Biology Summary B.2. CELLULAR ORGANISATION AND FUNCTION Appreciate that all living organisms are made up of cells.

Cells are the building blocks of all leaving organisms, they carry out special functions for life. There are two types of cells, plant and animal cells. Know the structure of a typical animal cell and a typical plant cell (cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, cell wall, vacuole, chloroplast only).

Animal cell

Plant cell

Understand the functions of the parts of animal and plant cells (as listed above). Cell membrane it is a semi permeable membrane that allows substances to diffuse in and out of the cell. Nucleus it is like the brain of the cell, it controls all the activity of the cell and it contains DNA Cell wall it is made of celulouse, it protects the cell, it gives a definite shape and doesnt allow it to burst if the internal pressure of the cytoplasm increases. Vacuole it is used for water storage Chloroplast it contains chlorophyll which absorb sunlight for photosynthesis Understand the significance of the difference in structure between animal and plant cells. - Plant cells contains a cell wall and animal cells dont this is because plants need the cell wall for protection and to keep a definite shape specially for plant support. - Plant cells contain chloroplast and animal cells dont this is because plant cells carry out photosynthesis - Plant cells have a large central vacuole for water storage

 Appreciate that different types of cells perform different functions, and that their structure is related to their function. Red blood cells their function is to carry oxygen around the body, theyre structure is of a concave shape I mean donut shape to increase there surface area for a faster intake of oxygen. They dont have a nucleus to leave more space for oxygen and finally they have flexible membrane to squiz through small cappillaries White blood cells Theyre function is to kill bacteria and any infectious agent that enters the body (defense system). They can eat any infectious agent that enter the body and digest it(release enzymes), they also have flexible membranes to squeeze through small cappillarie. They produce antibodies Nerve cells theyre function is to transport nerve impulses across the body to the brain. They have sensory nerve endings that detect stimuli, they have a long axon through which nerve impulse can travel. Xylem it is a tube that transport water from the roots to the leave. The cells in the xylem dont have a cell wall, making a continous tube through which water can pass. Phloem vessels its function is to carry glucose from the leaves to all parts of the plant. The cells in the phloem tube has small wholes in the cell wall to allow the liquid to flow. Sperm cell it carries the male gamete, it contains a tale which allow the cell to move and it has a head that contain the chromosomes Know that cells are arranged into groups to form tissues. Tissues: it is a group of cells with similar characteristics working together for a same function Organ: it is the group of tissues which carry out a similar function (heart, stomach, liver) Organ system: it is a group of organs that carry the same function (digestive system, respiratory system) Organism: it is a group of many organ system which carry life functions

Know that osmosis is the diffusion of H2O molecules through a semipermeable membrane, and be able to relate this to the effects of solns of different concentrations on animal and plant cells. Osmosis refers to the movement of water particles from a low solute concentration to a high solute concentration through a semi permeable membrane B.4 PHOTOSYNTHESIS Understand significance of photosynthesis in making food. Appreciate that photosynthesis transfers energy in chemicals such as glucose and starch. Photosynthesis is a process carried out by plans to produce theyre own food. It is done by transforming energy from the sun into chemical energy in glucose. It also depends on a green pgiment called chlorophyll which is foung in the leaves and it absorbs light. Understand the significance of chlorophyll as a light-absorbing molecule.

Chlorophyll is found in the chloroplast in the plant cell, it function is to absorb sunlight Understand the requirements for photosynthesis; the nature of the products formed; the effects of altering the conditions on the rate of photosynthesis. The recquirements of photosynthesis are carbon dioxide, water, sunlight, chlorophyll and a appropiate temperature, the products of photosynthesis are oxygen and glucose. At the same time altering the conditions may affect the rate of photosynthesis.
1.

Carbon dioxide concentration as the concentration of carbon dioxide increases the rate of photosynthesis increases. This is because carbon dioxide is one of the ingredients of the reaction. However there is a point where the rate levels event when the concentration of co2 increases (point of saturation), this is because there are other limiting factors such as temperature, light intensity.

2.

Temperature as the temperature increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases. However there is a point where the rate of photosynthesis drops when the temperature is too high. This is because photosynthesis depends on many enzymes which work at specific temperatures. If the temperature is too high the enzymes die.

3.

Light intensity As light intensity increase the rate of photosynthesis increases this is because photosynthesis is a reaction that depends on light. However there is a point of saturation where the rate of photosynthesis levels, no matter how light intensity increases. This is because there are other limiting factors to the reaction such as carbon dioxide concentration and temperature.

Know the word equation for photosynthesis.

Carbon dioxide + water

sunlight chlorophyll

Glucose + oxygen

Appreciate how the structure of a leaf enables photosynthesis to occur effectively.

mesophyll

Waxy cuticle: impermeable layer which prevents water loss. Palisade mesophyll: this is where photosynthesis takes place. They contain a lot of chloroplast and are located near the upper epidermis to be able to absorb more sunlught. They are also closely packed and vertically arranged to take more advantage of each sun ray. Spongy mesophyll: This is where gas exchange occurs. These cells do not contain much chloroplast and are sparsely arranged to have air spaces where gases can diffuse. Stomata: opening in the lower epidermis where gases can diffuse in and out of the leaf. Guard cells: they surround the stomata. They open and close the stomata.

Be able to perform starch tests on leaves. 1. You put the leaf in a beaker with hot water. 2. Then you put the leaf in a test tube with alcohol and that test tube you put it into a beaker with hot water. 3. Then you put iodine in the leaf. 4. You will see the parts that the leaf has produce photosynthesis because in that parts the leaf will be in a blue black colour and in the other parts will be in a brown colour as the iodine.

