SAE TECHNICAL PAPER SERIES

1999-01-0659

Design and Fabrication of an Aluminum Engine Cradle for a General Motors Vehicle
Dino Triantos
General Motors Corporation

Matthew Michaels
RAMCO Manufacturing Company

International Congress and Exposition Detroit, Michigan March 1-4, 1999

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1999-01-0659

Design and Fabrication of an Aluminum Engine Cradle for a General Motors Vehicle
Dino Triantos
General Motors Corporation

Matthew Michaels
RAMCO Manufacturing Company
Copyright 1999 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.

ABSTRACT
Automotive manufacturers have intensified their efforts to increase vehicle fuel economy by reducing weight without sacrificing vehicle size and comfort. Vehicle areas that offer the potential to reduce weight include chassis structural components. A cradle or a subframe is a chassis structural component that is utilized to support the engine/powertrain in front wheel drive vehicles. Traditionally, engine cradles have been manufactured by using stamped steel weldments. Recently, automotive designers are considering alternative processes, i.e., hydroforming, as well as fabricating engine cradles using lightweight materials. The objective of this paper is to describe the development of an aluminum engine cradle for a General Motorss midsize vehicle. The design criteria and structural performance requirements for this cradle are presented along with an overview of the manufacturing processes used to produce this lightweight structural part. The aluminum cradle design is packaged for the current midsize vehicle architecture and the imposed requirement is to attain a structural performance that is comparable to the previous generation stamped steel cradle. Structural performance is evaluated in terms of stiffness, noise and vibration, strength, fatigue, crashworthiness, and corrosion resistance. The cradle assembly is made using high precision aluminum extrusions and stamped components. These components are machined, heat-treated, and welded to an assembly. The innovative design of these components achieved the objectives of this project. Specifically, Weight reduction of the cradle assembly by 30%. Satisfied structural performance requirements. Improved corrosion performance. Development of a manufacturing process suitable for high volume production. Reduction in tooling costs. 1

INTRODUCTION
A design study was initiated to determine if an aluminum engine cradle could replace an existing steel cradle within the same design envelope and simultaneously have an equal or superior structural performance. Structural performance is evaluated in terms of stiffness, noise and vibration, strength, fatigue, crashworthiness, and corrosion resistance. The basic design principles for aluminum are identical with those used for structural steel, but aluminum has only one-third the modulus of elasticity (70 GPa), and only one-third the density (2,700 Kg/m3) as compared to steel. This implies that for an aluminum structural component to have an equivalent flexural stiffness, the sectional moments of inertia need to be three times greater than those of steel. Typically, this is achieved by using appropriate increases in aluminum thickness and section sizes, coupled with efficient joining. Theoretically, a cradle structure can be designed that meets strength and stiffness targets at metal thicknesses about 1.5 times those of steel and still a 50% weight reduction can be achieved. In practice, this weight reduction can not be materialized because of tight vehicle packaging constraints. However, a significant reduction can be achieved if the designer considers a combination of larger section sizes and wall thicknesses. In general, increasing the sectional moments of inertia is not an easy task in a very tight underhood package. Aluminum extrusions permit great flexibility in aluminum section design, and an infinite variety of possible profile shapes can be extruded. Extruded aluminum beams have great advantages over stamped steel beams because they eliminate the welding along the length of the beam, and allow variable wall thicknesses across the profile section. Automotive components designed with aluminum extrusions offer the advantage of reducing part count, and extrusions are associated with low cost tooling. The extrusion dies are relatively inexpensive in comparison with steel stamping dies. Additionally, aluminum

has an advantage over steel because of its high strengthto-weight ratio and thus becomes an appealing option to applications where strength is an issue. The aluminum alloys selected for the engine cradle are from the 6000 series, which contain magnesium and silicon. These aluminum alloys are heat-treatable, with excellent corrosion resistance and demonstrated recyclability. Table 1 shows the typical mechanical properties for 6061-T4, 6061-T6, 6063-T4 aluminum and 1010 steel. Table 1. Typical mechanical properties for aluminum alloys and steel. Material Elastic Density Yield Ultimate Elong. Mod. (Kg/m3) Strength Tensile % (MPa) (GPa) (MPa) 6061-T4 70 6061-T6 70 6063-T4 70 1010 St 205 2,700 2,700 2,700 7,850 145 276 90 210 240 310 150 315 22 12 22 39

