem in the near future and some refined experimentation will be required to substantiate results of theoretical ana1yses.t and perhaps to help choose between, the

The discussion so far has been based on the lubrication of metal rollers with normal mineral oils. Rolling elements of appreciably lower elastic moduli, rubber for example, develop much lower contact pressures and elasto-hydrodynamic action is possible with lower viscosity fluids which have zero pressure dependence such as water. Using the inverse hydrodynamic method, i.e. calculating the shape of the deformed profile from prescribed pressure distributions, BLOKES has studied this range of the problem in some detail.
INELASTIC DEFORMATIOS

It has long been recognised that inelastic deformation plays a significant part in the mechanics of rolling motion. Material hysteresis is generally agreed to be responsible for rolling resistance except in situations involving close conformity or spin where micro-slip effects predominate. Hysteresis in metals loaded elastically is small, but it is much greater in rubber or polymeric materials. An approach through the theory of linear visco-elasticity has made some progress. All but the hardest metals reach their yield point under rolling contact loads which arise only too easily in practice. Evidence of plastic deformation in railway rails, gear teeth and rolling t For the latest developments the reader is referred to Proc. Symp. on Elastohydvodymmaic Lubricution, Leeds, Septenzber 1965, Inst. Mech. Engrs., London, 1966.
IYmr, g (rgG6) 4-19

THEORY OF ROLLING CONTACT STRESSES contact bearings is commonly

I3

observed and associated with failure and fatigue in

rolling contact, First steps have been taken to apply the theory of plasticity to this problem.

A rigid body rolling on the surface of an inelastic material experiences a higher pressure on the leading side of the contact area than on the trailing side. A moment must therefore be applied to the rolling body to overcome the resistance to motion exerted by the unsymmetrical pressure distribution. If the material is viscoelastic the contact pressure distribution and hence the rolling resistance will be much influenced by the rolling speed. At low speed the material will recover at the trailing side of the contact sufficiently quickly to maintain a fairly symmetrical distribution of pressure, so that the rolling resistance will be small. At high speed the material will not recover sufficiently quickly to even make contact on the trailing side. Also the resistance of the material to rapid compression on the leading side of the contact will, for a given load, considerably reduce the indentation and contact area, with a corresponding reduction in rolling resistance. Thus there is a speed at which the resistance is at a maximum which is observed to be of the order of the magnitude of a/r, where a is the semi-contact width and t is a mean relaxation time for the material Simple theories of the process have been put forward, for a rolling cylinder by MAY, MORRIS AND ATACK~~ and for a ball by FLOM AND BUECHE~~. Their approach has been to represent the material by a series of parallel linear Maxwell elements which undergo compression and recovery during rolling. Shear between the elements is ignored. ~R~EN~~ooD, MINSHALL AND TABOR 28have demonstrated the ~portan~e of the complex strain cycle, including reversed shear, in rolling contact and suggested an ingenious, but greatly simplified theory, to account for it. More recently HvNTER2g and MORLAND~~ have developed rigorous two-dimensional continuum theories for general linear visco-elastic solids. It is difficult to assess them however, in view of the fact that the behaviour of most polymers and elastomers is not closely described by linear visco-elasticity.

Eiastic-plastic materials
The load at which a metal first yields in rolling contact may be calculated using elastic theory together with an appropriate yield criterion. It is well known that freely rolling cylinders yield first at a point beneath the surface when PO = 3.1 k+

(10)

where PO is the maxims Hertz pressure and k is the yield stress of the material in simple shear. In combined rolling and sliding the critical shear stress occurs at a point which approaches the surface with increasing tangential traction and lies in the surface when ~1reaches the value 0.26. It does not follow, however, that a load in excess of the elastic limit will cause continuous plastic deformation during repeated rolling contact cycles. During the first contact cycle the surface material is plastically compressed and residual compressive stresses acting parallel to the surface are introduced. During subsequent

t This result is obtained by using the van Mises criterion of yielding. It has been shown31 that
whatever the yield criterion, for first yield
2.7

k< PO< 3.3 k .

Wear, g (x966) 4-19

Ii.