Understand photosynthesis affects the concentrations of carbon dioxide and oxygen in water or the atmosphere. Photosynthesis increases the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere and in water. At the same time it decreases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and in water as leaves absorb carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Understand plants need nitrate ions for making proteins, and that they may absorb these from the soil. Nitrate ions are absorbed by plants through the roots, from the soil. They are essential for building proteins.

B.5 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS

Know the structure of the mammalian breathing system (larynx, trachea, epiglottis, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleural membranes, diaphragm,

and intercostal muscles).

Understand how the structure of the alveoli and blood capillaries enable gaseous exchange to occur. The importance of diffusion in gaseous exchange across the alveoli.

Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli. Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood capilaries; while carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli to be excreted. Its structure is addapted in the following ways: - Large surface area for a faster diffusion of gases - Thin moist walls the membrane of the alveoli is only one cell thick and the membrane is moist to allow the gases to diffuse. - Large network of cappilaries they sorround the alveoli and they have very thin membranes to allow a faster diffusion of gases.

Understand the role of goblet cells and cilia in keeping the lungs free from infection.

Goblet cells produce mucus which trap bacteria, dust and any infectious agents that enter your lung, The celia are cells that contain hairs that swip the mucus produce by the goblet cells and in this way they keep the respiratory track clean.

Understand the effects of smoke and air pollution on the breathing system.

Smoke from tobacco may cause many respiratory problems, gases such as hydrogen cause irritation on the lungs, carbon monoxide causes breathing problems and nicotine irritate the air passages making smokers cough. Tobacco smoke kills cilia cells causing the accumulation of mucus in the bronchi. Know that air breathed out contains more carbon dioxide and less oxygen than air breathed in.

Air breathed in: 21% oxygen, 0.6 % carbon dioxide, 78% nitrogen, a little water vapour Air breathed out: 16% oxygen, 6% carbon dioxide, 78% nitrogen, a lot of water vapour B.6. TRANSPORT SYSTEMS Know that xylem transports water and inorganic ions and that phloem transports the products of photosynthesis Plants take up water and inorganic ions through roots, in the soil. Roots have roots hairs which increase the surface area for a faster uptake. This products are transported through the xylem from the roots to the leaf. At the same time the phloem transport the products of photosynthesis (glucose) from the leaf, to all parts of the plant.

Know red blood cells carry oxygen, attached to hemoglobin, around body of a mammal. White blood cells prevent infection becoming established. Platelets help in clotting. Plasma transports glucose, CO2, hormones + urea.

Composition of blood 1. Red blood cells: they carry oxygen in hemoglobin around the body 2. white blood cells they prevent infections becoming established 3. Plasma is the liquid part of the blood, it is made of water, and it contains glucose, carbon dioxide, hormones, and urea. 4. Platelets they help in blood clotting. Know that transpiration provides a pull which draws water through xylem vessel Transpiration of water occurs in the leaf. It provides a pull which draws a water chain being absorbed from the roots up the xylem towards the leaf. Water molecules have intermolecular forces holding them together making a chain. Understand that arteries carry blood away from the heart, and veins carry blood towards the heart. Capillaries link arteries with veins and are the sites of exchange with the tissues. Arteries - they transport blood from the heart to the body - they have thick walls because they transport blood at high pressure - they dont have valves - they carry oxygenated blood Veins - they transport blood from body to heart

- they have thin walls because they transport blood at low pressure - they have valves to control the flow of blood - they carry deoxygenated blood Capillaries - they connect arteries with veins - they are the side for the exchange of substances between arteries and veins - they have thin walls, for a fast diffusion of substances Know the external and internal structure of the mammalian heart, and understand its function.

Be able to explain the events leading to a heart attack and a stroke, and appreciate how life- style may affect the risk of heart attacks and strokes. A heart attack is caused when the coronary artery becomes blocked. The block is formed by the accumulation of cholesterol (this is known as thrombosis). A stroke is caused when a main artery in the brain becomes blocked by a thrombosis. In both cases the risk may increase if the person has a non health diet with too much fat, has low exercise, smokes or genetics. B.7. RESPIRATION Understand that aerobic respiration involves transferring energy from glucose to a cell; oxygen is needed, carbon dioxide is produced.

In aerobic respiration oxygen is needed. It reacts with glucose to produce carbon dioxide, water and energy. This process transfers energy stored in chemical bonds in glucose. Be able to state the word equation for aerobic respiration.

Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water Appreciate the uses of transferred energy to organisms (e.g. movement, growth, warming the body). The energy produces during respiration is used by living organisms for movement, growth and warming the body. Understand the anaerobic respiration can occur in human muscles. Lactic acid is produced and must later be removed with the use of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration occurs in human muscles. It doesnt use oxygen and it produces lactic acid. However lactic acid must be removed with the use of oxygen. Glucose lactic acid + small amount of energy Appreciate that respiration occurs in all living cells.

B.8. DIET AND HEALTH Know a balanced diet contains protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins, minerals, roughage (fibre), water. Be able to perform tests for starch (iodine solution), reducing sugar (Benedicts reagent), protein (biuret test) and fat (ethanol test). Test for starch add iodine solution and it turns blue black Test for proteins add biuret and it turns purple Tesf for glucose add benedict solution and it turns from light blue to orange red Test for fats add ethanol and it turns cloudy Know that energy input should approximately equal energy output; and that fat and carbohydrate provide most of the energy input of a balanced diet. The main energy source for living organisms are carbohydrates and fats. The energy input should equal the energy output consumed during activity Know that protein is an essential bodybuilding food.