Provides protection to the powertrain components during incidental ground contacts. STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS The structural performance requirements for the aluminum cradle assembly include stiffness, NVH performance, crashworthiness, strength, fatigue, and corrosion resistance. Additionally, this section includes functional requirements such as ground clearances, weight, and temperature and fluid exposure. The design of the front cradle assembly for this midsize vehicle is based on these requirements. Static Stiffness For the given vehicle packaging constraints, the aluminum cradle should meet the following static stiffness requirements. Table 2 shows the static stiffness requirements for the suspension, steering gear, and powertrain attachments. Table 2. Static stiffness requirements for the aluminum cradle. Location Front LCA Attach. Rear LCA Attach. Steering Attach. Engine Mount Transaxle Mount F/A (KN/ mm) 45.0 14.0 5.0 28.0 19.0 Lateral (KN/mm) 20.0 20.0 25.0 4.0 5.0 Vertical (KN/mm) 2.0 4.0 5.0 4.0 2.0

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
This section describes the functional and performance benefits achieved using extruded aluminum. The aluminum engine cradle is designed to fit the unmodified current midsize vehicle architecture with adequate assembly clearances, and to provide the desired powertrain and suspension performance. The vehicle package configuration, suspension geometry, steering rack geometry, and powertrain motion define the design envelope of the cradle. PART FUNCTIONALITY The primary function of the engine cradle is to provide structural support for the various vehicle subsystems. The cradle forms the backbone upon which the entire chassis and powertrain is assembled. Specifically, the aluminum engine cradle performs the following vehicle functions: Supports and locates accurately and repeatedly the following components relative to the body structure: 1. Powertrain assembly at the engine and transmission mounts. 2. Front suspension lower control arms. 3. Front suspension stabilizer bar. 4. Steering gear and p/s cooling lines. Provides local attachment stiffness for the above components so that they function properly. Contributes to overall vehicle structural rigidity and acts as a structural element in barrier impacts. Aids in the assembly (marriage) of the chassis to the body structure. Provides vehicle-shipping attachments for both domestic and export (truck haul-way slots and overseas tie-downs). 2

NVH Performance The aluminum cradle structure must have all its vibration modes above 65 Hz (in free-free condition). This requirement improves vehicle isolation at lower frequency range by eliminating resonance conditions induced by road excitation. Additionally, the aluminum cradle structure must have at least 20 dB mobility mismatch at all isolated interfaces. These isolated interfaces are the suspension, powertrain, and body structure attachment points. Mobility is defined as the ratio of velocity response to a force input at a point, over some frequency domain, typically 0-800 Hz. This mobility requirement assesses the level of noise that can be transmitted across the attachment interface. Crashworthiness The aluminum cradle structure under frontal impacts, must absorb kinetic energy, and deform under a crush load of 30 KN. Buckle points must be designed that allow the cradle structure to fold in a specific and consistent collapse mode. Additionally, the cradle must retain the powertrain inside the engine compartment, and the cradle components can not be physically separated from the main structure when subjected to specific crash tests. Strength and Fatigue The aluminum cradle structure must meet GM durability requirements. These requirements dictate that the aluminum cradle structure must

maintain structural integrity and successfully pass several durability road tests. Structural integrity is evaluated in terms of the working stresses induced on the cradle structure by different road conditions. These road durability conditions should not impair the functionality of the component or lead into development of fatigue cracks either at parent metal or at the weldments. Mechanical and thermal stresses in the cradle structure must not exceed the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) of the aluminum material. In addition, the stress levels within the weld heat affected zone (HAZ) must be less than the fatigue limit of the aluminum material (the fatigue limit is defined at 2 x 106 cycles). Weight The aluminum engine cradle must weigh 17 kilograms maximum. Corrosion Resistance The aluminum cradle structure must meet GM functional and cosmetic corrosion requirements. Galvanic and crevice corrosion must be considered in the design and carefully evaluated at the interfaces with steel parts. Also, the compatibility of the aluminum alloys with the coated steel fasteners at bolted joints must be carefully evaluated. The steel fasteners should not promote pitting corrosion, which results in significant reduction in metal thickness or even perforation. Material thickness at critical joints must be dictated by stress corrosion requirements with adequate stress safety factors. Additionally, aluminum alloys must be selected from the 6000 series because these alloys are not susceptible to Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC). These aluminum alloys have a relatively high strength, and excellent corrosion resistance. Temperature and Fluid exposure The aluminum cradle structure must maintain dimensional stability and must not degrade in an underhood temperature range of -30 to

