Ece 542 PDF

Telecommunication Engineering (ECE-542). Lecturer: Engr. M. A.
Ahaneku
1
COURSE OUTLINES
1. Switching Networks
2. Traffic and Trunking
3. Signaling Types
4. Principles of Call Set-up
5. The Telephone Network and structure
6. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
7. Digital Transmission Hierarchy
8. Digital Switching
9. The Public switched Telephone System.
10.Mobile Communication Systems
11.GSM Technology and Systems
TEXTS:
1. Modern Communications Switching System by Hobbs
2. Telecommunication Engineering by J. Duncop & D. G. Smith
3. Communication Systems Analysis and Design
A System Approach by Richard A. Williams
4. Principles of Communication Engineering by Anokh Singh
NOTE: An important characteristic of circuit switching device is whether it
is blocking or not blocking.
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Telecommunication Engineering (ECE-542). Lecturer: Engr. M. A. Ahaneku
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TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Introduction: Telecommunication is the process of passing information energy
over long distances by electrical means. The information energy is passed to the
destination either over suitable insulated conduction wires called transmission
lines, or through the atmosphere without wire but via a radio link.
Telecommunication Engineering therefore can be said to be the study of the
technology involved in the design of telecommunications systems.
Definition: Telephone switching is the means by which a communication
channels, capable of carrying analog or digital information between two or
more subscribers, is established and maintained.
Any modern telecommunications switching system consists of a great
intricate equipments and components combined into an overall system
operation along certain well defined principles. A typical electromechanical
automatic switching system contains several master control circuits each of
which consists of some 1500 relays. Such circuits are able to select particular
paths and establish a desired connection in less than one second.
Present day telephone circuit switching equipments are based on either
electromechanical techniques (employing crossbar, strowger, or rotary
switches) and electronic techniques (employing either electromechanical or
solid states or computer control). The development of most of the systems has
required years of time due largely to the extreme requirement for dependability
and reliability. Even a negligible amount of down time of a network cannot be
tolerated by the telephone operating companies especially these days we have
competitive markets in the telecommunication industry.
With the introduction of switching systems, the subscribers are no longer
connected directly to another; instead, they are connected to the switching
system as shown in the figure1. When a subscriber wants to communicate with
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another person, a connection is established between the two at the switching
system. Figure 1, shows such connection between subscriber S
2
and S
n-
1
.signalling is now required to draw the attention of the switching system to
establish or release a connection.
Fi gur e 1. Subscriber interconnection using a switching system
The functions performed by a switching system in establishing and releasing
connections are known as control functions. Earlier switching systems were
manual and operator oriented. Limitations of operator manned switching
systems were quickly recognized and automatic exchanges came into existence.
A si mpl e cl assi fi cat i on of swi t chi ng syst em i s gi ven i n Figure 2
below.
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TELEPHONE SWITCHING
Switching Networks
Definition: it is an arrangement of switches whose function is to connect
inlets to outlets. In switch systems the number of cross-points is a good measure
of cost, and part of the effort involved in switch design is concerned with
reducing the number. An idea of the way in which the number of cross-points
can be reduced, and the effect of that reduction on network performance can be
obtained from the following simple approach.
If there are N lines into and N lines out of a single switch then the
number of cross-points required is N. For instance, the matrix shown in Fig 3
requires 10,000 cross-points.
Number of cross points = 10,000 =100 100
Fig 3. Ful l - avai l abi l i t y swi t ch.
This large number of cross-points allow any free inlet to be connected to
any free outlet regardless of the connections made between other inlets and
outlets. This system is called a full availability loss-less system.
However, each inlet, if it is a subscribers line, will carry a very small
load, probably less than 0.1 erlangs, so it will be busy for only 6mins on
average during the busy hour. This means that there will be fewer than 100 calls
in progress simultaneously and therefore the system could operate with many
fewer cross-points hence the need to reduce the number.
As a first step towards reducing the size of the network the matrix can be
split into two parts: the first part having 100 inlets and 25 outlets and the second
part having 25 inlets and 100 outlets. This reduces the number of cross-points
by 50%. See Figure 4(a)
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Fig4 (a)
A further saving can be made if the inlet and outlets switches are further
subdivided as shown in Fig4 (b). However, this last division raises serious
problems. Each inlet switch has access to only one outlet switch. So, in that
order, inlet switch 3 cannot route a call to outlet switch 5, etc.
Fig 4 (b) total number of cross-points = 1000
Note: Fig 4(a) stands for cross-point reduction by vertical partitioning.
Fig 4(b) stands for cross-point reduction by vertical and horizontal
partitioning.
One way of overcoming the difficulty of Fig 4(b) would be to
interconnect the link between the inlet and the outlet switches as shown in
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Fig. 5. But that is not all since this arrangement has its own draw back.
The problem being that only one of the calls from the inlet switch can be
connected with a particular outlet switch. When this situation is allowed,
blocking is inevitable. A better approach is to adopt the arrangement shown in
figure 6, of a three stage link system.
Fig 5: Di agonal l i nk connect i ons t o i ncr ease avai l abi l i t y.
Fig 6: Thr ee-St age l i nk syst em wi t h a t ot al of 1125 cr oss poi nt
QUESTION:
Mention one effect of availability reduction in switching network system.
Show how the effect could be remedied.
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ANSWER:
It makes the system restrictive. To remedy the situation, a middle stage is
introduced to make the distribution paths between the inlet and outlet stages
more satisfactory.
THE GRID NETWORKS
Grid networks range from two stages of switching, in crossbar systems to
eight stages of switching in some electronic systems. A general 2-stage grid
network with its input switches designated as primary switches and its output
switches designed as secondary switches is given in Fig 7. It is a basic
requirement that each primary switch group have access via at least one link to
each secondary switch group. It is also important that the link spread between
the switch groups be laid out in an orderly fashion for ease of control and
administration. In the allocation of secondary terminations of links, the output
terminal number on the primary switch designates the secondary switch
number, and the primary switch number designates the secondary switch
terminal.
Fig 7: 2- st age swi t chi ng net wor k
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To extend the 2 stage and for connection to a particular output, it is only
necessary to add a third stage, the links to which will duplicate the link spread
between the first two stages, such as arrangement is shown in figure 8.
Assuming each stage consists of n switch blocks, any network input can be
connected to any network output over n matching pairs of paths. To determine
the set of n paths that can be used, you need to know only the input and output
switch blocks involved. However because of the relatively limited number of
paths it provides the 3 stage grid network is generally useful only for small
exchanges. Note that the interconnections between grids is necessary that at
least one junctor per secondary switch of each input grid, which provides a
minimum of one junctor to match any pair of originating and terminating links.
Traffic balance must be maintained carefully on the gird inputs and
outputs, because the junctors from each input grid are divided equally among all
output grids. If excessive traffic reached particular output grid, the probability
of failure to match due to busy junctors might be too great. Generally an
attempt is made to obtain as wide a distribution as possible, over both switches
and grids, to minimize the effect of switch or circuit troubles and to handle
traffic with an optimum grade of services.
Fig 8: 3-St age gr i d net wor k
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CROSS-POINT REDUCTION USING 3-STAGE GRID NETWORK
A middle stage can be included to make the distribution of paths between
the inlet and outlet stages more satisfactory. The distributor stage is called the
secondary stage or stage 2. in the same way as was done with the inlet and
outlet stages, the distributor stage can be sub-divided into five 5x5 switches and
the link pattern between first and second stages, and second and third stages
arranged to provide five paths through the network from any first
stage(inlet)switch to any third stage (outlet) switch. See Fig 9.
Fig. 9:
Number of Crosspoints: 500 125 500
Total Number of Crosspoints: 1125
Clearly, there has been a very large reduction in the number of cross-
points. The chance that a call is lost because of the reduced availability is a
question that can only be answered by calculation of internal blocking of the
network at given traffic levels, using the jacobaeous equation, or some other
switch-able method.
ASSIGNMENT 1
State the Jacobaeous equation. Assume any network hence or otherwise
calculate the internal blocking using the Jacobaeous equation.
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For obvious reasons the stages of Fig 9 are named:
First stage- concentrator
Reason: many more inlets than outlets.
Second stage- distributor
Reason: same number of inlets and outlets.
Third stage- expander
Reason: many more outlets than inlets.
Fig 10: Funct i onal di agr am of t hr ee-st age l i nk syst em.