Understand the uses in the human body of iron, calcium, vitamin C and vitamin D. Iron it is essential for making up haemoglobin in red blood cells to carry oxygen around the body Calcium for strong bones and teeth Vitamin C for immune system and connective tissue between cells Vitamin D for strong bones and teeth Know examples of foods, which are good sources of each of the components of a balanced diet. Carbohydrates: Pasta, bread, rice Proteins: fish, meat Fats: butter, milk, cheese. Oil Iron: spinach, fish, cereals Vitamin c: citric fruits Vitamin D: milk, butter Calcium: milk, butter Appreciate local dietary problems (e.g. too much fat, insufficient protein) and how these may affect health. Deficincies of iron: anemia Deficines of vitamin c: scurvy Deficiency of Vitamin D: rickets S3 BIOLOGY B.3. SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT Understand the importance of lignin in supporting woody parts of plants, and turgid cells and supporting non-woody parts of plants. Woody plants support is provided by a special lignin witch develops from the xylem which becomes the trunk on the other hand support in non woody plants is provided by cell turgor. This is causes by a high internal fluid pressure inside the cytoplasm witch pushes the cell membrane against the cell wall. However if there is not enough water in the cytoplasm the cell membrane shrinks and the stem becomes wilt or flaccid Know that the skeleton of a mammal is made of bone and cartilage, and appreciate the differences in properties of these substances.

Bone is made of calcium. It is hard and very resistant and because its function is to support and to give movement to the organism. On the other hand cartilage is made of a soft spongy material as it function is to absorb shocks and reduce frictions between bones. Know the structure of the skeleton and muscles of the human forearm (ulna, radius, humerus, scapula, tendons, biceps and triceps only) + understand how the antagonistic muscles and bones act together to flex or extend the arm.

- Tendon: connects muscle to bone - Ligament: connects bone to bones - Cartilage: made of soft spongy material witch reduces friction between bones - Synoval fluid: found at bone joints and its function is to reduce friction between bones. - Antagonistic Muscles: biceps and triceps are antagonistic muscles when one contract the other one relax Types of joints: Ball and sockets for example the shoulder. It allows circular movement in 360o Hinge joints for example the elbow or the knee. It allows movement in only one plane for example up and down. Know that a joint occurs where two bones meet. A synovial joint allows the movement of two bones. Cartilage and synovial fluid, reduce friction between the bones.

Be able to appreciate that the contraction of the biceps produces a turning effect with the elbow joint as pivot.

When the bicep contracts it pulls up the forearm producing a turning effect Understand the small dist. between the attachment of the biceps + the pivot means that a large force is required to produce a large effect + be able to relate this to the ability of muscles to produce large forces + their inability to contract over large distances. B.9 DIGESTION Understand that digestion breaks large molecules of food into small ones, which can then pass through the wall of the gut into the blood. Digestion is the break down of food from large molecules to small soluble molecules of food. It can be by mechanical digestion or chemical digestion. Its important so that nutrients can be absorbed, transported in the blood stream and finally assimilated by cells to be used for metabolism. Remember that only soluble substances can enter the blood! Appreciate that the gut is a coiled tube, and is the site of digestion and absorption. The gut is a coiled tube that starts in the mouth and ends in the anus. Here, digestion (using enzymes) and absorption of nutrients (in the small intestine) takes place. Know the internal structure of a human tooth. Different types of human teeth are used when feeding. - Incisors: for cutting the food (they are flat and sharp with small surface are that acts like a knife) - Canines: are long and end in a sharpy point usually to tear food. - Molars Pre-molars : are Mountainous and they grind the food (Smashing)

Understand the role of bacteria forming acids in the mouth leading to tooth decay.

Bacteria + Food remains = Plaque (bacteria uses the food and produce acids). Bacteria use the remains of food in the teeth and produce acids during respiration. These acids react with the calcium in the enamel and cause tooth decay. When the acids pass through the dentine reach the nerve ending the cause tooth ache. Be able to identify the gross structure of the alimentary canal and its associated organs (mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, rectum, anus, pancreas, liver).

Appreciate that food is moved along the gut by peristalsis. The gut has circular muscles which contract and relax pushing the bolus downwards. Appreciate that digestion is brought about by enzymes, acting as catalysts. Enzymes are biological catalysts which increase the rate of reaction. Enzymes work with specific substances and with specific temperatures and pH. For example all enzymes working in the human body for digestion work best at 37 oC. Other enzymes work best with acidic conditions, such as pepsin which work with low pH conditions in the stomach. Know the functions of amylase, protease and lipase. Amylase breaks down starch (carbohydrates) into glucose, it is produced by salivary glands in the mouth and pancreas.. . Proteases break down polypeptides (proteins) into amino acids (Proteases are produced in the stomach and in the pancreas).

Lipase break down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol (produced in the pancreas). Bile its not an enzyme but is a liquid produced by the liver! And stored in the gall bladder which helps to digest fats (it helps to break fat into tiny droplets increasing surface area) Know that the small intestine is the site of absorption of the products of digestion. The small intestine has finger like structures which increase the surface area for absorbing the food. The small intestine is responsible for the absorption of nutrients (glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol) Know that indigestible food, such as fibre, is removed through the anus by the process of digestion. Fibre is a type of food which can not be digested by humans because humans dont have the necessary enzymes to break them down. Fibre keeps the gut moving and prevents constipation. Fiber can not be digested so it is egested through the anus together with other undigested food in the form of faeces. B.10. RESPONDING TO CHANGES IN THE ENVIRONMENT Appreciate that external stimuli can be detected by organisms, and may result in responses which may increase the chances of the organisms survival. All living organisms have receptors to detect stimuli from the surroundings (light, temp, pressure, smell, sound, taste) in this way the organism can increases its chances of survival. The but emits a sound that then bounds then he detects them with his ears and them creates an image of the surroundings in this way he can detect preys and shelter. So the but can feed and hide from predators and increase the chances of survivor.