150 C. In addition, the aluminum cradle structure must not be adversely affected by fluids used to operate the vehicle (antifreeze, brake fluid, engine oil, power steering fluid, etc.) or fluids used to clean it. Cradle Clearances The aluminum cradle must not snag on any protrusions from the road surface, therefore causing a sudden, extreme vehicle deceleration. Specifically, the aluminum cradle structure must provide adequate ground clearances for the following conditions: Suspension full jounce at Gross Vehicle Mass (GVM), parking curb, driveway approach, vehicle shipping, and car wash rack. Additionally, the cradle design must maintain a minimum dynamic clearance of at least 10 mm between the body structure and the powertrain for both driving and vehicle shipping conditions. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS The above functional objectives along with the structural targets were considered during the design phase. Computer-aided-design and computer-aided-engineering methods were used extensively throughout the design and analysis of the engine cradle. The main objective of this project was to demonstrate that the same structural performance targets could be achieved in aluminum as with steel, but with significant weight savings. In the design of the aluminum cradle structure, the issues of energy absorption, collapse points under crash loads, noise isolation, strength and rigidity at suspension and powertrain attachments had to be addressed. The aluminum cradle designed for the current General Motors midsize platform consists of an assembly of fifteen extruded and two stamped parts. In comparison, the equivalent steel cradle assembly consists of twenty-two stamped parts. Figure 1 shows an isometric view of the aluminum engine cradle assembly.

Figure 1. The aluminum engine cradle assembly consists of 15 extruded and 2 stamping parts.

The main cradle structure consists of a pair of crossmembers and longitudinal members that form the vehicle foundation. These linear members are extruded and are sized based on vertical and lateral stiffness requirements at the suspension and powertrain attachments. The right side longitudinal member has an oval opening to house a hydraulic engine mount. The left side longitudinal member has a welded pedestal bracket that supports the transmission mount. The cross-sectional moments of inertia of the crossmembers and longitudinal members are optimized to meet global static stiffness and structural frequency requirements within the specified design envelope. The cradle interfaces at suspension, transaxle, and steering rack, were accomplished by designing attachment brackets. These brackets are sized based on strength, fatigue, and corrosion criteria. In addition, the section size and thicknesses of the side longitudinal members are designed to buckle under an axial crash force of approximately 30 KN. The front and rear body mounts are incorporated in complex multi-hollow shape extrusions with internal ribs of various thicknesses. These ribs are expected to deform in an impact event and to absorb crash energy. In addition, the front and rear body mount extrusions have machined holes and slots respectively, which are used to insert the body mount isolators during vehicle assembly. Since extruded members of various profiles are designed based upon vehicle packaging constrains and structural requirements, the joining of the members had to be the most difficult tasks. Joining features for locating and welding the structural members are designed as part of the extrusions. These features allow the extrusions to be nested or inserted into each other, and create a compact and stiff joint. The four corner pieces that include the cradle mounts are overlapping the main members, and they are welded along the perimeter. These corner pieces are extrusions, and they are machined to a specific configuration that allows easy assembly and robust welding. Joint design, as mentioned above, is complex since multiple parts are welded. Lap and tee joints are used to weld this part. Weld fillet size for the aluminum parts varies according to the wall thicknesses of the parts being welded. Also, thermal matching between mating parts was considered in order to minimize thermal distortion induced during welding process. The ideal wall thickness that produced a good quality weld is in the range of 3.5 to 4 mm. This weld range was established by extensive experimentation on coupons during the weld parameter development phase. The cradle operates in a harsh environment and is subjected to several corrosion mechanisms. These corrosion mechanisms include general corrosion, fretting/pitting corrosion, galvanic corrosion, crevice corrosion and stress corrosion cracking (SCC). Special attention was given to galvanic and crevice corrosion during the design phase of this project. Galvanic corrosion of aluminum alloys occurs when they are joined to steel and exposed to a wet saline environment. Galvanic corrosion attacks 4

the aluminum surface at joints/interfaces with other components because of electrical contact. The degradation is localized to the joint or interface area. Aluminum is anodic in the galvanic cell with the other material, and the anodic aluminum will corrode in an effort to protect the other material. To eliminate the problem of galvanic and crevice corrosion, the following preventive measures were implemented: Design hefty metal thickness at joints/interfaces with other components. It is essential to have favorable cathode-anode area ratios. Protect the cathodic material (steel) by painting or coating. Use of nylon inserts at body mount interfaces. Use of plastic clips for securing electrical cables and p/s cooling lines. Protect fasteners (bolts and nuts) by selecting organic coatings. Avoid crevices and prevent entry of moisture. Join by continuous welding, rather than by skip welding. Provide for complete draining by positioning drain holes in open sections.