PSTN-BASIC ANALOGUE SWITCHING SYSTEM
Three methods are in common use
(i) Strowger or Step-by-step, (ii) stored program controlled (SPC)
otherwise known as electronic switching system (ESS) or Centralized
control, (iii) Crossbar
Recall:
The function of a telephone exchange is to interconnect four-wire lines,
so as to permit a call to be established correctly. When we are talking about
switching, we are referring to telephone exchanges. There have been basically
three generation of exchanges the first was the step-by-step or strowger type,
which has incredible number of relays that made interconnections step-by-step.
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i.e. after each digit was received. The second generation was the cross bar
exchange, which had even more relays, but miniaturized and arranged so that
up to 20 connections are made simultaneously by the cross bar switch after all
the digits were received. The processor- controller or centralized control or
common control represents the third generation. Here all the interconnections
are made by the exchange processor or computer and as a result the space
occupies is very much smaller. When compared with other generations.
(i) strowger/Step-by-step:
In step-by-step systems, the control path and speech path are the same.
As each digit is dialed, the connection is made to one further stage, until the
final selection when two digits are required
Fig 11: Di agr ammat i c r epr esent at i on of a st ep-by-st ep syst em.
The step-by-step systems operate in this way. As an example, consider a
local exchange call on a four-digit number system. See Fig 11.
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When the caller goes off-hook, the line circuit connects his line to a free
first numerical selector (group selector). This connection may take some time,
and not until the first selector is seized that a dial tone is returned to the caller.
The dial tone delay is a measure of system capacity from the subscribers view
point. Having seized the first selector, the control waits for the first digit to be
dialed: on its receipt, the first selector wipers are racked up to the corresponding
level and hunt round for a free outlet to a second selector. The second digit
caused the second selector to go through a similar process and seizes final
selector. The final selector has subscribers line circuits attached to it, and so
each of its hundred contacts represents a different subscriber: consequently, it
needs two digits for its operation.
If at some stage during the setting up of the call, after the dial tone has
been received a free selector is not available, a busy tone is returned to the
caller: the wipers having hunted over all the outlets to find a free selector at the
next stage, without success, automatically return to their home position.
Common control:
The step-by-step system described earlier operates on the principle that
the control of the call follows the same path as the speech circuit. This means
that all the control equipment is provided on a per-call basis. However, some of
it need not be, and savings can be made by separating some of the control from
the speech path. It can then be used only as required by a call, and can then
become available for other calls, for example, the register-translator, which is
only required during the routing, or path selection process, could be placed in a
common-control area, used to set up a path between caller and called, and then
released for use in setting up another call. Fig 10 shows a diagram of a common
control system.
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Fig 12: Use of common cont r ol
The switching block is not of the step-by-step (strowger) type but either
of a cross-bar switch or a reed-relay system. A crossbar switch as we know
consists of a matrix of horizontal and vertical conductors that can be made to
interconnect at any required cross-point by the vertical bar trapping a metal
finger attached to the horizontal bar when the letter is tilted by a relay operated
by the marker-circuit in the common control. The reed-relay switch is an
electronic cross-point consisting of two contacts inside an evacuated envelope
and surrounded by an inductive coil. When the coil is energized it induces a
magnetic field which forces the contacts together. The reed-relay switch is also
of the matrix type with horizontal and vertical wires, the interconnection again
being controlled by the marker. Figure 13 shows the basic form of a common-
control exchange. Here, the subscribers are attached directly to a subscribers
line unit, which recognizes a request-for-call condition. When the calling
subscriber goes off-hook, the line unit indicates.
Fig 13: Cent r al i zed cont r ol exchange
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The request to the common control that seeks a free outlet from the first
switching stage, which is the concentrator, and returns dial tone to the caller as
an awareness of the call for metering purposes and reacts to a clear down signal.
The calling subscriber dials and the digits are stored in the register in the
common-control. If translation is required, the registers pass the digits to a
translator when one becomes available, and the translation is sent to the marker.
The marker examines the switching units for a free path to the called outlet and
tests the outlet to find out if it is free. If not, busy tone is returned to the caller,
if it is free, a path through the called subscriber and ring-tone is sent back to the
caller, the common control is released and the progress of the call is noted by
the call-monitoring unit. In summary therefore, we have seen that in the
strowger system, switching is done using step- step method. With common
control method, switching is done after the system has received the entire
digits/number. This number is stored in memory. The information conveyed by
the number is then translated into instructions using logic circuitry. These
instructions control the switching mechanism tom establish appropriate
connections. Having completed connections, logic circuitry becomes available
for service of other calls.
ELECTRONIC TELEPHONE EXCHANGE
A telephone exchange, in general is required to perform the following functions
as outlined below. For instance, a local exchange must provide two wire
connections to its subscribers. It also provides two-wire to four wire conversion
for trunk routes. This becomes necessary as attenuation in trunk routes is high
due to length of trunk lines and repeater amplifiers have to be used.
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Fig 13 b: Out l i ne of Tel ephone Exchange
NOTE: The development of common control based on computer operation
removed some of the constraint on inter-exchange signaling. Very rapid
reception, detection and processing were possible, and for signaling between
processors care need not to be taken to counter speech imitation as was the
case in the earlier system
PRINCIPLES OF CALL SETUP WITH WORKED EXAMPLE
When a subscriber makes a telephone call a series of events take place which
have the following:
1. calling subscriber lifts handset
2. exchange detects demand for call
3. check is made to find free equipment in the exchange
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4. When equipment becomes free dial tone is returned to the caller. If
equipment is not immediately available at the exchange there may be a
long dial tone delay
5. subscriber dials digits
6. Exchange interprets the digits and routes call to its destination.
7. Check is made to determine whether or not the called subscriber is free.
8. if called subscriber is busy , busy tone is returned to the caller
9. if called subscriber is free, ring tone is returned to caller and ring current
is sent forward to ring called subscribers bell.
10.if called subscriber is unavailable, caller hangs up and equipment clears
down
11.if called subscriber answers, ring tone and ring current cease
12.Speech path is set up and metering commences. \when conversation
ceases called subscriber hangs and metering ceases
13.When conversation ceases called subscriber hangs and metering ceases.
14.calling subscriber hangs up and system clears down
NOTE: if an unallowed number is dialed, or service to the number
unobtainable tone is returned to the caller. From the above description we can
see that the process of signaling has at least three functions.
1. To indicate the state of the call to each subscriber by
a. Dial tone
b. Ring tone and ring current
c. Busy tone or number- unobtainable
2. To tell system what to do next by indicating the path for the call
3. To initiate a billing procedure- usually by tripping the calling
subscribers meter at the correct charging rate to enable the
administration to gather the revenue needed to provide the service.
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QUESTION
Write a program in Q-Basic using the flow chart given. Run it and submit
a computer print out.
OR
Write a computer program to implement the ideas of the flow chart given
in figure 14. The program will be written either in Q-Basic or C
++
. Run it and
submit a computer print out.
Two stage 15x15 matrix switch using link trucking start
Fig 15:
From fig. 15, the inlets are divided into three groups of 5 at A-switches, and 3
of each group of 5 inlet can be connected to a B- switch at any one time where
they are then connected to any 3 of the 15 possible outlets. Fig15 shows the
following interconnections.
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Inlet 1 to Outlet 15
Inlet 3 to Outlet 5
Inlet 7 to Outlet 9
Inlet 8 to Outlet 4
From the illustration above, we can discover that inlets 4,5,9,10,14 and
15 cannot be connected to any outlet even though outlets 1, 2, 6,7,11 and 12 are
free, because all 9 links are already in use. Further even with only one
connection made,, say between inlet 1 and outlet 15 as shown, them inlets 1,3,4
and 5 cannot be connected to any of the outlets 11,12,13 or 14 because the one
link between the particular A and B switches is already in use. This is called
Internal Blocking or Link Congestion and must be considered when designing
multi-stage matrix switches. This blocking situation introduces limited access
into the network. For voice traffic systems having a capacity of n channels are
lousy. The phenomenon of call congestion is described by Erlang B formula
which gives the probability that an arriving call will be intercepted by finding
all channels busy, as
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is the call arriving rate, the average service time or holding time and
k is a random variable denoting the number of calls in a given interval of time,
k= 1,2,3n
The Evlang B formula forms the basis for judging the grade of service of a
voice traffic network.
NOTE: In telephone exchanges, it is necessary to connect the two wires from
one telephone to the two wires of another telephone. It is also necessary to be
able to guard the calling line and the called line so that neither can be seized by
another subscriber. Generally, a third wire called the private wire and
designated P-wire is used for this purpose
QUESTION
Using the flow char given in and 5 explain what happens from the time the
subscriber is off-hook till the time the called subscriber hangs up.