Know that the human nervous system is made of the central nervous system (CNS - brain and spinal cord) and many nerves, which carry messages from receptors or to effectors.

Reflex Arc: Stimuli receptor sensory neuron CNS relay neuron motor neuron effectors (muscle of gland) response When it is a reflex action the nerve impulse only reaches the spinal cord to make it faster (automatic response)

Know the structure of the human eye, and understand how light is focused onto the retina.

How light converges through a lens to form a focused image on the retina

Appreciate that receptors, such as those in the retina of the eye, convert a stimulus into an impulse in a nerve fiber. This impulse is carried to the CNS, which may the send an impulse to effectors. The retina has many light sensitive cells which can detect light stimuli. There are rods (detect black and white) and cones (colours) this information is send as a nerve impulse thought the optic nerve to the CNS. Regulating the amount of light entering in the eye The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye by regulating the size of the pupil.

If there is too much light entering the eye the retina detects the stimuli, sends a nerve impulse thought the nerve fiber to the CNS. The CNS sends a message through a motor neuron to the effectors (iris muscle) in this case the iris makes the pupil contract so that less light enter the eye. This is important so the retina doesnt get damage. In this case circular muscles contract and radial muscles relax. In dim light the opposite occurs, the circular muscles relax and radial muscles contract, dilating the pupil to allow more light in the eye.

Accommodation (Forming focused image on retina) The ciliary muscles are responsible for changing the thickness of the lens to focus the image, if the object is far away the ciliary muscles relax to make the lens thinner. If the object is close to the eye the ciliary muscles contract to make the lens thicker. This occurs because the light has to be bent more in order to form the focused image

Know that the shoot of a plant grows towards the light, and appreciate that there must be a receptor and an effector involved in this response. Plants also respond to the environment. When the seed germinates and the shoot is growing it tends to grow towards light (response) this because light is needed for photosynthesis to produce food which increases the chances of survival of the plant. The hormone auxin accumulates on the side of the shoot which is not receiving sunlight. The presence of auxin makes the cells on this side of the shoot to grow over size. This generates a bend of the shoot towards the light.

Know the structure of a motor neurone, and appreciate how its structure is related to its function.

the function of the motor neuron is to transport a nerve impulse from the CNS to an effector to generate a response.

it has a large cell body in the CNS which has dendrites to connect to other cells it has a long axon to transport nerve impulse through long distances it has terminals which are connected to the effectors

B.11 HOMEOSTASIS Appreciate that cells function most efficiently under particular conditions of temperature, water and glucose concentration. Know that the maintenance of the internal environment is called homeostasis. Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a constant internal environment. This includes regulation of body temperature, water levels and glucose concentration in blood. Homeostasis is important as living cells function more efficiently under specific conditions, specially as they work with enzymes. For example body temperature must be kept at 37oC as the enzymes work best at this temperature (for example, digestion). Know that mammals maintain a constant internal body temp despite fluctuations in environmental temp. When the temperature is too high: Sweat: sweat glands release sweat and when this evaporate take away heat with it (body cools down). Vasodilatation (Skin turns red): Arterioles dilate, so more blood enters the capillaries which ARE near to the skin, this make the body release heat by radiation (vasodilation). Capillaries dont move out or in!!!! When the temperature is to low: Shiver: involuntary muscles contracting to produce heat Goose bumps (due to hair standing) Hair stands: it creates space in which air enter in and warm up (air acts like a layer of insulation which prevents heat loss). Vasoconstriction (Pale):Arterioles contract so less blood enters the capillaries so they dont loose heat by radiation. (vasoconstriction). Increase breathing rate to produce more heat?

Know that mammals regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood. Understand the secretion of insulin by the pancreas reduces high blood glucose levels and that failure of this mechanism may lead to diabetes.

 When glucose levels are too high: Pancreas releases insulin. Insulin is a hormone that when it is produced it sends a message to our cells to start using the glucose (for cell respiration) and makes the liver turn glucose in the blood into glycogen (a lot of glucose molecules) for storage (in the liver). When glucose levels are low, pancreas releases glucagon, which makes the liver turn glycogen back to glucose and releases it into the blood so the body could use it. A person that fails to produce insulin suffers diabetes. The symptoms that diabetes make happen are: Frequent urination, Excessive thirst, Extreme hunger, Unusual weight loss, Increased fatigue, Irritability, Blurry vision Know urea is nitrogenous waste product formed in the liver from excess proteins and excreted by the kidneys in urine. Excess amino acids (from a rich protein diet) are processed in the liver. They are converted first into ammonia. However ammonia is very poisonous so it is converted into urea. Urea goes into the blood and it is taken to the kidneys. In the kidneys urea is excreted in urine through the urethra. Urine is made up of urea, water, used hormones and salts. In a hot day, your body needs more water so the urine is excreting a lot of urea and not so much water. B.12 REPRODUCTION Know that asexual reproduction produces offspring that are identical to the parent Asexual reproduction only involves one parent; therefore the offspring are identical to the parent. It usually occurs in bacteria, amoeba or cells during cells division. It involves the division of the entire cell, including the genetic material (chromosomes containing DNA) therefore the resultant offspring is identical (has the same DNA) Know sexual reproduction involves a mobile male gamete (sperm) fusing with a stationary female gamete (egg) In sexual reproduction there are two parents. The parents have sex organs which produce sex cells (gametes). In animals the male sex cells are the sperms, produced by the testes and are mobile. On the other hand the female sex cell is the egg, produced by the ovary which is stationary. During reproduction the sperm moves and enters the egg. This is called fertilization. Know the reproductive parts of an insect-pollinated flower and their functions Petal: Petals are used to attract insects into the flower; they may have guidelines on them and be scented. Stigma: Is covered in a sticky substance that the pollen grains will adhere to. Style: It connects the stigma with the ovary. Once the pollen