DEVELOPMENT
The aluminum engine cradle underwent extensive development and validation testing. This section describes some of the development tests conducted to assess the structural behavior of the aluminum engine cradle. The type of tests conducted on the aluminum cradle structure to evaluate performance characteristics were crashworthiness tests, modal tests, durability tests under multiaxial loading, and corrosion tests in environmental chambers. These tests were conducted both in the laboratory using chassis components, and in the proving grounds using prototype vehicles. VEHICLE CRASH TESTING An extensive vehicle crash plan was implemented to evaluate the crashworthiness of the cradle. The engine cradle, besides supporting the engine, also contributes to overall vehicle structural rigidity, and acts as a structural element in barrier impacts. The test selected for crashworthiness evaluation was the National Car Assessment Program (NCAP) test. This test is a frontal crash with the vehicle running at 35 mph into a fixed barrier. In this full frontal impact, the aluminum cradle behaved structurally similar to the steel cradle. Specifically, the cradle buckled in the specially designed crumple zones, and the vehicle maintained the structural integrity of the passenger compartment with minimal deformation. Test results showed good occupant numbers and the vehicle received five stars for both the driver and front passenger. The best possible crash rating from the U.S. Government is five stars. The star system is a safety rating of assessing occupant protection in a 35 mph frontal crash into a fixed barrier. The rating system is

based on dummy occupant injury criteria for the head, chest, and leg. NVH TESTING Impact modal tests were performed on the aluminum and a steel cradle of similar architecture to assess significant differences in the dynamic behavior of the two structures. In addition, the modal testing checked the conformance of the aluminum cradle to the structural requirement of 65 Hz. Boundary conditions (free-free) and test configurations were identical for the two cradles. The aluminum cradle exhibited higher frequency and damping than the steel cradle for a comparable mode shape. Mode shape correspondences was increasingly subjective after the first three structural modes. Additionally, the aluminum cradle exhibited fewer modes between 0-800 Hz in comparison with the steel cradle. Table 3 lists the first six mode shapes for both the steel and the aluminum cradle along with their corresponding natural frequencies. Table 3. Natural frequencies and mode shapes for steel and aluminum cradles. Mode Steel (Hz) 1 2 3 4 5 6 65.4 132.3 149.3 168.9 179.9 224.5 Alum. Mode shape (Hz) 81.4 145.3 168.1 223.0 228.8 298.9 Torsion Vertical bending about X-axis Matchboxing Vertical bending about Y-axis 2nd order Torsion Barrel mode Y-axis

cradle exceeds 3 structural lives. One structural life equals approximately 100,000 customer driven miles at 99.8% customer severity. Under these tests, the aluminum cradle did not develop any fatigue cracks either at parent metal or at the weldments. Also, corrosion pitting at interface areas was not significant. Corrosion pitting, measured by the depth of the pinholes, was determined to be within the design allowable limits (less than 0.5 mm).

MANUFACTURING PROCESS
A robust manufacturing process was developed to produce the aluminum engine cradle at RAMCOs manufacturing facility. This manufacturing process is capable of producing 300,000 aluminum cradle assemblies annually. The cycle time for each part is approximately 30 seconds. Figure 2 illustrates the process flow used to fabricate the cradle assembly.

A closer examination of the modal results revealed significant information about the generalized modal parameters. The ratio of modal masses for comparable modes of the steel cradle, versus the aluminum cradle in the 0-300 Hz range, is generally greater than the ratio of modal stiffnesses, indicating that a greater modal stiffness/modal mass ratio has been obtained with the aluminum cradle. This is responsible for the higher natural frequencies associated with the aluminum cradle modes. DURABILITY AND CORROSION TESTING Extensive durability and corrosion tests were conducted to develop and validate the aluminum cradle. These tests included lab multiaxial-loading fatigue tests, as well as vehicle durability tests. The vehicle durability tests were conducted in various proving grounds under different temperature conditions. Additionally, corrosion tests with simultaneously applied dynamic loads in environmental chambers were conducted to evaluate material behavior in stress corrosion cracking. The primary purpose of all of these tests was to assess the minimum structural life of the component at different operating conditions, as well as to understand failure modes and failure locations. Results from the road tests that simulate severe customer usage showed that the durability of the aluminum 5

Figure 2.