NOTE: The explanation must correspond to the flow chart design given.
TRAFFIC AND TRUNKING
Definition:
1. Traffic may be defined as the aggregate of calls passing over a
group of circuits or trunks. The trunks means a connecting
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circuit between two switching stages e.g. between 1
st
selectors
and second selectors.
2. Trunking may also be defined as the provision of adequate
plant to carry traffic and inter connection of the selectors in
such a way as to route this traffic in the most efficient and
economic manner.
Measurement of traffic:
To find out how many circuits are needed on a given route, it is therefore
necessary to know how much traffic there is. To do that one must be able to
measure traffic; the unit of measurement is the ERLANG which is a
dimensionless quantity, quantified or example in mins/min
Suppose that four telephone circuits exist between two places and it is found
that in a particular hour, half hour period the circuits carry respectively 25, 15,5
and 24; each circuit was assumed busy for the period indicated and so the total
occupied time was 25+15+5+24=69mins. The average occupancy during the
half hour was therefore 69/30=2.3 erlangs. Therefore the measure of average
occupancy is the erlangs. Needless to say the traffic may have fluctuated during
this period. At instants when all the four circuits were busy, the carried traffic
was 4 erlangs while there may have been instants of no occupancy i.e zero
erlangs.
Telephone traffic can be said to mirror all business and social activities of the
community. It increases in prosperous times, decreases in time of depression
and shows sudden peaks in emergencies and disaster periods.
In the other hand, the main object of trunking is to provide adequate plant for
present needs as economically as possible in order to provide the required
service at reasonable cost to the subscriber.
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The Erlang and probability:
For a single circuit, the traffic cannot be more than one erlang because it
can carry only one call at a time. The erlang can thus be defined as the traffic
flow which would continuously, occupy one circuit. In a practical case, no
circuit can ever be continuously occupied because it must become free for a
short period after each call in order to be seized by the next call. The traffic on
one circuit is there fore always a fraction of an erlang, this fraction being the
proportion of the time for which the circuit was engaged. This may be
illustrated as follows:
If a single circuit carries C calls of average duration t, it will be engaged for a
total time of c x t (min). If these calls occur in a period T (Min), the proportion
of this time for which the circuit is engaged is;
and this is equal to traffic A erlang.
The probability of finding a given circuit engaged at any given time is
numerically equal to the proportion of time for which the circuit is engaged and
therefore to the traffic in erlangs.
In practice, it would be uneconomic to provide so many selectors that no
subscriber would ever find the one he needed already engage. It is therefore
necessary to be able to calculate the probability of circuits being engaged under
given conditions in order to assess whether adequate service will be given by a
particular arrangement or quantity of selectors. The probability of any given
event occurring is calculated as the number of occasions on which it might
occur. The probability of certainty is 1 and the probability of impossibility
is 0. All other probability is fraction, i.e they are less than 1 and greater than
zero (0).
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Form the explanation above, it follows that the probability P, of a
particular selector being found to be engaged at any instant during a specified
period is given by
Effect Of Traffic On Plant Provision:
Grade of Service: This is the proportion of calls which are allowed to fail in
the busy hour owing to the limitation, for economic reason, of the amount of
switching plant. Calls which fail in this way are referred to as lost calls. The
grade of service, B, for a group of circuits can therefore be calculated as
Examples: In the busy traffic offered to a rank of selectors is 200 erlangs, the
average call duration is 3mins, and 20 calls were lost in the course of the busy
hour. Calculate the grade of service, what is the traffic carried?
SOLUTION
Step 1. Express the call duration t as a fraction of an hour
= t = 3/60 = 1/20 or 0.05hr
Step 2. Using the relation C = A/T
Where C = calls offered
A = traffic offered
C = 200/0.05 = 4000 calls offered
Step 3. Grade of service B
B = calls lost / calls offered
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= 20/4000
= 0.005 (or 1 lost call in 200 )
Step 4. Traffic carried = No of calls carried x time
= calls offered calls lost/ period
= 4000 20/20 =199 erlangs
Which is the traffic carried or
A = (C L)/ T
The expression carried traffic was carefully used above. It is not the same
as offered traffic. For example, 20 erlangs may be offered to circuits in which
case a lot of the offered traffic would fail to secure a circuit, hence congestion
would result.
QUESTION
Define traffic congestion, looking at the erlang tables of factorizes and make
some predictions on the congestion stake of some circuits. Hence, calculate the
grade of service.
Note: It is possible to calculate statistically the degree of congestion or grade
of service as it is known give the amount of traffic in Erlangs and the number of
circuits and their arrangement. However it is a lot easier to look up the
information in Erlangs tables of factorials. Such tables are used to calculate the
grade of service.
Erlang statistical distribution:
This expresses the relationship between grade of service, average traffic,
number of trunks and availability in the following equations
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Where a = traffic lost, in traffics units
A = total traffic offered, in traffic units
B = grade of service
N = number of trunks (ccts) available hence, the lost traffic a is given by
Note: average traffic carried by the network in any period is given by
Where T is the period and hi is holding time
i = 1, 2, 3, ------- m
QUESTION
1. A total of 2 traffic unit is offered to a full availability group of 6 trunks.
Calculate the grade of service provided and find also the traffic carried by
the first and last trunks. Assume that calls to the group arrive in pure
statistical chance order.
2. (a) Derive the erlang mathematical model for simulation of traffic flow in
communication networks.
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(b) Establish the statistical relation for a suitable of poisson arrival time.
3. It is found that during the busy hours that the average number of calls in
progress simultaneously in a certain full availability group of selectors
was 15. all the selectors are in use simultaneously for a period of
30seconds. Calculate the traffic in traffic unit offered to the group in the
busy hour.
SOLUTION TO NO1.
Recall: grade of service B, is given by
Where A = 2, N = 6 given
B = 2
6
/6!
1 + 2 + 2
2
/2! + 2
3
/3! + 2
4
/4! + 2
5
/5! + 2
6
/6!
64 / 720
1 + 2 + 2 + 8/6 + 16/24 + 32/120 + 64/720
= 0.012 T. U.
Note: the traffic offered to the second trunk is that lost by the first and is given
by
A
2
= 4 = 1.333 T. U.
1 + A 3
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Hence, traffic carried by the first trunk
= 0.66 T.U. (2 1.333 = 0.667)
Traffic offered to the 6
th
trunk
2
6
/5! = 0.073 T.U
1 + 2 + 2
2
/2! + ..+ 2
6
/5!
The traffic offered to the hypothetical 7
th
trunk
= 2
7
/6! = 2
N-1
= 0.024 T. U.
1 + 2 + 2
2
/2! + + 2
6
/6! N-1!
Hence traffic carried by the 6
th
trunk = 0.073 0.024
= 0.040 T. U.
SOLUTION TO NO. 3
Let, C = Number of calls per hour
T = Average duration of a call in hours
A = the traffic flow in traffic units then
A = C x T
The traffic lost will be A x B traffic unit
If B = proportion of call lost
The traffic carried = traffic offered - traffic lost
Therefore 15 = A AB
Or A = 15
1 - B
Hence B = 30/ (60x60)
= A = 15/ [(1-30) /60x60] = 15.13 T.U
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Hence the traffic offered to the group of trunks during the busy hours is 15.13
T.U.
QUESTIONS
1. Mention two ways in which a call may be blocked.
ANSWERS
a) There may not be free route Circuit.
b) There may be no path available between the inlet carrying. the
incoming call and the free rout circuits.
SWITCHING AND SIGNALING
Signal systems link the variety of switching systems, transmission systems and
subscriber equipment in a telecommunication network to enable the network to
function as a whole.
Types of Signaling System
We have four mail categories:
i) loop disconnection dc signaling;
ii) multi-frequency ac signaling
iii) voice- frequency ac signaling
iv) common channel signaling
LOOP DISCONNECT SIGNALING
Many years ago, this was the universal means at the subscribers disposal
for indicating the number he wishes to call- the telephone dial. Although it is
still present with many handsets today. The major disadvantage is that it
operates slowly when compared with the standard of modern electronics. The
slow motion places a definite limit on the speed at which signals can be sent to
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the exchange. When any digit is dialed, a governor inside the dial causes it to
rotate back automatically at a fixed speed causing a series of pulses to be sent
down the subscribers line. The time between the last of the pulses for one digit,
and the first pulses of the next is called the inter digit pause. It is this pause that
allows the exchange to recognize the end of a digit. A typical sequence, with
average operating times (finally the pulses are sent at a rate of 10 per second) is
show in fig 16.