I..JOHSSOS

rolling cycles the material is subjected to the combined action of residual and contact stresses. Further vielding is less likelv and a steady-state may be reached in which thch material is no longer stressed beyond its elastic limit. This process is known as shakcdo\vn and the maximum load for which it occurs will be called the shakedown limit It has proved possible to apply Mclans Shakedown of plasticity to the plane-strain rolling contact problems combined rolling and sliding. limit was found to be given by In pure rolling the shakedown Theorem from the theor! of pure rolling: and also

po=dk (11) This represents an increase of 667; in load carrying capacity above the load for first yield given by eqn. (IO). Tangential forces introduced by sliding or micro-slip cause an appreciable reduction in the shakedown limit, as shown in Fig. 3.

CONTINUOUSLY PLASTIC

ELASTIC

CQlTIC,LSTQESS ATSVQFACE

L_.

/..__L_

0.1
OF TPACTIVC

-I

0.2
FORCE

0.3
TO NORMAL LOAD

0.4 T/N

0 .5

PATIO

Fig. 3. The effect of a tangential force on the limit of elastic behaviour and the shakedown according to the Tresca and Mises yield criteria (from JOHNSON AND JEFFERIS~~).

limit,

Rolling cylinders supporting a load in excess of the shakedown limit might be expected to experience plastic deformation continuously with repeated rolling. The form of this deformation is surprising however. It was first observed by cROOK33 and consists of forward shearing of the surface of each cylinder relative to its core. The deformation is cumulative in the sense that an equal increment of plastic strain is acquired with each revolution until ultimate failure occurs. This mode of plastic deformation has been studied experimentally by HAMILTON~~ and theoretically by MERWIN AND JOHNSON~~. Thus at loads above the shakedown limit continuous and cumulative plastic deformation is observed; at loads below it, even though they cause some yielding Wear, 9 (1966) 4-79

THEORY OF ROLLING CONTACT STRESSES

I5

initially, after a few revolutions the system shakes down to an elastic cycle of stress. It is claimed, therefore, that the shakedown limit can be regarded as the theoretical ultimate load-carrying capacity of arollingcontact ; the best whichcould be achievedif other influences such as wear, scuffing or fatigue did not intrude to cause premature failure. With a view to establishing a theoretical load capacity of rolling contacts including the influence of a lubricant film, the shakedown theory has been applied to the elasto-hydrodynamic stress distributions calculated by DOWSON et a1.23. This work has been reported36 and the resulting curve is shown in Fig. 4. The load carrying capacity is expressed by the ratio (@o/k)+; the base is the parameter (U*/bV). Thus the left of the diagram refers to slow speed and heavy load and approaches eqn. (II) for dry contact. The right of the diagram refers to high speed and viscosity.

20 L

--
MY PPE55UPE DI5TPI0TION PAPAMETEP.

10-s

101

yz

IY

17

Fig. 4. The intensity of the bulk contact stress for the several tests (expressed as the ratio of the maximum Hertzian pressure to the yield stress in shear, $0/k) plotted against the parameter U/W2 which defines the distribution of contact pressure. The shakedown limit defines the theoretical load above which continuous bulk plastic deformation takes place (from JOHNSON~~).

The observed fatigue limits which are shown in the diagram lie well below the shakedown limit and it might be thought that the theoretical limit is only of academic interest. However the work of DAWSON 37 strongly suggests that surface pitting of rollers is associated with surface irregularities. If rolling surfaces can be made to be smooth compared with the thickness of the oil film then the possibility exists of raising the fatiguelimit tosomethingapproachingtheshakedownlimit.tt Suchan achievement would correspond roughly to a four-fold increase of load carrying capacity.
t It must be remembered that the actual load carried varies as p ss. The best practical assessment of the shear strength k is obtained from a Vickers hardness measurement. The hardness V is then related to k by V==6 k. tt For confirmation of this possibility see P. H. DAWSON, Proc. Symp. on Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication, Leeds, September 1965, Inst. Mech. Engrs., London, 1966. Wear, g (1966) 4-19

IO

Ii.

1..