Manufacturing Process Flow Diagram

EXTRUSION PROCESS The materials chosen to manufacture the engine cradle were AA6061 and AA6063 aluminum alloys. This material was in either the T-4 condition or artificially aged to the T-6 condition. There are a total of seventeen different pieces, fifteen of which are extrusions. These fifteen different pieces are made from eleven different profiles. The profiles are extruded using standard extrusion practices. The raw logs are placed into an oven to bring them up to a predetermined temperature that is most efficient for that profile to be pressed. The logs are then sheared to varying

lengths and fed into the extrusion press. The press operator then tells the press what profile is being pushed, and the computer on the press instantly recalls the parameters that are used to run that particular die. The press initiates its cycle and the material is pushed out of the die similar to a play-dough press. The material is then either forced-air cooled or waterquench cooled directly out of the die. A water box is used to accomplish the water quench, and small high volume fans located along the runout table are used for air quench. Air-cooling is utilized on those profiles that cannot dimensionally withstand the sudden shock from water quenching. The water quench is used on those profiles that require T-6 properties and those that are dimensionally stable. The large, front body mounting brackets proved to be very difficult to produce as a production part. If quenched too quickly most of the significant dimensional characteristics would be distorted and found to be out of specification. The right process had to be found to assure consistent properties while maintaining the tight dimensional tolerances required for the manufacture of the engine cradle. Tolerances utilized were not the normal aluminum association tolerances, but much tighter automotive tolerances. All welding areas were toleranced to have a designed weld gap of 0.70 mm maximum. Due to this specification, the profiles that fit into each other were required to have +0.00 / -0.35 mm to assure that this gap was never exceeded. Almost all welding surfaces are the same thickness or within a millimeter of each other. No welding surface is under 3 mm, with the average being 4.5 mm. This allowed for a very robust design for the MIG welding process. CUTTING AND MACHINING OF COMPONENTS All of the raw extrusions are then cut between 3.0 and 7.5 meters and then moved to their respective machine for pre-machining. The extrusions are then placed onto automatic loading machines that feed these machines. The machine lines are set up as workstations, with one operator running more than one machine. The extrusions are fed into the machine, the operator hits the cycle start button, and the machine runs automatically until it is ready for the next extrusion. With the production estimates taken into account, each machine produces one set of parts every 28 seconds. Some of the machines that make duplicate parts produce these parts within 14 seconds or less. ORBITAL FORMING The most unique of these dedicated machines is the one that makes the body mount sleeve that is placed into the front mounting extrusion. This round, hollow sleeve has to be cut and then a flange made to allow for the part to be welded to the bracket. Stamping the part created stress cracks along the radius of the bend area and was never uniform enough to set-up production weld torches. After looking at other options, it 6