Fig 16: I deal out put f r om t el ephone di al
MULTI- FREQUENCY (MF) SIGNALING
Modern n handsets are fitted with key pads instead of dials to facilitate a
much more rapid transfer of signals between handset and exchange. Generally,
the keypads send out frequencies instead of pulses to represent a digit. Most
systems use two frequencies to represent a particular digit. Modern exchanges
respond directly to the mf signals and the call be set up very quickly.
VOICE FREQUENCY (VF) SIGNALING.
The normal telephone channel occupies a bandwidth of 300 3400 Hz
which it is allocated. If ac signaling is to be used it must operate at frequencies
within this range and it is therefore known as voice frequency signaling
Note: the frequencies used can be either inside the normal speech band (in-band
signaling) or outside that band and within the 0-4000hz range (out of-band
signaling)
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Since signaling is done by tones within the base band of the telephone channel
it is possible to use VF signaling when the channels are multiplexed on to a
common carrier either line or radio.
Since the signaling frequency is within the 300-3400hz speech band width
there are obvious problems associated with this signaling method. It cannot be
operated during speech and the equipment must be able to distinguish between
a speech pattern and a signal. There are two parameters available for variation.
Signal frequency and the signal recognition time. Other consideration that will
assist in distinguishing between speech and signal are
i) speech at the signal frequency is accompanied by other frequencies;
ii) more than one signal frequency could be used;
iii) the signals could be coded burst of the signal frequency
CHOICE OF FREQUENCY
This must have relationship with the frequency characteristics of speech.
As shown in fig 17 the energy level in English is predominant at lower
frequencies (maximum at 500Hz or there about) and it falls gradually over the
rest of the band.
Fig 17: var i at i on of ener gy wi t h f r equency i n Engl i sh speech
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This then suggest that high signal frequency should be used to reduce the
possibility of imitation by speech frequencies. However, there are other
considerations that suggest frequencies at the upper end of the band should not
be used.
Reason: at the higher frequencies there is an increase in crosstalk, hence
low level transmission is necessary. If the amplitude is low the receiver must be
very sensitive thereby raising the prospect of imitation signaling by low level
speech. In addition the variation of amplitude with frequency is quite marked at
the high frequencies so any change in signal frequency will result in a
significant change in signal amplitude. Between these considerations some
compromise is necessary and in practice the frequency chosen should lie
between 2040-3000
SIGNAL DURATION
When a signal is detected there is need to delay before action is taken by
delaying the recognition until it has persisted for some time the chance of signal
imitation is reduced significantly. Using a guard circuit and a 40ms recognition
delay, the probability of the signal receiver responding to a speech frequency is
reduced and to a low level. The effect of signal recognition delay frequency is
greatly enhanced if a guard circuit is used in the receiver to increase the
rejection of imitation signal
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Fig 18: showi ng bl ock di agr am of syst em usi ng guar d ci r cui t
From the above fig 18 the energy coupled from the speech channel is
amplified and then passes along two paths.
i) Through a band pass filter tuned to the signal frequency, forming part
of the signal circuit.
ii) Through the guard circuit which includes a band stop filter allowing
all but the signal frequency to pass.
The outputs from (i) and (ii) are compared. When a signal arrives, the signal
circuit responds strongly and the guard circuit weakly, leading to a strong
positive signal being detected by the signal detector circuit. When speech is
present; any imitation signal passing through the signal circuits are attenuated
by the strong signal passing through the guard circuit, thus reducing the chance
of spurious imitation.
Types of Voice Frequency Signaling:
(i) Pulse signaling
(ii) Continuous signaling
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Pulse signaling:
We recognize a signal by its length and its sequence. The following
points should be noted about pulse signaling.
1) It has a higher signal repertoire than continuous signaling.
2) It can be transmitted at a higher voltage level and therefore provides a
better SNR.
3) It is less influenced by interference.
4) It complicates the dc/ac and ac/dc conversions because the pulses have to
be carefully timed.
5) It requires a memory facility at the receivers for pulse recognition.
THE TELEPHONE NETWORK AND STRUCTURE
The telephone network has developed dramatically in recent years so that
it is now possible to make calls automatically between subscribers separated by
thousands of miles away. It should be recalled that long distance calls pass
through several stages of switching and several possible transmission links
before reaching their destination, and to make such calls possible many facet of
telecommunications must be integrated and reasonable compromises made by
systems designers.
Although the structure of telephone networks has developed piecemeal as
demand has increased, it still has some identifiable forms. The passage of a call
through a national network can be represented by the multi level diagram show
in figure 19.
Public switched telephone network (PSTN) or the plain old telephone system
(POTS) is perhaps the most stupendous telecommunication network that has
been in existence over 100 years. A unique feature of the telephone network is
that every piece of equipment, technique, or procedure owned by different
corporation is capable of working with each other. You may compare this fact
that it is almost impossible (P.T.O) to interface the first IBM computer with its
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latest system. The enormous complexity of the telephone network is managed
by using a hierarchical structure, world-wide standardization, and
decentralization of administration, operation and maintenance. Any
telecommunication network may be viewed as consisting of the following
major system.
1. Subscriber and instrument or equipment.
2. Subscriber loop systems
3. Switching systems
4. Transmission systems
5. Signalling systems.
Fig. 19: Tel ephone Net wor k Swi t chi ng Hi er ar chy
Table 1: Terminology
C C I T T U S A UK
Primary Centre Toll Centre Group Switching Centre
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Secondary Centre Primary Centre District Switching Centre
Tertiary Centre Sectional Centre Main Switching Centre
Trunk exchange Toll Office Trunk exchange
Trunk network Toll network Trunk network
Trunk circuit Trunk Trunk (circuit)
Local exchange End (central) Local exchange
Office
Junction Circuit Inter-Office Junction
Trunk
From fig 19, we can see several levels of switching that combine to form
the complete network. It is usual to think of the system in two parts. The first is
the junction network, serving the subscriber and consisting of the link from the
subscriber to the local exchange, from local exchange to primary switching
center, and back to the called subscriber via another local exchange. The trunk
network, which is concerned only with calls passing at primary centre level and
above. Thus the primary centre is associated with both parts of the network.
The number of exchange at the various levels depends on several factors:
the physical extent of the network, the number of subscribers, the amount of
traffic, the forecast growth and the transmission methods used. Beyond the level
of the national system is a layer that access to the international network. This
layer may consist of one or more international (usually called gateway)
exchanges.
Numbering schemes:
In modern systems, the numbering scheme used by a telephone
administration to allocate subscribers numbers has an underlying plan, and there
are a few constraints on the development of the plan that must be taken into
account:
(i) It must provide each subscriber with a unique number within the national
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network
(ii) The allocation to areas must be able to meet forecast growth, for several
decades.
(iii) The number of digits should not exceed that recommended by CCITT.
In principle, (i) is easy to satisfy if (ii) have been met. The length of the
number recommended by CCITT is 11-n where n is the country code. If, for
example, n is 2, then national number should not exceed nine digits in length.
These digits are used to denote the subscribers number on the local exchange,
the exchange within a given area and the area within the national numbering
scheme. In many local exchanges there is a maximum capacity of 10,000 lines,
thus the last four digits of the national number are allocated to the subscribers
number in the exchange of the remaining five digits in our example, the first
two would denote the area code and the remaining three the exchange within
the area. Thus the number has the form show in fig. 20.
Toll call Area Exchange Subscribers
Prefix Code Code number
Fig. 20: Nat i onal Tel ephone Number
For automatic long dialing a prefix is necessary to indicate to the
exchange equipment that a trunk call is being made.
Note: In calculating the length of the national number, the prefix is not
included.
With the anticipation of a general use of mobile systems, plans were
developed to relate numbers to people rather than premises. Hence a personal
numbering scheme was introduced so that access can be made via any handset.
This makes use of the 11-digit number where n=0
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DIGITAL SYSTEMS
Here, we will concentrate on the switching and transmission used in the
public switched telephone networks (PSTN), including the integrated services
digital network for voice and data, known as ISDN.
In digital exchange, most of the controls are handled by microprocessor
devices, single or in clusters, which are driven by software. The software must
be efficient, reliable, secure, understandable and well documented.
In analogue exchange the usual figure of merit used is the grade of
service, or probability of blocking, but in digital switches, the blocking is
virtually zero. In these systems the major problems concern delay in the
processing of calls caused by the processor units becoming overloaded.
QUESTION
Write brief note on the international gateways.
