Consumer Surplus In this note we look at the importance of willingness to pay for different goods and services.

When there is a difference between the price that you actually pay in the market and the price or value that you place on the product, then the concept of consumer surplus becomes a useful one to look at. Defining consumer surplus Consumer surplus is a measure of the welfare that people gain from the consumption of goods and services, or a measure of the benefits they derive from the exchange of goods. Consumer surplus is the difference between the total amount that consumers are willing and able to pay for a good or service (indicated by the demand curve) and the total amount that they actually do pay (i.e. the market price for the product). The level of consumer surplus is shown by the area under the demand curve and above the ruling market price as illustrated in the diagram below:

Consumer surplus and price elasticity of demand When the demand for a good or service is perfectly elastic, consumer surplus is zero because the price that people pay matches precisely the price they are willing to pay. This is most likely to happen in highly competitive markets where each individual firm is assumed to be a price taker in their chosen market and must sell as much as it can at the ruling market price. In contrast, when demand is perfectly inelastic, consumer surplus is infinite. Demand is totally invariant to a price change. Whatever the price, the quantity demanded remains the same. Are there any examples of products that have such a low price elasticity of demand? The majority of demand curves are downward sloping. When demand is inelastic, there is a greater potential consumer surplus

because there are some buyers willing to pay a high price to continue consuming the product. This is shown in the diagram below:

Changes in demand and consumer surplus

When there is a shift in the demand curve leading to a change in the equilibrium market price and quantity, then the level of consumer surplus will alter. This is shown in the diagrams above. In the left hand diagram, following an increase in demand from D1 to D2, the equilibrium market price rises to from P1 to P2 and the quantity traded expands. There is a higher level of consumer surplus because more is being bought at a higher price than before. In the diagram on the right we see the effects of a cost reducing innovation which causes an outward shift of market supply, a lower price and an increase in the quantity traded in the market. As a result, there is an increase in consumer welfare shown by a rise in consumer surplus. Consumer surplus can be used frequently when analysing the impact of government intervention in any market for example the effects of indirect taxation on cigarettes consumers or the introducing of road pricing schemes such as the London congestion charge. Applications of consumer surplus Paying for the right to drive into the centre of London In July 2005, the congestion charge was raised to 8 per day. How has the London congestion charge affected the consumer surplus of drivers?

Transport for London has details on the impact of the congestion charge Consider the entry of Internet retailers such as Last Minute and Amazon into the markets for travel and books respectively. What impact has their entry into the market had on consumer surplus? Have you benefited from you perceive to be lower prices and better deals as a result of using e-commerce sites offering large discounts compared to high street retailers? Price discrimination and consumer surplus Producers often take advantage of consumer surplus when setting prices. If a business can identify groups of consumers within their market who are willing and able to pay different prices for the same products, then sellers may engage in price discrimination the aim of which is to extract from the purchaser, the price they are willing to pay, thereby turning consumer surplus into extra revenue. Airlines are expert at practising this form of yield management, extracting from consumers the price they are willing and able to pay for flying to different destinations are various times of the day, and exploitingvariations in elasticity of demand for different types of passenger service. You will always get a better deal / price with airlines such as EasyJet and RyanAir if you are prepared to book weeks or months in advance. The airlines are prepared to sell tickets more cheaply then because they get the benefit of cash-flow together with the guarantee of a seat being filled. The nearer the time to take-off, the higher the price. If a businessman is desperate to fly from Newcastle to Paris in 24 hours time, his or her demand is said to be price inelastic and the corresponding price for the ticket will be much higher. One of the main arguments against firms with monopoly power is that they exploit their monopoly position by raising prices in markets where demand is inelastic, extracting consumer surplus from buyers and increasing profit margins at the same time. We shall consider the issue of monopoly in more detail when we come on to our study of markets and industries.

Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution (MRTS):

Definition:
Prof. R.G.D. Alien and J.R. Hicks introduced the concept of MRS (marginal rate of substitution) in the theory of demand. The similar concept is used in the explanation of producers equilibrium and is named as marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS). Marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS) is: "The rate at which one factor can be substituted for another while holding the level of output constant". The slope of an isoquant shows the ability of a firm to replace one factor with another while holding the output constant. For example, if 2 units of factor capital (K) can be replaced by 1 unit of labor (L), marginal rate of technical substitution will be thus: MRS = K = 2 = 2 L 1

Explanation:
The concept of MRTS can be explained easily with the help of the table and the graph, below:

Schedule:
Factor Units of Combinations Labor A 1 B 2 C 3 D 4 E 5 Units of Capital 15 11 8 6 5 Units of Output of Commodity X 150 150 150 150 150 MRTS of Labor for Capital 4:1 3:1 2:1 1:1

It is clear from the above table that all the five different combinations of labor and capital that is A, B, C, D and E yield the same level of output of 150 units of commodity X, As we move down from factor A to factor B, then 4 units of capital are required for obtaining 1 unit of labor without affecting the total level of output (150 units of commodity X). The MRTS is 4:1. As we step down from factor combination B to factor combination C, then 3 units of capital are needed to get 1 unit of labor. The MRTS of labor for capital 3:1. If we further switch down from factor combination C to D, the MRTS of labor for capital is 2:1. From factor D to E combination, the MRTS of labor for capital falls down to 1:1.

Formula:
MRTSLK = K L It means that the marginal rate of technical substitution of factor labor for factor capital (K) (MRTS LK) is the number of units of factor capital (K) which can be substituted by one unit of factor labor (L) keeping the same level of output. In the figure 12.8, all the five combinations of labor and capital which are A, B, C, D and E are plotted on a graph.

Diagram/Graph:

The points A, B, C, D and E are joined to form an isoquant. The iso-product curve shows the whole range of factor combinations producing 150 units of commodity X. It is important to point out that ail the five factor combination of labor and capital on an iso-product curve are technically efficient combinations. The producer is indifferent towards these, combinations as these produce the same level of output.

Diminishing Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution:

The decline in MRTS along an isoquant for producing the same level of output is named as diminishing marginal rates of technical education. As we have seen in Fig. 12.8, that when a firm moves down from point (a) to point (b) and it hires one more labor, the firm gives up 4 units of capital (K) and yet remains on the same isoquant at point (b). So the MRTS is 4. If the firm hires another labor and moves from point (b) to (c), the firm can reduce its capital (K) to 3 units and yet remain on the same isoquant. So the MRTS is 3. If the firm moves from point (C) to (D), the MRTS is 2 and from point D to e, the MRTS is 1. The decline in MRTS along an isoquant as the firm increases labor for capital is calledDiminishing Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution.

Marginal rate of technical substitution

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In economics, the Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution (MRTS) - or Technical Rate of Substitution (TRS) - is the amount by which the quantity of one input has to be reduced ( x2) when one extra unit of another input is used (x1 = 1), so that output remains constant ( ).

where MP1 and MP2 are the marginal products of input 1 and input 2, respectively, and MRTS(x1,x2) is Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution of the input x1 for x2. Along an isoquant, the MRTS shows the rate at which one input (e.g. capital or labor) may be substituted for another, while maintaining the same level of output. The MRTS can also be seen as the slope of an isoquant at the point in question.