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Learning is a very important concept and process, because much of our behavior depends on it.
Both genetics and learning are involved in the acquisition and modification of behavior. Neither
genetics nor environment alone can account for the relatively simple learning that takes place in
the animal laboratory or the vast repertoire of behaviors that humans acquire over a lifetime.
Learning is clearly both an important process and a complex one. It involves a set of complicated
mechanisms that have evolved over the course of genetic history to allow us to adapt to
environmental conditions by acquiring new behaviors and modifying old ones.
There are several major theories of learning, each suggesting somewhat different key processes by
which knowledge is acquired. Classical conditioning approaches hypothesize the gradual
formation of associations through which the CS comes to elicit the CR. The operant model holds
that emitted behaviors are reinforced, causing an increase in the probability of the behavior. More
recent theoretical interpretations of both classical and operant conditioning suggest the
involvement of cognitive factors. This third theory is referred to as the social-learning-cognitive
theory or simply: observational learning.
Behaviorism:
Learning theories that concentrate on environmental factors as controlling our behavior represents
behaviorism. According to these theories, differences between people occur not because of
differences in personality or intelligence, but because of differences in learning. Behaviorism
includes Classical (or Respondent) conditioning, and Operant (or instrumental) conditioning.
The term of “Behavioral Therapy” or “Behavioral Modification” refer to treatment strategies that
are based on these theories. These treatment strategies are used by trained Clinical Psychologists to
deal with various psychological, psychosomatic, and medical conditions.
1. Learning is usually defined as a set of relatively permanent changes in behavior that result from
prior experience.
1. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian digestive physiologist, first discovered classical conditioning. This type of
learning involves pairing an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) with a neutral stimulus, such that the
neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned response (CR).
The major elements of classical conditionings are CS, UCS, CR, UCR.
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2. Pavlov’s results were very important in understanding learning processes in both animals and
human behavior. Moreover, his experiments and findings had great effects in providing scientific
methods of studying behavior.
3. In our every day experience, many types of behavior could be the results of classical conditioning.
For instance, the development of fears and anxiety that might occurs when visiting a dentist.
Another example is what is called “Anticipatory Nausea” in chemotherapy.
2. Stimulus generalization means that a response is elicited by a stimulus similar to the CS.
Stimulus discrimination involves learning to distinguish between similar stimuli and
responding only to the appropriate one.
1. Edward L. Thorndike developed the law of effect, which says that a behavior is more likely to be
repeated when it is followed by satisfaction or reward.
2. The school of (Behaviorism) has then rapidly grown with the work of B. F. Skinner who
developed the view that behavior is determined by its consequences and that only directly
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observable behavior should be studied.
5.A reinforcer is any object or event that increases the likelihood of a response occurring.
Reinforcement occurs when the consequence of a response increases the likelihood or probability
that the response will be repeated.
Clinical Applications: Examples of treatment techniques that are based on operant conditioning
includes: 1) Shaping, (2) Token economy, (3) Stimulus control techniques, (4) The bell and pad for
the treatment of enuresis
Response Cost: tokens are withdrawn when child makes an undesired response
Extinction: weaken undesired behavior by ignoring it. Example: A mother ignoring a whining
child, or a teacher ignoring a student who speaks out of turn.
FLOODING: This is the type of exposure therapy that starts with the most feared rather than the
least feared stimulus is called flooding; If conducted only in the imagination, it is sometimes called
implosion. The therapist controls the timing and content of the scenes to be imagined or
confronted, and instead of trying to relax, the patient is told to experience the fear fully until it
subsides. Flooding is quicker than systematic desensitization, but relapse may be more common,
and the procedure is simply too frightening for many patients. A compulsive washer, for example,
is allowed to become dirty or even made dirty and then prevented from washing. The water might
be turned off for most of the day. Exposure reduces hypersensitivity to dirt and the associated
anxiety, while response prevention eventually eliminates (extinguishes) compulsive washing.
SHAPING: Operant conditioning can be used to shape behavior so that patients perform complex
actions or acquire skills that were formerly beyond their capacities. Successive approximation: The
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method is to approximate the desired behavior gradually, rewarding each small step toward
mastery. The gradual process of reinforcing behaviors that get closer to some final desired
behavior. Shaping is often necessary for severely impaired people whose behavioral repertoire is
very limited. For example, the mouth movements of a mute autistic child are reinforced at first,
then sounds, and later only sounds closer and closer to normal speech. The process of dressing is
divided into stages and the child is given candy or applause for completing each partial task.
1. Observational learning best represents social and cognitive learning. Behaviors are acquired
by watching another person (the model) perform that behavior. A model displays it and the
learner observes it.
2. This kind of learning does not involve direct experience of S-R association or rewards and
punishment.
3. Reinforcement is not necessary for observational learning. It is needed, however, for the
behavior to be repeatedly performed at some later point. An observer's behavior can be affected
by the positive or negative consequences--called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious
punishment-- of a model's behavior. Vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment affects
the willingness of people to perform behaviors they learned by watching others
4. One major difference between the Social-Cognitive theory and the strict behaviorism is that the
social-cognitive theory stresses the cognitive factor: we are not completely determined by
external environment. Because people can mentally represents situations, they are able to
foresee the likely consequences of their action and to alter their behavior accordingly.
5. Four basic observational learning processes are attention, retention, reproduction, and
motivation. Each one of these cognitive and learning processes is essential for learning to
occur.
1. Another kind of learning occurs through cognitive maps. Even rats running a maze, according
to Edward Tolman use cognitive maps. Blocking is important because it shows that learning
involves the use of expectancies to predict outcomes. Insight learning is characterized by
sudden resolution after a period of study without action.
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Prepared by Dr. Mohamed Salah Khalil
Assistant professor /consultant of
Clinical Psychology