reaches the stigma, it releases a pollen tube that travels through the style, to reach the ovule and fertilize it. Ovary: This protects the ovule and once fertilization has taken place it will become the fruit. Ovule: The Ovule is like the egg in animals and once fertilization has taken place will become the seed. Nectary: This is where a sugary solution called nectar is held to attract insects. Sepal: Sepals protect the flower while the flower is developing from a bud. Filament: This is the stalk of the Anther. Anther: The Anthers contain pollen sacs. The sacs release pollen on to the outside of the anthers that brush against insects on entering the flowers. The pollen once deposited on the insect is transferred to the stigma of another flower or the same flower. The ovule is then able to be fertilized. Know the differences between pollination and fertilization in flowering plants Pollination: the transfer of a pollen grain from the anther to the stigma. Fertilization: is the fusion of gametes (sex cells) (nuclei). Flowers can be self pollinated (pollen carried from the anther to the stigma of the same flower), or cross pollinated (pollen carried from an anther to a stigma of another flower) Difference between insect and wind pollinated flowers Wind pollinated Anther and stigma are outside the flower No large petals Pollen grains are produced in greater quantity and are small and dry

Insect Pollinated Anther and stigma are inside flower Have large and colour petals to attract the insects Pollen grains are produced in less quantity but are large and sticky

Know the formation of seed and fruit from ovule and ovary After fertilization, the ovule of the flower becomes the seed and the ovary becomes the fruit, with the seed inside it Know the importance of seed dispersal and several examples of animal and wind-dispersed seeds or fruits For flowering plants, seed dispersal is important to reduce competition between their offspring and themselves for sunlight, water, minerals in the soil, and carbon dioxide in the air. Wind dispersed seed Dandelion has parachutes that flow in the wind. Sycamore has wings which carry them long distances in the wind. Animal dispersed seeds

 Fruits like blackberries are eaten by animals such as mice or squirrels. The seeds passed unaffected through their digestive system and are deposited far away from the parent plant when they excreted in feces. Burdock has hooks which attach on animals fur or feathers. The seeds can be carried long distances before falling off. Know the structure of a bean seed (testa, micropyle, cotyledons, plumule, radicle only)

Seed coat contains testa Plumule young shoot Radicle young root Micropyle water goes through there Cotyledon contains stored food (starch) Know the conditions needed for germination of seeds Without air the plant will not get oxygen and every single cell needs the process of respiration to survive We also need water for chemical reaction to take place. The seed also needs warmth temperatures because the functions of some parts on the seeds work better at a constant temperature Asexual - One parent (individual) - No gametes needed - Involve mitosis - Identical offspring (clones) - No variation - Fast - Large number produced Sexual - Two parents - Two gametes needed (female/male) - Involve meiosis - Offspring is different from parents - Variation increases chances of survival - Slow - Short number produced

S4 BIOLOGY B.1. THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION AND THE DIVERSITY OF ORGANISMS Appreciate why organisms are classified into groups

All living organisms are classified into groups so that they can be identified. A scientific name is assigned to them for the following reasons. - because the common name used to identify organisms is different in different languages - some times the same common name is used to identify organisms of different species - Some living organisms dont even have a common name. The order of classification is the following: Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species King Peter called Orasio to see family guy series Be able to use the binomial system of naming organisms. Know binomial names for 2 different organisms. The binomial system is the scientific name made of the genus and the species. The genus is always in capital letters. Lion = Panthera leo Horse = Equs caballus Appreciate that organisms belong to different species, which are discrete breeding groups. Only organisms belonging to the same species can breed to produce fertile offspring. However there are some exceptions of organisms belonging to the same genus with different species such as the horse and the donkey, which produce a mule which is infertile and cannot reproduce. Be able to use a simple dichotomous identification key.

Know main features of the 5 main classes of vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) Fish: they have scales on skin breath through gills have moist skin have fins lay eggs for external fertilization Amphibians: no covering on skin smooth moist skin breath through skin offspring are very different from mature specimen they have lungs lay eggs for external fertilization Reptiles: cover with scales breath through lungs dry skin they have internal fertilization

Birds: no scales on skin have feathers, beak and wings they breath through lungs have internal fertilization and lay eggs Mammals: they have their body covered with hair or fair they breath through lungs they have internal fertilization they dont lay eggs and mothers milk their young with mammary glands most of them have their offspring inside the female body and fits through the placenta Know the main features of three classes of arthropods (insects, crustaceans and arachnids only). Insects: body divided into head, thorax and abdomen they have three pairs of legs two pairs of wings they have antennae Crustaceans: They have two pairs of antennae They have many pairs of legs Their body is made of a combined head and thorax region, known as cephalothoraxes Arachnids: they have cephalothoraxes and abdomen 4 pairs of legs no wings B.13 HUMAN REPRODUCTION Know the structure of the male and female reproductive systems

Know that adolescence is controlled by hormones produced by the testes or ovaries: that the male sex hormone is testosterone, while the female sex hormones are estrogen and progesterone