JOHNSO\

Wear,

g (1966)

4-19

THEORY

OF ROLLING

CONTACT

STRESSES

I7

CONCLUSIONS

Recent developments in the theory of rolling contact stresses have been reviewed. It remains to assess the present position and perhaps suggest the lines along which future developments would be valuable. The various problems, showing the present position, have been laid out in Table I. From an engineering point of view the position with regard to dry elastic contacts in steady rolling is reasonably complete. The outstanding problem of tractive forces combined with practical values of spin is likely to be resolved, approximately at least, in the near future. It remains to study the transient problem. Also important is the influence upon contact stresses of irregularities of surface topography, for example, errors in the axial profile of a roller. In fact surface irregularities affect many aspects of the rolling contact process including lubrication and plastic deformation, since rolling along an uneven surface will lead to unsteady contact stresses through dynamic action. This whole question is virtually unexplored. There is lively activity in the field of elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication. The important problem of rolling and sliding is close to solution assuming Newtonian behaviour of the oil. It is still an open question whether non-Newtonian effects are important in severe sliding and, if so, how they should be treated. The practical operating range of good quality steel surfaces in rolling contact, such as rolling bearings or gears, is such that the degree of surface roughness has the same order of magnitude as the oil film thickness. This brings us back to the effect of surface irregularities. How do they affect the behaviour in lubricated rolling? In particular, we may ask, at what point in the development of an elasto-hydrodynamic film do the contact stress patterns based upon dry contact and Coulomb friction become meaningless. Although the present two-dimensional theory is adequate for the contact of rolling cylinders having even a relatively short axial length, it would be extremely valuable to have elasto-hydrodynamic solutions for a point contact, a ball on a plane for example. A very simple theory and experimental observations have been given by ARCHARD AND KIRK~~. A strip-theory might provide a useful step towards the major computing task of a complete three-dimensional solution. The theory of plastic deformation and shakedown have led to a theoretical load-carrying capacity for cylinders. The corresponding problem for point contact is much more difficult due to lateral flow and transverse residual stresses. The development of a permanent groove by a rolling ball is worth further study. Experimental studies of the physical breakdown of rolling surfaces by wear, scuffing and fatigue suggest that the origins of failure lie in local defects in the solids or lubricant such as non-metallic inclusions and surface irregularities, and at loads well below those to cause bulk plastic flow. It would appear valuable therefore to attempt to apply the theory of plasticity to study the local deformation and residual stresses at points of stress concentration.

Wear, g (1966)

4-19

II2

(IYLO) 151. 1,. liB~~1~L, I)le siwzge Liiswzg fiiv vollmde Iieibzrxg, Miinchen, 1947. die Il. Io~rrsliY, Stresses and deflections of cylindrical bodies in contact etc., ,I. _IppZ. :Xlcc/l., 7

