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Differentiation of functions,limits (II),
maximum, minimum, inflection points.
• Two special limits
• The derivative of
o f(x) for x = a
o f(x)
o Differentiable and continuous
• Formulas to calculate the derivative of
o A constant function
o f(x) = x
o The sum f(x) + g(x)
o The product f(x).g(x)
o The product of n differentiable functions.
Special product
Power of f(x)
o The quotient f(x)/g(x)
Important special case
o sin(x)
o cos(x)
o tan(x)
o cot(x)
o The chain rule
o Corollaries
o The inverse trigonometric functions
o Rational power of u = f(x)
The n-th root of x
The n-th root of u = f(x)
Rational power of x
A rational power of u = f(x)
o Logarithmic functions
o Exponential functions
o Real power of x
o uv
• Partial derivatives
o definition of partial derivatives
o Example of partial derivatives
• Extension of the chain rule
o Example:
• Implicit Differentiation
o Implicit functions
Example :
Implicit definition of a function
o Implicit differentiation
Concept of implicit differentiation
Example of implicit differentiation
Generalization
• Maximum and minimum values
o Relative maximum
o Relative minimum
o Roots of f'(x)
o Rolle's theorem
o Lagrange's theorem
o Constant functions
o Increasing functions
o Decreasing functions
o Relative maximum of a differentiable functions.
o Relative minimum of a differentiable functions.
o Detection of a relative maximum or relative minimum
o Example
• Concavity
o Concave upward
o Concave downward
o Points of inflection
• Theorem of Cauchy
• L'Hospitals rule and special limits
o Theorem 1
o Theorem 2
o Special limits - examples
sin(x)
lim ------- = 1
x->0 x
tan(x)
lim ------- = 1
x->0 x
Example :
lim ( cot(x) - 1/x) = lim ( 1/tan(x) - 1/x)
0 0
1 - tan(x)/x 1 - 1
= lim (--------------) = ------- = 0
0 tan(x)/x 1
The derivative of
f(x) for x = a
Say G is the graph of f(x) and point P(a,f(a)) is on G. Now, take a point Q(a+h,f(a+h)) on
G close to point P.
(f(a+h)-f(a))
The slope of PQ is ---------------
h
This slope can be viewed as the mean slope of G in the curve segment [PQ].
Now, let h become smaller and smaller. Then the line PQ approaches to the tangent line
to the curve at point P.
If the following limit exists and if it is real, then
(f(a+h)-f(a))
the slope of that tangent line = lim --------------
h->0 h
The last limit is called the derivative of f(x) at point P. This value is noted f'(a).
f(x)
(f(x+h)-f(x))
= lim ---------------
h->0 h
= f'(x) (notation)
df
= --- (notation)
dx
d
= --- f(x) (notation)
dx
If, for x = b, this limit is not a real number, then we say that the derivative does not exist
for x = b, or that f(x) is not differentiable for x = b.
.. A function is differentiable in [a,b] if it is differentiable for each x in [a,b].
Theorem:
If a function f(x) is differentiable for x = b, then f(x) is continuous for x = b.
Proof:
Since f(x) is differentiable for x = b, we have
(f(b+h)-f(b))
lim --------------- = a real number = f'(b)
h->0 h
Now,
f(b+h) - f(b)
lim f(b+h) = lim ( ---------------- .h + f(b) )
h->0 h->0 h
f(b+h) - f(b)
lim ( ---------------- .h ) + f(b)
= h->0 h
= f'(b) .0 + f(b)
= f(b)
Let x = b+h ; if h ->0 then x -> b
Take f(x) = c.