Testosterone is produced on the testis. It is in charge of male secondary characteristics, such as growth of pubic hair, growth of hair in the armpits, change in voice, muscles development, and the production of sperm. Estrogen: is produced on the girls ovaries. It is in charge of female secondary characteristics like the growth of the breast, for hips more rounded, growth of pubic hair, and her ovaries start releasing eggs. It is responsible for the reconstruction of the uterus lining and to keep it thick. Progesterone: it is produced by the corpus luteum. It is responsible for keeping the walls of the endometrium thick and make it ready for implantation. Follicle stimulating hormone: it is released by the pituitary gland in the brain. It stimulates the growth of the graafian follicle Luteinising hormone: it is released by the pituitary gland in the brain. It stimulates the release of the egg to the fallopian tube. Know the changes in the ovary and uterus through the menstrual cycle

The first five days of the menstrual cycle are when the woman menstruates. Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates the developments of the egg. Leutanising hormone stimulus the release of the egg when the egg is ready (ovulation). This occurs during day 14. The first process is ovulation. This is the process when the ovule is release into the fallopian tube. Estrogen is released by the ovary. It reconstructs the uterus lining and makes it thick. While the egg is in the fallopian tube, it can become fertilized (and the woman becomes pregnant). In this case, the corpus luteum releases progesterone which maintains the linning of the uterus thick. This make the uterus to be prepare for implantation. Implantation occurs when egg lands on the uterus. If fertilization has not taken place, the corpus luteum stops releasing progesterone and the walls of the uterus will become thin again and break apart. The tissue and the unfertilized egg are removed through the vagina during the period of bleeding. Understand the biological aspects of sexual intercourse, fertilisation and implantation

During the sexual intercourse the mans penis becomes stiff and erect. He moves it backwards and forwards inside the womans vagina. This causes semen to pump from his testes, through his penis, into the womans body. Fertilization is when the sperm nucleus and the ovum nucleus join. This occurs in the fallopian tube. Implantation is when the embryo sinks into the thick lining womb. Know the protection given to the embryo by the amnion: the role of the placenta in allowing transfer of materials to and from the foetus

The embryo is inside the amniotic sac, which is filled with amniotic fluid. This protects the embryo against movement and shocks. The placenta is in charge of the transfer of materials by diffusion between the mother and the foetus. The substances that are given from the mother to the baby are oxygen, glucose and nutrients. The substances given from the foetus to the mother are carbon dioxide and urea. Understand the process of birth

Birth begins with muscle contraction at the uterus from the top and sides. The contractions start pushing the babies head through the cervix into the vagina, until it is

moved out of the mothers body. When the baby has born, the uterus continues contracting making the placenta live the mothers body with the baby (this is called afterbirth). Understand the methods of transmission of the HIV virus and how the spread of AIDS may be limited HIV is transmitted in the following ways: Blood transfusion Sharing dirty needles From infected mother to babies through placenta Sexual intercourse Prevention Using contraceptives (condoms) Education campaigns to learn about ways of transmission and prevention AIDS is the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. HIV is the human immunodeficiency virus. Appreciate the world population is growing rapidly and that birth control can help to limit this growth.

There are many ways which births can be controls. They can be control chemically, using the intrauterine device, surgical and natural. Chemical: take a pill 28 days, pill which will control levels of estrogen and progesterone (this will make ovulation no to occur), morning after pill and spermisides which will kill the sperms release in the vagina. Intrauterine device: placed in the uterus by the doctor, produce ions which obstruct and cause the zygote difficulties to implantate Surgical: Vasectomy the sperm duct is cut and tied. For female oviducts are cut and tied. Natural: avoind intercourse during fertile days, measuring the temperature of the vagina (it rises during ovulation), withdrawl (coitus interrups). B.14. INHERITANCE Appreciate variation shown by organisms is partly inherited and partly results from environmental influences. Variation in an organism is caused by inheritance of genes of both parents. Variation can be also caused by environmental influence such as skin color, muscle contexture and diet. Know that chromosomes are found in the nucleus and that genes are carried on chromosomes. Genes are coded instructions for making proteins. DNA is the chemical, which stores the coded instructions. In an organism all the characteristics are found in the DNA. DNA is found in chromosomes which is in the nucleus. In the chromosomes we find the genes. Genes have the instructions for making specific proteins which are responsible for the all the characteristics. Appreciate gametes contain half the normal number of chromosomes, and that fertilisation restores the normal number. Gametes refers to the sex cells of an organ. It contains half the number of chromosomes. For this reason during fertilization (fusion of the male and female

gametes) the normal number of chromosomes is restored. For example humans have 46 chromosomes but in the sperm there are only 23 as well as the ovum. Understand the meaning of the terms dominant, recessive, phenotype, genotype, allele, homozygote, heterozygote, mutation.

Dominant: the allele that is always shown physically either in homozygous and heterozygous. For example(T = tall & t = short) Tt or TT Recessive: the allele that is only expressed in homozygous. For example tt. Phenotype: are the physical or expressed characteristics. For example tall or short. Genotype: the combination of alleles that results in a particular phenotype For example TT, Tt, tt. Allele: different forms of a gene. It can be dominant or recessive Homozygous: when there are two dominants or two recessive Heterozygous: when there is one allele dominant and one allele recessive Mutation: It can be chromosome mutation or gene mutation. Chromosome mutation is a change in the number or size of chromosomes in the cells of the organism. Gene mutation is a change in the order of bases in the DNA within a gene. A gene mutation can only occur in DNA.