was decided that the best way to create a consistent part was to orbital form the flange. The part is cut to length, chamfered on both ends to eliminate any burrs, and then indexed in front of the orbital head. As the cut part is held, the orbital head rotates in a circular motion and engages the part. The flange begins to form until it is complete. The radius around the flange exhibits no stress cracks and the flange itself is very consistent for production welding. DEBURRING AND CLEANING The two large front mounting brackets require deburring to assure safe handling of the cradle by the assembly plant. The parts are fed through a custom debur machine, and the sharp edges of the parts are removed. This operation is done prior to the wash so that any residue left by the deburring operation does not interfere with the weld operation. All finished material is then placed into baskets and placed onto a conveyor that sends them through a centrally located washer to remove all residual cutting fluids. This assures that the welding operation will produce good quality welds, with no porosity or other impurities being introduced to affect the welds. ALUMINUM WELDING OF CRADLE ASSEMBLY The clean, finished parts are then moved to the welding line. The weld line consists of 40 Fanuc robotic welders with Lincoln 450 Powerwaves in four separate weld cells. The first cell welds the front subassembly, the second cell the rear subassembly, the third cell the front subassembly to the rear subassembly with the side rails, and the fourth cell welds the control arm brackets onto the finished assembly. Pulsed Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is utilized for welding the cradle assembly. The weld wire chosen to weld the cradle is Gulf 4043 filler metal 1.60 mm diameter. Fifty-pound precision wound spools are used on all welding cells. All welds have a designed gap of 0.7 mm or less. This assures joint repeatability during the welding process, and decreases the chance of inferior welds. The weld speeds for the cradle are between 66 and 100 cm/minute. One cradle per shift is cut and etched to verify that all welds are meeting the minimum weld penetration on all joints. The welds are also checked to make sure that they meet the GM 6122M specification and that any problem areas are highlighted and addressed to assure conformance to specifications. COOLING TO ASSURE DIMENSIONAL STABILITY PRIOR TO FINAL MACHINING The completed welded assembly is then moved down the conveyor line to a series of cooling racks. A robot at the end of the line fills each cooling rack and a FIFO pull system is used to then feed the final machine line. These racks are utilized to allow the welded assembly to cool down to ambient temperature before being introduced to the final machine line. This is required due to aluminums high coefficient of expansion and contraction during heating and cooling. It

is imperative that the cradles are cooled down so that after final machining all Key Product Characteristics (KPC) are met and that dimensional variations are kept to a minimum. FINAL MACHINING AND HYDRAULIC PIERCING After cooling down, the robot at the end of the weld line then places a part into the final machine line. The part is then automatically shuttled between stations for final machining. The final machine line consists of 3 horizontal CNC machines, two hydraulic drill stations, two hydraulic piercing stations, one rivnut assembly station, and a final probe station. There are two heavy sections on the cradle that require CNC machining. Due to cleanliness requirements, horizontal CNC machines were utilized to make sure that the chips generated did not interfere with the cradle at assembly. High vapor cutting fluids were also utilized to reduce the possibility of chips being retained or stuck on the engine cradle during the machining process. Two hydraulic piercing stations finish out the final machine line. These units pierce fourteen holes and eliminate the issue of chips and chip removal during the machine process. The slugs are automatically delivered to a scrap hopper without any interaction by the operator. INSPECTION METHOD After final machining is completed the finished assembly moves to a probe station that verifies all holes have been made. It does not verify size or location, only that each hole was completed. If any holes are found to be missing, the line shuts down until an operator clears the line and fixes the problem. A final hard gage fixture is used in conjunction with the probe station. The hard gage incorporates both variable and non-variable data. All variable points are clearly graphed with a bar line showing where each point reads on the cradle. The operator can instantly see at a glance where the cradle is measuring dimensionally and what areas need to be watched or corrected. Cradles are also measured across a Coordinate Measurement Machine (CMM). These checks, less frequent than the hard gage checks, verify that the hard gages are reading correctly and that the cradle is still within dimensional tolerances.

mance. A robust manufacturing method was developed capable of producing aluminum cradle assemblies at 300,000 parts per year, and short cycle times. Tooling investment for the aluminum cradle was favorable as compared with a traditional stamped steel cradle.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the management of General Motors Corporation and Reynolds Aluminum Company for their permission to publish this paper. Also, we appreciate all the efforts and help from all our suppliers regarding the aluminum engine cradle program, and all of those who labored long hours to get this program off and running. Specifically, we like to thank the personnel at Fori Automation, MV Industries, Lincoln Electric, Fanuc Robotics, and Gulf Wire for their technical contributions to this project.

REFERENCES
1. I. J. McGregor, D. J. Meadows, C. E. Scott, A. D. Seeds, Impact Performance of Aluminum Structures. 2. K. Angermayer, Structural Aluminum Design Handbook, CPE, 1987. 3. K. Wittrup, Aluminum and Steel Cradle Comparison, GM Milford Proving Ground, 1996.

CONCLUSIONS
A lightweight aluminum cradle was designed, developed and manufactured in a joint effort between General Motors Corporation and RAMCO Manufacturing Company. The aluminum cradle fits within the existing midsize vehicle design envelope, and does not disturb any preexisting components. The challenges of replacing a steel structure with an aluminum structure were great, especially maintaining crashworthiness under frontal impacts. The extruded aluminum cradle assembly, as designed, weighs 34 % less than the equivalent stamped steel structure. All the functional and structural requirements of the cradle assembly were met without sacrificing perfor7