The slope of the tangent line in point p of a constant function is 0. So,
d
-- c = 0
dx
f(x) = x
d
-- x = 1
dx
(f(x+h)-f(x)) + (g(x+h)-g(x))
= lim -----------------------------
h->0 h
(f(x+h)-f(x)) (g(x+h)-g(x))
= lim --------------- + lim ---------------
h->0 h h->0 h
d d
= -- f(x) + -- g(x)
dx dx
d d d
-- (f(x)+g(x)) = -- f(x) + -- g(x) = f'(x) + g'(x)
dx dx dx
(g(x+h)-g(x)) (f(x+h)-f(x))
= lim (f(x+h). --------------- + g(x). --------------)
h->0 h h
= f(x).g'(x) + f'(x).g(x)
d
-- (f(x).g(x)) = f(x).g'(x) + f'(x).g(x)
dx
d
--(u.v.w) = u'.v.w + u.v'.w + u.v.w'
dx
Special product
Power of f(x)
u=f(x) is differentiable
d n d n-1
--( u ) = --(u.u.u. ... .u) = n.(u ).u'
dx dx
d
--( un ) = n.(un-1).u'
dx
f(x+h).g(x) - f(x).g(x+h)
= lim -----------------------------
h->0 h.g(x).g(x+h)
g(x).f'(x) - f(x).g'(x)
= -------------------------
g(x).g(x)
u=f(x) is differentiable
n (n-1)
d -n d 1 u . 0 - n.u .u' (-n-1)
--( u ) = -- (---) = --------------------- = -n.u .u'
dx dx n 2n
u u
sin(x)
d sin(x+h) - sin(x)
--sin(x) = lim ------------------
dx h->0 h
2.cos(x + h/2).sin(h/2)
= lim ------------------------
h->0 h
cos(x + h/2).sin(h/2)
= lim ------------------------
h->0 h/2
sin(h/2)
= lim cos(x + h/2).--------
h->0 h/2
= cos(x)
cos(x)
tan(x)
cot(x)
Take the function f(g(x)) en let u = g(x). Assume that f and g are differentiable.
d f(g(x+h)) - f(g(x))
--(f(g(x)) = lim ------------------
dx h->0 h
d d
= -- f(u) . -- g(x)
du dx
We can also write
d d
-- f(u) = -- f(u) . u'
dx du
This formula is known as the chain rule.
Corollaries
Appealing on the chain rule we have
d d
--sin(u) = -- sin(u) . u' = cos(u) . u'
dx du
d d
--cos(u) = -- cos(u) . u' = - sin(u) . u'
dx du
d d 1
--tan(u) = -- tan(u) . u' = ---------- . u'
dx du cos2(u)
d d 1
--cot(u) = -- cot(u) . u' = - -------- . u'
dx du sin2(u)
d
--(un ) = n . (un-1).u'
dx
...
d
--sin(u) = cos(u) . u'
dx
d
--cos(u) = - sin(u) . u'
dx
d 1
--tan(u) = ---------- . u'
dx cos2(u)
d 1
--cot(u) = - -------- . u'
dx s in2(u)
d
--(un ) = n . (un-1).u'
dx
First take arcsin(x) . We know that for x in [-1,1] sin( arcsin(x) ) = x. (1)
So, these two functions must have the same derivative.
Thus, we differentiate both sides of (1).
From previous formulas we have
d
cos( arcsin(x) ). --( arcsin(x) ) = 1 (2)
dx
But let b = arcsin(x). Then b is in [-pi/2,+pi/2] .
_____________ _______
| 2 | 2
cos(b) = \| 1 - sin (b) = \| 1 - x
________
| 2
Thus, cos( arcsin(x) ) = \| 1 - x
From (2) we can write now :
________
| 2 d
\| 1 - x . --( arcsin(x) ) = 1
dx
d 1
<=> --( arcsin(x) ) = -------------
dx _______
| 2
\| 1 - x
d 1
--( arcsin(u) ) = -------------.u'
dx _______
| 2
\| 1 - u
Analogous
d - 1
--( arccos(u) ) = -------------.u'
dx _______
| 2
\| 1 - u
d 1
--( arctan(u) ) = -------------.u'
dx 1 + x2
d - 1
--( arccot(u) ) = -------------.u'
dx 1 + x2
Rational power of u = f(x)
<=> ...
d (1/n) 1 1/n - 1
<=> -- (x ) = ---. (x )
dx n
Rational power of x
<=> ...
m
<=> = --- . xm/n - 1
Exponential functions
Real power of x
uv
See derivative of uv
Partial derivatives
definition of partial derivatives
Suppose we have a function f such that the image depends on several independent
variables, say x, y and z.
We write f(x,y,z).
Consider, for a moment, in such function f(x,y,z) y and z as constant, then f(x,y,z) only
depends on the variable x. Then, we can calculate the derivative with respect to x.
We note this derivative as
fx'(x,y,z)
Similarly we can calculate
fy'(x,y,z) and fz'(x,y,z)
f(x,y,z) = 3 x y - x z + 6 y -4
fx'(x,y,z) = 3 y - z
fy'(x,y,z) = 3 x + 6
fz'(x,y,z) = - x
Extension of the chain rule
Suppose we have a function f(x,y,z) such that x, y and z are not independent but functions
of a variable t. Then f is a function of t.