Be able to calculate and predict the results of a simple cross involving 1:1 or 3:1 ratios. T t T TT Tt t Tt tt

This has a ratio of 3 (tall):1(short) 75%:25% t t T Tt Tt t tt tt

This ratio is 1 (tall):1(short) 50%:50% Know one example of an inherited disease (e.g. cystic fibrosis, thalassaemia, sickle-cell anaemia) Sickle cell anaemia: It is a recessive gene that makes red blood cells have a sickle shape instead of the normal donut shape. This reduces the capacity of the red blood cell to carry oxygen. It causes tiredness. Understand that modern cloning techniques .e.g. tissue culture, enable production of plants with identical genes. Appreciate this can have benefits to agriculture.

Ovule cell is removed from the female. All the DNA is extracted. A normal cell from an other organism that you want to clone is extracted and fuse into the empty ovule cell. Then the fused cell is placed in the uterus. Understand the differences between continuous and discontinuous variation, and be able to describe 1 example of each in humans.

Discontinuous: you are born with the characteristic or not, it doesnt change through time (i.e. eye colour, shape of ear lobe, rolling tongues) Continuous: characteristic which may change in time (height, weight, skin colour) Appreciate that mutation may occur naturally, but that the chances of mutation are increased by exposure to ionising radiation. Exposure to radiation increases the chances of mutation in DNA to occur. Understand that mutation in a body cell is likely to be harmless unless it leads to uncontrolled division of the cell (cancer), but that a mutation in a gameteforming cell may be passed on to offspring. Mutation in body cells may result in cancer. Cell starts to duplicate uncontrollably, forming a tumor. This type of mutation cannot be inherited (passed to offspring). However, if mutation occurs in gamete, the change will be inherited by offspring. Appreciate that genetic engineering may involve the transfer of desirable genes into crop plants or animals farmed for food, + be able to discuss some of the poss. problems associated with genetic engineering. (Details of techniques or processes not required.) B.15. EVOLUTION (no core objectives) Understand that organisms vary, and that some variations give advantages over others in the struggle for existence Variations in organisms often results in characteristics in the organisms which make them more fit to survive to their environment. In a population of moths it was discovered that black moths had a greater chance of survival than white moths. The black moths where more difficult to be spotted by predatory birds (because smoke form industry made walls of buildings darker and the moths could camouflage here). Black moths have more chances of survival, so they are not predated and therefore can pass on their genes to offspring, which will be better adapted. On the other hand, numbers of white moths will gradually decline because they will be more predated, therefore they will not be able to pass on their genes which are less fit for survival. This is known as natural selection. Variations in organisms increase their chances of survival if they make them more fit to find food or to escape from predators.

Understand that variations caused by genes can be passed on to offspring, and that genes conferring advantageous adaptation are more likely to be passed on than others.

Variations caused by genes during reproduction may result in advantageous changes or adaptations to the environment which may make organisms more fit to survive in their environment. Those organisms will, in turn, have more chances of survival and will therefore be able to pass these genes which are more suited to the environment.

Know the term natural selection.

Natural selection consists in the idea that only those organisms which are better adapted to their environment will be able to survive and pass on their genes to future

generations. Those less well adapted will not survive and will not pass their bad genes. Understand that, if the environment changes, different genes may become advantageous, so leading to a change in the characteristics of a population or organisms. Environmental changes such as climatic changes (temperature, amount of rainfall), type of vegetation, type of soil, etc. are factors that affect the chances of survival of organisms. In this case, different genes and variations among the organisms may turn out to be more advantageous than others. Such organisms will be better adapted and therefore will have greater chances of survival, and therefore reproduce to pass on their genes. In this way, the characteristics of the entire population can gradually change until that characteristic becomes predominant (as it is the most fit for survival). Example of moths. As all white moths were predated, only black moths tended to survive and reproduce and eventually, all the population is black (even if this was a recessive gene in the first place).

Know one example of natural selection (e.g. peppered moths in Britain). Understand artificial selection, with reference to one type of crop plant or animal.

Is done by humans particularly for agricultural purposes to grow only a reduce variety of crops. In this way humans adapt the environmental conditions so that they are fit for the particular crops species, even if that species is not naturedly suited to survive in such environment B.16. ORGANISMS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT Know that the ecosystem is the habitat and the community considered together. Know that organisms are adapted to their environment.

Population: all the people inhabiting a specific area. Species: a fundamental category of taxonomic classification, ranking below a genus or subgenus and consisting of related organisms capable of interbreeding. Community: the region occupied by a group of interacting organisms Habitat: the area or environment where an organism or ecological community normally lives or occurs. Ecosystem: an ecological community together with its environment, functioning as a unit.

All the living organisms living in a particularly environment have special features which make them adapted to survive in such environment. e.g. xerophytic vegetation they are adapted to survive in condition with very little water. Cacti have spines instead of leafs to reduce water loss, other have thicker waxy cuticles in leafs, they can have deep roots to reach for underground water or shallow but wide spread roots to catch little rain water.

Know that the growth of a population of organisms may be limited by environmental factors such as food supply or predation.

The population size of any organism will be limited by environmental factors such as food supply or predation.

Food supply: if the food supply of the organism becomes more abundant then the population will increase however if the food supply becomes scarce the population will decrease. e.g. hawk feeds on fish. If fish population decreases (over fishing or change in water currents) population of hawks will decrease Predation: if the number of predators decreases, the population o the organism below in the food chain will increase at the same time if number of predators increases, the population declines. e.g. if spiders are predators of ants, if the population of spider decreases then the population of ants will increase. Understand energy enters an ecosystem in sunlight, which is transferred to energy in plants by PHS. This energy is then passed along in food chains.

A food chain represents the flow of energy from one organism to another through feeding. At the start of the chain we find producers (plants). They convert sun light energy into chemical energy stored in glucose molecules through the process of photosynthesis

Know the role of producers, consumers, and decomposers in food chains and webs.