DIGITAL SWITCHING
The digital switch can have many structural forms depending on the
application, the number of connections required and the technology used. The
system show schematically in fig. 18 is a local exchange and it shows that there
are two types of switched involved. A subscriber switch to act as a concentrator
and a control switch has a distribution function.
Fig. 20: Di gi t al Tel ephone Exchange
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Note: SIsignaling interface
CCS----common channel signaling
What is the function of a concentrator?
The architecture of the subscriber switch will depends to a large extent on
the number of subs to the exchange, if a small rural exchange is being
connected, the switch may act as no more than a multiplex or being the
mechanism whereby up to 30 speech channels are time division multiplexed on
to a single PCM carrier. In such a case, since a group of 30 channels is the
smallest PCM link available, it may be sensible to allow all subscriber lines full
availability access. However, if the number of subscriber is somewhat larger, a
concentrator will be necessary. As in analogue systems. A concentrator
provides significantly fewer lines on the outlet than are attached at the input.
The fact that the inlets are subscribers indicates that generally the mean traffic
per inlet line will be less than 0.1 erlang thus a very low loss probability can be
achieved even if the number of outlets is no more than a fraction of the number
of inlets.
Notice that if a digital switch (exchange) has to carry a traffic originating
on an analogue line then interworking is difficult hence a special interface units
required are regained to ensure smooth operation; as you can see in Fig, 20.
TIME SWITCHING AND SPACE SWITCHING:
Recall that one of the main functions of digital switching is to inter-
connect a calling subscriber on an incoming line with a called subscriber on an
outgoing line. In PCM system, the time slot arrangement is used. In fig 21, for
example, five subscribers on the inlet side of a multiplex are able to call
subscribers on the output side, if for instance, subscriber C on the inlet timeslot
3 wants to be connected to subscriber V on outlet timeslot 4, the inlet sample
must be delayed in the switch for one timeslot before being sent out on
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timeslot4 for the connection. The type of switch designed to provide the
appropriate delay is called a time switch. The sample from the inlet channel is
stored in a buffer and then read out when the appropriate output timeslot
arrives.
Fig. 21: Time Swi t chi ng
QUESTION
Draw the block diagram representation of telephone switching hierarchy.
Explain what you understand by junction network and trunk network. Hence
give reason for the insertion of prefix 0 in automatic long distance dialing.
Fig 22, illustrates the way in which this is done. Synchronization is
obtained from the frame and mutliframe alignment signals in the PCM format.
Each input time slot word is stored in a buffer. A control store holds
information on the time at which each sample has to be read out. At the
appropriate time, this control store connects the data buffer to the output lines.
The control store instructions are derived from a central processing unit which
responds to the call request. What are the limitations associated with time
switching? Note the limitations of time switching led to the adoption of space
switching.
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Fig, 20. Buf f er del ay f or t i me swi t chi ng.
When there is more than one incoming and outgoing PCM line, time
switching will not be able to meet the requirement. But effective
communication system must be able to provide access for any inlet line channel
on any outgoing line channel and this is what space does. It provides linking
between the particular inlet and outlet lines. But for complete flexibility in the
operation of the digital switch, some combination of time and space switching
is required. It is possible to achieve full switching with just one time switch (T)
in conjunction with one space switch (S), but this will create internal blocking.
Most often a three-stage arrangement is used, either STS or TST. A more
general TST switch is given in fig. 23. The time switch is split into several
units, each having M PCM links of L Channels Consequently, if the time switch
is non-blocking it will have an outlet highway of N = ML time slots.
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Fig. 23: Network Repr esent at i on of a di gi t al swi t ch
The purpose of the TST unit is to allow a particular call, which occupies
a specific channel into one of the time switches, to be connected to a particular
outlet channel. Basically, the switching is between highways on either side of
the space switch. Each highway has N timeslots and in order for a particular call
to be connected say H1 to H3, it must find a timeslot which is free in both
highways,. This slot may not be the same as the required incoming and
outgoing slots for the call, and so some time delay, provided by the time
switches, is necessary.
To understand the behavior of the TST switch in terms of the link
systems considered earlier it is important to appreciate the fact that for each
timeslot there will be a different set of calls in progress and the connections
between the highways will last for only one time slot period than the new
connections will be established. This can be represented by having space
switches one for each timeslot. See fig. 24
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Fig. 24: Anal ogue Equi val ent of TST Swi t ch
Whether or not blocking occurs in the TST unit depends entirely on the
dimension of the space switch and since modern systems switches are
comparatively inexpensive, they are usually large enough to make blocking
negligible. For total non-blocking there must be least as many outlets as inlets
on the switches, and the space switch highways must have 2N-1 time slots,
where N is the number of time-slots in a link to a time switch.
Digital switches are uni-directional and that implies that two paths are
required to connect two channels X and Y, and for conversation from X to Y
and the other for conversation from Y to X. to reduce the control process, the X
to Y slot is chosen according to whatever rules are used by the designer, and Y
and X interconnection is allocated a fixed number of time slots from it e.g one,
or half a frame. By this arrangement, if the X to Y connection is available, then
Y to X must be free.
QUESTION
Differentiate between analogue and digital switches.
Explain briefly the precautionally measures normally taken during design to
ensure non-blocking operations using digital switch.
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MOBILE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Mobile communication system is broadly divided into two viz:-
1. Cellular mobile system
2. Cordless mobile system.
Both have something in common; they rely on radio transmissions for the
final link with the subscriber: it is envisaged that in the nearest future, the
public switched telephone network with fixed telephone handset will eventually
disappear completely and be replaced by mobile units allowing individual
subscribers the facility of global travel with continuous personal
communication.
In this topic we will concentrate attentions on European systems. Recall
that the first generation is the analogue systems while the second generation is
the digital systems. The essential feature of all cellular networks is that the final
link between the subscriber and fixed network is by radio. This has a number of
implications viz:-
1. Radio spectrum is a finite resource and the amount of spectrum
available for mobile communications is strictly limited;
2. The radio environment is subject to multipart propagation, fading and
interference and is not therefore an ideal transmission medium;
3. The subscriber is able to move and this movement must be
accommodated by the communications system.
Due to the limited amount of the spectrum (radio) allocated to cellular
radio the number of carrier frequencies available is limited. Hence, it becomes
necessary to re-use the available frequencies many times in order to provide
sufficient channels for required demands. This introduces the concept of
frequency re-use and with it the possibility of interference between cells using
the same carrier frequencies. The question now is: How can we contain with a
fixed network with ever increasing or expanding subscriber or customer
capacity; with a view of providing efficient and reliable service.
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Hence, it becomes imperative that with a fixed number of carrier frequencies
available the capacity of the system can be increased only by re-using the
carrier frequencies more often. We do this by making the cell sizes smaller. But
this action has prizes to pay.
1. It increases the likelihood of interference (known as co-channel interface)
between cells using the same frequency.
2. If a mobile is moving it will cross cell boundaries more frequently when
the cells are small.
Whenever a mobile crosses a cell boundary, it must change from the
carrier of the cell which it is leaving to the carrier of the cell which it is
entering. This process is known as handover this action cannot be performed
instantaneously hence there will be loss of communication while the handover
is being processed. If the cell sizes are smaller (say micro cells) then handover
may occur at a very rapid rate.
QUESTION
Explain briefly the principle of handover in mobile communication?
PROPERTIES OF THE RADIO CHANNEL
The radio channel in cellular system has major influence on the overall
system design. This has already been evident in the way in which frequency re-
use is implemented based on radio attenuation proportional to D
4
. Cellular radio
systems are categorized by the fact that the heights of antennas at both base
station and mobile are usually low compared to the distance of separation. The
model is given in fig. 23
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Fig. 25: Plant Ear t h Pr opagat i on Model
For an isotropic antenna, it is assumed that it radiate energy equally in all
directions.
ANALOGUE CELLULAR RADIO
With the development of the integrated circuits technology, radio
equipment can now be miniaturized, and relatively sophisticated operations can
be implemented at low cost. This development allows the sharing of a number
of radio channels on demand using frequency division multiple across (FDMA)
where a particular channel is assigned to a specific user only when a telephone
call is IN PROGRESS. An example is trunked mobile radio system in which a
number of radio channels is shared with different groups of users.
Mobile telephone service is designed to connect mobile units with dial
telephone exchanges. The more advanced system provides fully automotive
operation, giving the mobile user the identical telephone capabilities of a
regular fixed subscriber. Earlier systems required the mobile user to manually
place e cell through an operator. Each mobile unit is assigned a conventional
telephone number in the central office and is given the same treatment as a land
telephone.