Suppose that x, y and z are differentiable functions of t. We denote the three derivatives
for short as x',y' and z'. We can calculate the derivative of f with respect to t with the
formula
d
--- f(x,y,z) = fx'(x,y,z) . x' + fy'(x,y,z) . y' +
fz'(x,y,z) . z'
dt
Example:
and x = 3t ; y = 5 t2 ; z = t3
Then
d
--- f(x,y,z) = (2x + y).3 + (x + z). 10t + (2z + y). 3t2
dt
= ...
= 6 t5 + 25 t4 + 45 t2 + 18 t
Implicit Differentiation
Implicit functions
Example :
or
x y = x + 5 y + 6
or
x y - x - 5 y - 6 = 0
Implicit differentiation
<=>
(x-5) y' = 1 - y
<=>
1 - y
y' = -----
x - 5
Previous procedure to calculate y' is called implicit differentiation
Generalization
We say that a function f(x) has a relative maximum for x = t if and only if there is a
strictly positive real number e such that f(x) =< f(t) for all x in ]t-e,t+e[ .
Often the word 'relative' is omitted.
Relative minimum
We say that a function f(x) has a relative minimum for x = t if and only if there is a
strictly positive real number e such that f(x) >= f(t) for all x in ]t-e,t+e[ .
Often the word 'relative' is omitted.
Roots of f'(x)
If f'(x) exists in an open interval that contains the value x = t, and suppose that f
reaches a maximum for x = t.
Then, f'(t) = 0.
Proof:
f'(x) exists for x = t
(f(t+h)-f(t))
=> lim --------------- = a number g
h->0 h
(f(t+h)-f(t)) (f(t+h)-f(t))
=> lim --------------- = g and lim --------------- = g
> 0 h < 0 h
=> g = 0
=> f'(t) = 0
In the same way we can prove :
If f'(x) exists in an open interval that contains the value x = t, and suppose that f
reaches a minimum for x = t.
Then, f'(t) = 0.
Rolle's theorem
If
• f is continuous in [a,b]
• f is differentiable in ]a,b[
• f(a) = f(b)
Proof:
If f is constant in [a,b], then the proof is trivial.
Then there is a number d in ]a,b[ such that f(d) is different from f(a) and f(b).
Suppose first that f(d) > f(a). Since f is continuous in [a,b], f attains, according to
Weierstrass, a greatest image.
Thus, there is a c-value in ]a,b[ such that f(c) is maximum and since f is differentiable in ]
a,b[, f'(c) = 0.
In the same way, you can prove the theorem for f(d) < f(a).
Lagrange's theorem
If
• f is continuous in [a,b]
• f is differentiable in ]a,b[
Proof:
The equation of PQ is
f(b) - f(a)
y - f(a) = -------------- (x - a)
b - a
<=>
f(b) - f(a)
y = f(a) + -------------- (x - a)
b - a
Now, we consider three functions
f : x --> y = f(x)
f(b) - f(a)
g : x --> y = f(a) + -------------- (x - a)
b - a
We apply Rolle's theorem on the function h(x). There is a c-value in ]a,b[ such that h'(c) =
0;
f(b) - f(a)
= f'(x) - 0 - ------------- .1
b - a
There is a c-value in ]a,b[ such that
f(b) - f(a)
f'(c) - ------------- = 0
b - a
<=>
f(b) - f(a)
f'(c) = ------------
b - a
Constant functions
Theorem:
If f'(x) = 0 for all x in [a,b]
Then f(x) is constant in [a,b].
Proof:
Take two values c and d in [a,b]. We'll show that f(c) = f(d).
Since f'(x) exists for each x in [a,b], f'(x) exists in [c,d] and f(x) is continuous in [c,d].
We apply lagrange's-theorem in [c,d].
There is a value e in ]c,d[ such that
f(c) - f(d)
f'(e) = -------------
c - d
f(c) - f(d)
------------- = 0
c - d
Increasing functions
Theorem:
If f'(x) > 0 for all x in [a,b]
Then f(x) is increasing in [a,b].
Proof:
Take two values c < d in [a,b]. We'll show that f(c) < f(d). Since f'(x) exists for each x in
[a,b], f'(x) exists in [c,d] and f(x) is continuous in [c,d].
We apply lagrange's-theorem in [c,d].