Producers: they are called autotrophs because they produce their own food; they convert sunlight into chemical energy by photosynthesis. Consumers: they are called heterotrophs because they feed on other organisms below them in the food chain, they can be primary, secondary or tertiary consumers. They are in charge of passing the energy along the food chain. Decomposers: they are responsible for returning many nutrients back to soil from dead plants and animals. These nutrients are used again by producers for photosynthesis and growth. Understand that energy losses occur along a food chain. Every time energy is passed from one organism to another along the food chain, energy is lost in the way during metabolic reactions like respiration and digestion an also during movement and growth. This results in a smaller population of those organisms at the end of the food chain because they receive less energy Be able to interpret population growth curves with respect to one or more limiting environmental factors.

Be able to interpret pyramids of numbers and biomass, and relate these to the loss of energy along food chains.

In number pyramids the number of organisms decreases by 10 as you move up. This occurs because along the food chain energy is always lost.

In a biomass pyramid shows how much of mass would support an organism.

Discuss advantages of eating plant rather than animal products in terms of the amounts of energy available in a food chain

Organisms that feed on plants receive more energy (primary consumers) in relation to other consumers further of the chain, which will receive smaller amounts of energy as energy is lost along the food chain B.17. CYCLES AND THE EFFECTS OF HUMANS ON THE ENVIRONMENT Understand the carbon cycle. Understand how deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels can increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Appreciate that this may lead to global warming. The increase in the burning of fossil fuels results in an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere. The combustion of fossil fuels produces CO2. Similarly increase in deforestation also leads to an increase of CO2 in the atmosphere. Trees are responsible for absorbing CO2 and realizing oxygen instead. An increase in the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere contributes to the greenhouse effect which leads to global warming The green house effect is caused by the layer of carbon dioxide which accumulates in the atmosphere. The incoming solar radiation is reflected from the surface of the earth and then the layer of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere reflects the radiation back to earth, trapping the heat radiation Understand the nitrogen cycle, including N fixation, the importance of soil nitrates, and denitrification. Understand why farmers may use N fertilisers.

1. Nitrogen fixation: Nitrogen fixing bacteria (found in roots) convert nitrogen in

the air (N2) into ammonia. This process is important because nitrogen, even though it makes 78% of the air it is unreactive (inert) and cannot be used by the plant in this form. Lightning can also convert nitrogen in the air into soluble nitrate ions, as the high temperatures generated by the lightning make nitrogen to be oxidized by oxygen in the air. 2. Decomposition of dead plants and animals adds ammonia to the soil. 3. Nitrification: nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites, and then into nitrates, which are soluble in water and can be absorbed by the plant through the roots. In this way, plants can take in nitrogen which is needed for making proteins needed for growth. 4. Denitrification: denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates back into nitrogen gas (N2) in the air.

Understand the water cycle and how it may be affected by deforestation.

Trees are in charge of transpiration which returns water vapour into the atmosphere. Without trees, rates of transpiration decrease and less water vapour can condense, resulting in a decrease in precipitation and making climate drier. This can ultimately affect ecosystems, as vegetation dies, affecting all the other organisms in food web. Also trees are responsible of interception of rainwater. Without trees, rainwater falls directly over soil. Unprotected soil quickly becomes saturated (as rates of precipitation exceed rates of infiltration), resulting in floods and surface run-off. This, in turn, results in leaching of nutrients and soil erosion. As a consequence, there is a decline in soil fertility and this affects the type and density of the vegetation. This will also have an impact on the ecosystem as it also affects food webs. Unprotected soil also becomes baked by intense heat from sun, forming an impermeable crust, which makes it very difficult for seeds to germinate. Appreciate that farmers may need to use pesticides and that this may endanger other living organisms.

Pesticides are used by farmers to protect their crops against insects or bacteria which may affect their crops. However, pesticides may dissolve in rainwater or irrigation water and seep into rivers by surface run-off or into an ecosystem outside the farm. If this occurs, insects living here may also die. This will affect the populations of all the other living organisms that are part of this food web, resulting in a disruption of the ecosystem. Know sulphur dioxide is produced by burning fossil fuels. Understand harmful effects of this gas on living organisms, inc. the effects of acid rain. Fossil fuels contain sulphur impurities. During combustion, sulphur becomes oxidized, forming sulphur dioxide. This gas rises into the atmosphere, mixes with rainwater and forms sulphuric acid. When it condenses, it falls as acid rain. Acid rain may increase acidity of soils and lakes, killing plants and animals. It can also cause corrosion of rocks and buildings.

Appreciate the need to conserve endangered species and their natural habitats. Be able to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using nitrogen fertilisers.

Nitrogen fertilizers are used to add nitrogen nutrients to soil. Crops need nitrogen to make proteins needed to grow larger and increase crop output for farmers. However, nitrogen fertilizers may also bring disadvantages. Fertilizers mix with rainwater or irrigation water and when they seep into rivers or lakes, they may cause eutrification (algal bloom). Algae grow uncontrollably and form a layer on top of water which prevents sunlight from reaching bottom of lake/river, killing aquatic vegetation and fish (damages ecosystem). A suitable alternative would be using animal manure, which is cheaper and is often an output of the same agriculture system, so it is a feedback (as it also works as an input). Understand how leaching of excess N fertilisers may damage aquatic ecosystems. Suggest alternatives to using of N fertilisers.

Ver la de arriba Be able to discuss alternative methods of pest control, with reference to one example.

Alternatives to pesticides: Using other insects that feed on the ones that are harmful to your crops (i.e. spiders). Introducing animals which may feed on harmful insects. Genetically modify crops to be more resistant to pests.