A basic telecommunication network can be described as the
interconnection of subscribers instruments to ensure that one subscriber can be
linked to another within and outside the same locality, using cables. Switches
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and transmission equipment. The different elements are further classified as
independent network, like the local Area Network (LAN) comprising the
exchange and the local cabling to the subscribers premises.
It is also common to hear about the switching network (Interconnection
of Switches) comprising the local exchange (LE) the primary switching centre
(PC), the secondary switching centre (SC). Transit Exchange (TE), among other
up to international switch.
From the foregoing analysis, the cellular Mobile Network can also be
defined as the interconnection of Mobile Subscribers or Mobile stations (MS)
and the public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
Land Mobile Radio Services has been in use for over a century now. The
world Administrative Radio Conference (WARC) an organ of international
Telecommunication Union (ITU) which is responsible for the administration of
the Radio frequency Spectrum, had allocated certain bands for use in the land
Mobile Radio services. These comprises of the very high frequency (VHF) and
the Ultra high frequency (UHF) with channel spacing of 12.5 KHz and 25 KHz,
respectively.
Different national Telecommunication Administrators have used these
frequencies within their geographical boundaries, for the provision of fixed and
Mobile services to their Nationals. In Nigeria, these bands of frequencies have
been assigned to provide private and pubic organizations whose access to the
pubic switched Telephone Network (PSTN) has been made difficult as a result
of the area where such organizations are located. Primarily, those affected in
this regard include oil companies that require the need of communication
between the oil rigs scattered in the reverine areas (for off-shore and onshore
exploration activities); the construction companies that need to be in constant
touch with progress made in their works including communication with the
ground and the top of high rise buildings, forest guards for constant touch with
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their centre and some governmental institutions, where co-ordination of
government projects in the rural areas are necessary.
It is therefore a statement of fact that the introduction of cellular Mobile
Radio System in Nigeria is a welcome development in the sense that business
activities in the country have been given a new impetus. Although , the cellular
Mobile Telephone Service is new in the country have been introduced in 2001,
but based on the information received on the subscription to the network so far,
it is encouraging to note that demand for the services would continue to grow
with a high level of enthusiasm.
THE CONCEPT OF THE SYSTEM
The evolution and development of Mobile cellular Technology is partly
as a result of the phenomenon of cable cost escalation and partly a contribution
towards the March to the Personal communication state. The conventional
telephone subscriber cable distribution where cables are used for primary and
secondary cable layout is not an attractive option for some rural environment.
This is due to the inhibiting factors of geography and cost. The rural terrain
makes access a problem, and the use of long span cables makes the cost
prohibitive. These two factors would exert a discouraging influence on any
administrator seeking to invests in rural telephone service. Not only that the
immobility inherent in the pubic switched Telephone Network ( PSTN) which
makes it absolutely impossible to answer a call while on the move was another
disturbing factor. Hence, these posed a challenge to Telecommunications
Engineers.
However, the development of cellular Technology and its capabilities
served to fulfill the desired technical phone service distribution. The concept
allows the network to be populated with intelligence equipment ranging from
the Mobile Switching service Centre (MSC) to the subscriber unit. Attached to
this is the increasing independence and functions ascribed to these units. The
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control and functions hitherto carried on Cables are now carried in radio waves.
The stationary or fixed location characteristic associated with subscriber units is
now replaced with flexibility and mobility. This is because the radio
transmission phenomenon now introduced for communication between the
switch and the subscriber unit can be located tens of kilometers away from the
nearest cell site. This is in contrast to the cable distribution system where
subscriber unit can only be .located a mere few kilometers.
Therefore, the advent of this type of technology has made its application
to rural development attractive because it possesses attributes conducive to rural
communication setting,
The attraction for rural application include
Its cellular characteristic whereby no subscriber cable link is required.
Its long range capability from the nearest cell site.
It suitability for pay phone in isolated locations
Relative ease of installation.
Comparatively law maintenance factor
Solar power source capability
The cellular concept has the following advantages:
(a) Larger subscriber capacity
(b) Efficient use of the radio spectrum
(c) Nationwide compatibility
(d) Service to hand-held portables as well as vehicles
(e) High-quality telephone and data service to the Mobile user at relatively
low cost
THE THEORY OF CELLULAR MOBILE NETWORK
A basic cellular mobile radio network is shown in fig. 26. The network
components consist of the following:
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Cells (cell sites) and Radio Base Stations (RBS) Linked by radio
medium to mobile subscribers.
Mobile Services Switching centre (MSCs) Linked by digital or analogue
Links to the Radio Base stations, within the service area,
A Link between the MSCs and the existing public switched Telephone
Network (PSTN).
In addition to these compliments, certain theoretical requirements must be
present if the full benefits of the cellular mobile Radio system are to be fully
realized.
BASIC THEORITICAL REQUIREMENTS
The cells within each service area must overlap to ensure that Mobile
Subscriber within the service area roam from one cell to another cell via a
phenomenon of handoff and handover without break in conversation.
The cells in the boundary between adjacent service areas must be
contiguous to ensure uninterrupted conversation when a Mobile Subscriber
moves from one service area to another.
The mobile service Switching centers must be linked via an international
consultative committee for Telegraph and telephone (CCITT) No. 7 signaling
protocol in order to ensure that data interchange about a subscriber crossing
from one service area to another in a mult- service area configuration are not
lost. The mobile subscriber in such a situation would be encouraged in a
phenomenon of automatic registration (a concept that arises from the mobile
subscriber telling the new mobile service switching centre (MSC) service area
of her presence or identification)
The mobile service Switching centre most be linked either by digital or
analog means to existing PSTN to ensure free flow of traffic from the mobile to
PSTN subscriber and vice versa.
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There must also exist a shareable medium the limited frequency (channels
available) band which the individual mobile subscribers must compete for.
The mobile service Switching centers in a multi-service area network must
be compatible with one another, that is to say that all must have the same
cellular standard.
The cellular network must not interfere with existing mobile and fixed
private radio system. i.e. it must conform with international consultative
committee for Radio regulation with respect to frequency assignment.
Note: If all the foregoing requirements are attained, then a truly cellular
mobile RADIO Network must in theory work efficiently. But it is difficult to
realize this in practice due to certain factors, mainly economics considerations
and geographical size of the area where the cellular mobile system operates.
SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATION
Bearing in mind the existence of telephone exchanges in the country, NITEL
in collaboration with digital Tele-communications of U.S.A, otherwise called
Mobile Telecommunication Services (MTS), decided to incorporate the mobile
Service Switching centre (MSC) in the already existing exchanges housing the
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).this is before the advent of GSM
in Nigeria.
The traditional problem faced by Mobile radio system designers has been
how to balance the apparently conflicting requirements of area coverage and
user capacity. These requirements conflict because, if a base station is to
provide service to mobiles over a wide area, it must have high power and be
situated on the highest point available in the required coverage area. But
following this strategy means that the channels allocated to the transmitting site
cannot be re-used for another service for a very considerable distance.
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The Figure,26(a) shown below is the Basic Telephone Network showing the
position of the mobile services switching centre (MSC); while Figure 26(b)
shows the cellular mobile Radio System Network..
Where TC = Tertiary Centre, SC = Secondary Centre, PC = Primary Centre
LE = Local Exchange, SUB = Subscriber
Fig. 26(a): Basic t el ephone net wor k wi t h MSC
BS: BASE STATION, LE: LOCAL EXCHANGE, MS: MOBILE STATON
MSC: MOBILE SERVICES SWITCHING CENTRE
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T: TERMINAL EQUIPMENT, TE: TRANSIT EXCHANGE
Fig. 26 (b) Cel lul ar mobi le r adi o syst em networ k
Note: The cell transmitting antenna is a single, driven, vertical, unidirectional
element mounted on top of the transmitting tower, see figure 1 (c) below. The
cell receiving antenna system is shown one-third of the way down the
transmitting tower in the figure and consists of half-wave vertical dipole
antennas, each with 90 corner reflector.
Vertical half-wave
dipole receiving
antenna
Vertical Polarized
transmitting antenna
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Fig. 26 (c) Showi ng a cel l r ecei vi ng and t r ansmi t t i ng ant enna t ower .
RADIO BASE STATION EQUIPMENT
A radio base station (MBS) is the radio interface between the mobile
subscribers and the mobile services switching centre (MSC). It acts as a radio
relay point for both speech and data (control signals). In this regard, it is
connected to the MSC on a point-to-point circuit basis, using twisted wire pair
coaxial cable, optic fiber or radio medium
The type of the radio base station equipment in use in the country is the RBS
883. A typical base station is made up of the following equipment as shown in
Figure 27(a)
(i) Radio channel group (RCG).