There is a value e in ]c,d[ such that
f(c) - f(d)
f'(e) = -------------
c - d
f(c) - f(d)
------------- > 0
c - d
Decreasing functions
Theorem:
If f'(x) < 0 for all x in [a,b]
Then f(x) is decreasing in [a,b].
If f'(x) < 0 in a suitable interval ]t-e,t[ , the f(x) is decreasing at the left side of t.
If f'(x) > 0 in a suitable interval ]t,t+e[ , the f(x) is increasing at the right side of t.
Example
x | -1 0 1
---------------------------------------
f'(x) | + - - +
Concavity
Concave upward
Concave downward
If, in an interval, f"(x) < 0 , then f'(x) is decreasing. Then the slope of the tangent line is
decreasing with x. We say that f(x) is concave downward in that interval.
If, in an interval, f"(x) < 0 then f(x) is concave downward in that interval.
Points of inflection
Example:
f(x) = 3x5- 5x3 then f"(x) = 15(x4 - x2) = 30x(2x2- 1)
x | -sqrt(1/2) 0 sqrt(1/2)
----------------------------------------------------
f"(x) | - + - +
So,
for x < -sqrt(1/2) the graph is concave downward.
for -sqrt(1/2) < x < 0 the graph is concave upward.
for 0 < x < sqrt(1/2) the graph is concave downward.
for x > sqrt(1/2) the graph is concave upward.
The points where the concavity changes sign are the points with
x = -sqrt(1/2) ; x = 0 ; x = sqrt(1/2).
These points are called points of inflection.
The points where the concavity changes sign are the points of inflection.
Theorem of Cauchy
If f(x) and g(x) are continious in [a,b] and if f'(x) and g'(x) exist in ]a,b[ and have
no common roots in ]a,b[ , then there is a value c in ]a,b[ such that
f(b) - f(a) f'(c)
------------- = -------
g(b) - g(a) g'(c)
Proof:
Denote
f(b) - f(a)
------------- = K (1)
g(b) - g(a)
f'(x)
and lim ------- = can be found
a g'(x)
Then
f(x) f'(x)
lim ------ = lim -------
a g(x) a g'(x)
Proof :
f'(x)
First, suppose that lim ------- = finite = A
a g'(x)
Since f'(x) exists in the environment of a, f(x) is continuous in the environment of a and
lim f(x) = f(a)
a
But we have also that
lim f(x) = 0
a
Therefore f(a) = 0.
Similarly g(a) = 0.
With Cauchy's theorem, we can write in the same environment of a
f(x) f(x) - f(a) f'(c)
----- = ------------- = ------- with c between x and a.
g(x) g(x) - g(a) g'(c)
If x --> a , c --> a.
Now we take the limit of both sides for x --> a
f(x) f'(c)
lim ------ = lim ------- = A
a g(x) a g'(c)
f'(x)
Now, suppose that lim ------- = + infinity
a g'(x)
Then
g'(x)
lim ------- = +0
a f'(x)
g(x) g'(c)
lim ------ = lim ------- = +0
a f(x) a f'(c)
So,
f(x) f'(c)
lim ------ = lim ------- = + infinity
a g(x) a g'(c)
Theorem 2
If ( lim f(x) = lim g(x) = infinite )
a a
f'(x)
and lim ------- = can be found
a g'(x)
Then
f(x) f'(x)
lim ------ = lim -------
a g(x) a g'(x)
Proof:
f'(x)
First, suppose that lim ------- = finite = A
a g'(x)
With Cauchy's theorem, previous identity becomes, with b and x in the same environment
of a :
Then
g'(x)
lim ------- = +0
a f'(x)
and appealing on the first case
g(x) g'(c)
lim ------ = lim ------- = +0
a f(x) a f'(c)
So,
f(x) f'(c)
lim ------ = lim ------- = + infinity
a g(x) a g'(c)
• 0 0
•
• and from previous example
•
• = e0 = 1
•
•
•
• lim (cos(x))1/x
• 0
•
• = lim e(1/x).ln(cos(x))
• 0
•
• = elim (1/x).ln(cos(x))
•
•
• but lim (1/x).ln(cos(x))
• 0
• ln(cos(x))
• = lim ---------------
• 0 x
• -sin(x)/cos(x)
• = lim ---------------- = 0
• 0 1
•
• So lim (cos(x))1/x = e0 = 1
• 0
•