(1950) IYr. Ii. I.. JOHNSON, The effect of a tangential contact force upon the rolling motion of an elastic sphcrc, ,I. _4@Z. MEcA., 80 (958) 339. I. J, L'ERXEULEPI: AND Ii. L. JOHKSOK, Contact of non-spherical elastic I1ot11cstransmitting tangential forces, ,/. _4ppZ. ,Wech., 86 (1904) 337. 1). J. HAINES AND E. OLLERTON, Contact stress distributions on elliptical contact surfacc,s subjcctctl to radial and tangential forces, Pvoc-. Ilsst. Aleck. Eugvs. (LonrloxJ, 177 (I 903) 95. 1). J. ~IAINES, Contact stresses in flat elliptical contact surfaces which support radial and shearing forces during rolling, presented at the Inst. of bIech. lingrs. lAubrication Convcntiorl. lAondon, May 19h5. J. J. IiALRER, Transmission of a force and couple bctlvccn two elastically similar rolling sphcrcs, lioziakl. Sed. .4 kad. Wetenschap., Pm-., SPY. H, 67 (1~64) 135. II. L. HEATHCOTE, The ball bearing, I?&. IZlcclz. EU~YS. (Imzdmj, llwc. :I lrtowzohilr li~il.. 15 (1921) 509. 1. HALLING, Micro-slip between a rolling element and its track arising front geometric confornIty and applied surface tractions, ,I. Mech. E?lg. Sot., 6 (1964) O+ 0. Luxx, Crunds&tzliches iiber stufcnlos vcrstellbarc Walzgctriebe, I<<~1l.~/~,l<ktio11, (I 0,j.j) 7 330; ibid., 9 (1957) 169; ibid., IO (1958) 425. \c. U'TERNITZ, \IBlz-Bohrreibung-Bestimmung der Bohrmomente untl ~:mfangskrZftc bci liertzscher lressung mit Punktberiihrung, Schviftenveihe A4ntriebstPrhuik, Hand 19, Fr. Vicwcg und Sohn, Hraunschweig, 1958. Ii. I,. JOHP~SON, Effect of spin upon the rolling motion of an elastic sphcrv on a plane, j. .,lppI. Mrclz., 80 (1958) 3.3. I<. I,. JOHNSON, Influence of elastic deformation upon the motion of a ball rolling between t\\o surfaces, Pvor. Inst. Mech. E?ps., 173 (1959) 795. A. IV. CROOK, Lubrication of Rollers, Parts I ~-IV, Phil. Tra?zs. lioy. SW. /_or?c~oiz, .%Y. .-I, 250 (1958) 357; ihid., 254 (1962) 223; ibid., 25.5 (1903) zS1. Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication, 1~. DOWSON, G. I<. HIGGIKSON AND 11. V. WHITAKBR, ,I. Mrck. Iill,q. .%c., 4 (1962) 121. I). Dowso~ ,WD :\. V. WHITAKER, Isothermal lubrication of cylinders, 12.S. I,.E. Lubrication (onf., Washington, 1904, .-1.S.L.E. Tvans., 8 (1965) 224. D. DOWSON. C. Ii. HIGGINSON AND L1. V. WHITAKER, Stress distribution inlubricatedrollingcontacts, Pm-. Sym~). Fatigue ie Rolling Contact, London, 1963, Inst. hlech. Engrs., London, 1904. H. S. CHENG AND H. STERIGLICHT, A numerical solution for the pressure. temperature and film Conf., thickness bctwecn rolling and sliding cylinders under heavy loads, I4.S.L.E. Lubrication Washington, 1964, ,I. Basic Eng., Trans. z4.S.1M.B., Sev. U, 87 (1965) 695. H HT OK in E. MLY~F.K ANJJ B. STERNLICHT (eds.), Iroc. f?ztevx. Synap. ou f~uhrzccrtio?z n~cc/ W~uv, liozsstou, 1964, McCutchen Publ. Corp., Bcrkelcy, 1905, pp. j (5. \Y. I). h,IAI, 1;. I,. MORRIS AND D. ATACK, Rolling friction of a hard cylintlrr over a viscoclastic material, ,/. _!ppl. P!zys., 30 (1959) 1713. 1). (;. FLOM AND A. M. HUECHE, Theory of rolling friction for spheres, ,/. :lppI. Plbys., JO (1959) 1725. J. .\. GREENWOOD, II. I\IIKSHAI.L AND D. TAHOR, Hysteresis losses in rolling and sliding friction, Pro<. lioy. SW., (Lmdm) , Ser. .-I, 259 (196 I) @o. half-sphere, ,I. _-lp$. S. C. HUNTER, TMling contact of a rigid cylinder with a viscoclastic
I>. W. MORLAND, .\

plane problem

of rolling

contact

in linear

viscoelasticity

theory,

./.

.I P@.

li. I>. JOIIXSON, ,\ shakedown limit m rolling contact, Herkelry, 1962, .\m. Sot. Mech. I<ngrs., 1963.

Pror-. 4th V.-S. j\atl. Co~gv. ,

THEORY OF ROLLING CONTACT STRESSES

I9

32 K. L. JOHNSONAND J. A. JEFFERIS, Plastic flow and residual stresses, Proc. Symp. Fatigue in Rolling Contact, London, 1963~ Inst. Mech. Engrs., London, 1964. 33 A W. CROOK, Simulated gear-tooth contacts, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs. (London), r71(1957) 187. 34 G. M. HAMILTON, Plastic flow in rollers loaded above the yield point, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs. (London), 177 (1963) 667. 35 J. E. MERWIN AND K. L. JOHNSON,An analysis of plastic deformation in rolling contact, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs. (London), 177 (1963) 676. 36 K. L. JOHNSON,Correlation of theory and experiment in research on fatigue in rolling contact, Proc. Symp. Fatigue in Rolling Contact, London, 1963, Inst. Mech. Engrs., London, 1964. 37 P. H. DAWSON, Effect of metallic contact on pitting of lubricated rolling surfaces, J. Mech. Eng. Sot., # (1962) 16. 38 J. ARCHARD AND M. T. KIRK, Lubrication at point contacts, Pvoc. Roy. Sot. (London), Ser. A., 261 (1961) 532. Wear, 9 (1966) 4-19