This is the heart of the RBS equipment
A typical configuration of RCG is made up of one control channel, a number of
guide channels and one signal strength meter suitable to serve a cell.
(ii) Exchange Radio Interface is one of the functional units of the base
station and it is equipped with devices dedicated to data communication for
signaling between the MSC and the base stations and vice versa. In the cabinet
that houses the ERI are equipment such as 32- channel per multiplexers for
PCM link between the base station and the MSC.
(iii) Power supply- This is what energizes the system before it commences
work. It is operating at about 26.4 V dc level.
MOBILE STATION (MS)
The Mobile Subscriber is called the mobile station. It is the replica of the
telephone set used in the public switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
Different manufacturers ranging from:
Mobile station installed in cars
Transportable ones that can be carried around.
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This type is a dual purpose telephone that can be used in a mobile phone
installed in a car but it can also be easily removed to be placed in a boat, a
cottage or just to be carried around as the need arises:
Hand-held, which is a small portable unit with low output power.
There are also mobile phones that are permanently installed in fixed
locations beyond the coverage areas of PSTN, and used as coin boxes.
These types can also be used as public telephones on trains and shops
where charging information are sent on the radio voice channel.
Note: Irrespective of the types, the basic configuration of the mobile station is
the same.
Fig. 27 (a): Funct i onal uni t s of a base st at i on
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Fig. 27 (b): Funct i onal uni t s of a mobi l e st at i on
BASIC STRUCTURE OF A MOBILE STATION
The functional block diagram of a mobile station is given in figure 27 (b).
The functional units include:
The operating part which contains a push button keypad and a display of
dialed digit system. This operating part is micro-processor controlled;
The control part is also micro-processor controlled, and handles specific
tasks such as data signaling on the radio part such as the selection of
channel, activation of transmitter, opening of channel path, etc. as well
as communication with the operating parts. For example during
reception of the dialed B-number to be sent on the radio path.
The radio part; the radio part consists of a transmitter, receiver, power
amplifier (with power output ranging from 1w maximum for hand-held
and the car installed types);
The duplex filter: This is used for simultaneous transmission and
reception via the same antenna on the radio path.
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MOBILE STATION POWER SYSTEM
The power system for the MS usually comes with the station in pair (for
purpose of working state and standby system) of rechargeable scaled batteries.
In addition, a charger also comes with the mobile set, suitable for charging from
main (220-240V)
THE ANTENNA SYSTEMS
Two types of standard antenna are available for use in the base stations:
The omni-directional for circular calls or directional for sector calls.
Fig. 28(a): Base st at i on ant enna syst em
For the case of mobile station, most common antenna available are the
wave length and collinear antennas. Glass mounted antenna are also available
for mounting on the glass or cars. The wave and the collinear can also be
found on the roof top of cars.
Fig. 28(b): Mobi l e st at i on ant enna syst em
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CELLULAR MOBILE RADIO OPERATION AND TECHNIQUES
The cellular mobile Telephone uses FM Systems. The major elements of the
improved mobile telephone service include the following:
Terminal Unit: This unit performs the necessary control, signaling, and
switching functions to interface the local telephone exchange with the radio
base station equipment. In addition to its connection to the dial office, the
control terminal may also have a trunk connection to a switchboard for
operators assistance on certain types of calls.
Radio Base Station: This installation includes the transmitter, receiver,
duplexer, and antenna units and any necessary control equipment for connection
with the terminal unit over wire line or carrier facilities. A duplexer is a system
whereby transmission and reception may occur concurrently by using two
different frequency carriers for each signal. This enables conversation without
the push to talk requirement. Depending on the terrain, antenna height, and
required operating range, the required output of the transmitter unit may vary
anywhere from 20 to 250watts.
Mobile Radio-Telephone :These units each include a small integrated control/
logic unit, which can be located within convenient reach of the vehicle driver,
and a compact transmitter, receiver package (including duplexer) which can be
located at any out-of-way place (e.g. under a seat or in the vehicle luggage
compartment) The mobile Installation also includes an antenna. The transmitter
output and antenna ensure proper area coverage.
Principles of Operation: The most basic feature of the mobile telephone
system that gives it the flexibility to offer all the rest of its advanced features is
the automatic selection and marking of a radio channel for each cell. Whenever
there are channels idle and available for traffic, the terminal unit selects one and
activates the associated base station transmitter modulated by an idle marking
tone. All idle units scan over their available channels until the idle tone is
detected and lock onto the marked channel.
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The next call in either direction is then established on this channel, with
the participating mobile unit remaining locked to it. In the process of
completing the call, the terminal unit moves the idle marker to another free
channel; again looking idle mobile units to a common channel eliminates the
necessity for the mobile users to monitor the channels to find a free one or to
maintain watch on a separate calling channel.
If all channels are busy, the mobile unit will illuminate its busy lamp
when the telephone handset is removed from the cradle. It also offers the unique
feature of providing the conventional engaged signal in the handset ear piece
when all-channels-busy situation exist. A fixed subscriber placing a call to a
mobile unit when all channels are busy may receive the all-trunks-busy tone
indication or an optional voice announcement.
To maintain system order each mobile unit is assigned a unique seven-
digit identification and selective calling number. Mobile units will respond only
upon receipt of their assigned number. On mobile-originated calls, the unit
transmits this same number back to the terminal unit as identification so that the
call will be routed to the proper line circuit for completion. When the full
capacity of the seven identification digits is not required, the number of digits
can be reduced accordingly. This can result in a saving of time required for
selective calling and identification.
In the cellular phone, each user communicates via radio from a cellular
telephone set to the cell-site base station. This base station is connected via
telephone lines to the mobile telephone switching office (MTSO), otherwise
called MSC.
The MTSO connects the user to the called party. If the called party is
mobile, the connection is made to the cell site that covers that area in which the
called party is located, using an available radio channel in the cell associated
with the called party.
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The critical consideration in this system is to design the cells for
acceptable levels of channel interference/ as the mobile user travels from one
call to another, the MTSO automatically switches the user to an available
channel on the new cell and the telephone conversation continues uninterrupted.
Consistent with most mobile communications systems, is the polarization
of antenna. The antennas are vertically polarized to guarantee uniform reception
and transmission in all directions, regardless of the direction in which the
mobile vehicle is traveling. The mobile antenna is a half-wave vertical whip,
usually mounted at the top centre of the rear window of the mobile vehicle, and
is used for receiving and transmitting.
Each cellular telephone contains a programmable read-only Memory
(Prom) or Erasable programmable read-only Memory (EPROM) - called a
numeric assignment module (NAM) - that is programmed to contain the
following:
a) The telephone number-also called the electronic service number
(ESN)- of the phone:
b) The serial number of the phone as assigned by the manufacturer.
c) Personal codes that can be used to prevent unauthorized use of the phone.
When the phone is on-the-air it automatically transmits its serial
number to the MTSO. The serial; number is used by the MTSO to lock out
phone service to any phone that has been stolen. This feature, of course,
discourages theft of the units. The MTSO used the telephone number of the unit
to provide billing information.
When the phone is used in a remote city, it can be place in the roam
mode so that calls can be initiated or received and yet the service will be billed
via the callers home town company.
To place a call the following sequence of events occurs.
1) The Cellular Subscriber initiates a call by keying in the telephone
number of the called party and then presses the send key.
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2) The MTSO verifies that the telephone number is valid and that the
user is authorized to place a call.
3) The MTSO issues instructions to the users Cellular phone indicating
which radio channel to use.
4) The MTSO sends out a signal to the called party to ring his or her
phone. All of these operations occur within 10 secs of initiating the call
5) When the called party answers, the MTSO connects the trunk lines
for the two parties and initiates billing information.
6) When one party hands up, the MTSO frees the radio channel and
completes the billing information.
Note: While call is in progress, the cellular Subscriber may be moving from one
cell area to another, so the MTSO does the followings:
a) Monitors the signal strength from the cellular telephone as received at the
cell base station. If the signal drops below some designated level, the
MTSO initiates a hand-off sequence.
b) For hand-off, MTSO inquires about the signal strength as received at
adjacent cell sites.
c) When the signal level becomes sufficiently large at an adjacent cell site,
the MTSO instructs the cellular radio to switch over to an appropriate
channel for communication with that new cell site.
Note that MTSO means same thing as MSC.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF CELLULAR MOBILE
Some of the features that make cellular mobile Radio system attractive are
cell planning, frequency reuse and roaming capabilities.
Cell planning: The sizes of cells in CMRS are dependent upon a number of
factors, namely:
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- Radio Transmitter output
- Frequency band used
- Height and location of the Antenna Tower
- The type of Antenna
- Topography of the Area
- Radio Receiver sensitivity.
Although, the above factors determine the size of a cell; the traffic
capacity to a great extent conflicts with the transmitter power requirements.
This is so because when a cellular network is being planned; planning data are
usually based on estimation of subscribers within a cell area, as a result cells
within urban area where traffic is high require smaller size, and thus lower
transmitter power output while in the rural areas with lower traffic capacity,
would require a large cell and proportional higher transmitter power output.
However, with increase in traffic demands, cells are preplanned using cell
splitting and overlaid cells. Cell splitting involves putting more base stations in
area where traffic demand has risen especially in urban areas.
Cell planning arrangement is shown in fig.29, below:
Fig. 29: showi ng cel l pl anni ng ar r angement
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FREQUENCY REUSE
The principle of frequency re-use arises from the fact that each cell is
assigned a group of channels. Frequency re-use is a fundamental concept in
cellular radio systems, but such systems need careful planning to avoid
degradation by co-channel interference, i.e. interference with calls in one cell
caused by a transmitter in another cell that uses the same set of frequencies.
Frequency re-use is therefore the fundamental target of cellular radio systems,
and implementing this to maximum effect has been the subject of much study
since the inception of the cellular principle.
CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT
In assigning frequencies to cells and thus re-use of frequencies two
requirements must be met; if the problem of co-channel interference is to be
eliminated. The first is that the frequency spacing between any two channels
(within the same cell) must be as large as possible (be equal to the number of
cells in the cluster). A major step forward was the introduction of dynamic
channel allocation (or trunking), which is an essential feature of cellular radio
and has substantially increased spectrum utilization. Although the cellular
concept which relies on frequency re-use is still in its infancy, it has the
potential to produce a radio telephone service to individuals on the move, either
through vehicular installations or by means of hand-held portable equipment.
The setting up of the UK national network and its associated facilities has
produced a demand which has exceeded all expectations. It is the availability of
low-cost microprocessor and other large-scale integrated circuits which has
brought about the most recent advances in mobile radio.
Roaming: Another main attraction of the cellular Mobile Radio System is the
capability of roaming whereby a mobile station already in conversation moves
from one cell area to another without loss of call. In such a situation the mobile
service switching centre (MSc) automatically does the switching from one base
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station to another via a phenomenon of handoff and handover; used to
disconnect the mobile from one Base Station (BS) and to connect it to another
where the signal strength is stronger.
Roaming can take place within an MSc service area or between MSCs
(where the cells between the MSCs Overlap). Manual roaming also exist;
whereby the cells between the MSCs do not overlap and there is no data link
between them. In this case mobile subscriber moving from one MSC to another
would be required to make manual registration to indicate her presence. To
achieve manual roaming, subscribers will request call forwarding on no reply
service from their home MSC (MSC H) to the other MSCs.
Fig. 30: Net wor k ar r angement f or TACS
In TACS the BSs are connected by permanent links to mobile switching
centers (MSCs) which are Computer Controlled telephone exchanges
specifically designed for handling cellular services. The MSCs in turn are
connected to the PSTN and to other MSCs. The arrangement is shown in fig 30.
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It enables MSs to communicate with other MSs and to non-mobile users. It also
allows cells to be connected to MSs who are not in their home area.
The cellular network must keep track of all the MSs that are subscribers
to the network. It does this by forming traffic areas which consists group of
cells. In all directions hence in such a situation it is possible to calculate the
power density at a distance or from the antenna. If the antenna radiates a total
power p
t
, the power at any distance r from the antenna is the power passing
through the surface of a sphere of radius r. The surface area of the sphere is 4ar
2
and the power received per unit area is given by
Pa = pt watts/m
2
(1)
4a r
2
At sufficiently large value of r the wave becomes a plane wane. The power
received by an antenna placed in this field is
Pr = Pa Ae (2)
Ae is known as the effective aperture of the antenna and is the equivalent
power absorbing area of the antenna. The effective aperture of an isotropic
antenna when used as a receiver can be shown to be Ae
2
/4a
Hence the power received by such an antenna is
Pr = Pa X
2
/4a
But Pa = Pt / 4ar
2
i.e.
Pr = Pt
2
(3)
(4ar)
2
Note: The isotropic antenna has unity gain in both the transmit and receive
modes. A non-isotropic transmit antenna will have gain of Gt and the product
Pt Gt is known as the effective radiated power (ERP). In mobile radio ERP is
used as the standard method of quoting transmitted power. In effect, if the ERP
is quoted as 100W (50dBm) and the antenna gain is 10W ( 40dBm ).
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A nonisotropic receive antenna will have gain Gr and, in such cases, the
received power would be given by
Pr = Gt Gr Pt
2
4
(4 a r)
2
This expression indicates that the attenuation is proportional to distance squared
(d)
2
.
SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION
In mobile radio, we consider the height of both transmit and receive
antennas above the earths, surface. If the height of the base station antenna is
hl and the height of the mobile antenna is h2, the system may be represented as
shown also in Fig. 25, earlier where the separation between transmitter and
receiver is d. In the Figure 26, it is assumed thatd is small enough to neglect
the earths curvature. From there we see that there will be both a direct and
ground reflected wave. The direct path length is d
d
and the reflected path length
is dr. It can be seen from the geometry of the system that
d
d
= \ d
2
+ (h
1
h
2
)
2
(5)
Using the binomial expansion and noting that d hl or h2, the length of the direct
path approximates to
d
d
d 1+0.5 h
1
- h
2
2
d
Similarly
d
r
d 1+0.5 h
1-
h
2
2
d
The path difference is thus
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Ad = d
r
- d
d
, i.e.
Ad = 2h
1
h
2
(6)
d
The corresponding phase difference between direct and reflected path is
A = 2a X 2h
1
h
2
= 4a h
1
h
2
d d ( 7)
The total received power is thus
Pr = Pt (/
4ad
)
2
X 1 +pe
jA 2
(8)
p is the reflection coefficient and for low angles of incidence the earth
approximates to an ideal reflector with
p = -1, i.e.
Pr = Pt (/
4ad
)
2
X 1 e
jA 2
(9)
But 1 e
jA
= 1 Cos A j Sin A ,
Hence (1 e
jA
)
2
= (1 CosA)
2
+ Sin
2
A.
If A << 1 then, Cos A = 1 and Sin A = A
Pr = Pt ( /
4ad
)
2
4a h
1
h
2
2
d
Hence
Pr = Pt h
1
h
2
2
d
2 (
10)
This is the 4
th
power law used in the frequency re-use calculation and is
known as the plane earth propagation equation. The loss is given by:
loss (dB) = 40 log
10
d 20 log
10
h
1
20 log
10
h
2
.
This means that the loss increases by 12 dB each time the distance is
doubled. It should be noted that this equation is not dependent on frequency,
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which is a surprising result. But this is based in the assumption that hl and h2
are much smaller than d and the earth is flat and perfectly reflecting.
PRINCIPLES OF FADING
It should be noted that as the mobile moves, there are substantial
amplitude fluctuations in the received signal known as fast fading. A typical
variation of signal strength with distance is shown in Fig,34.
Fast fading (due to local multipart) is also accompanied by a slower variation in
mean signal strength known as slow fading
Fig. 31: Fadi ng due t o mul t i par t pr opagat i on
Fast fading is observed over distance of about half a Wavelength and can
produce signal strength variations, in excess of 30 dB. Slow fading is produced
by movement over much longer distanced, sufficient to produce gross variations
in the overall path between base station and mobile.
SHORT-TERM FADING (FAST FADING)
When a mobile unit is stationary the received signal strength will be
formed by the vector sum of the various signals reaching the antenna and will
give constant amplitude. But when the mobile is moving it is assumed that the
signal received will be the vector sum of N reflected signal of equal amplitude
which arrive at the receiving antenna at a random phase angle. This is accepted
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as a reasonable model for the cellular environment where there is not usually a
direct line of sight path between transmitter and receiver. (If there is direct line
of sight component this will alter the nature of the fading envelope and its
statistics).
Applying the central limit theorem it can be shown that the received
electric and magnetic field components have independent Gaussian
distributions. This may lead us to conclude that the envelope of the resultant
received carrier has amplitude which has a Raleigh distribution given by
Pa (a) = a exp ( -a
2
) (11)
o
2
2o
2
In the above expression o
2
is the mean square value (i.e. mean power) of
the carrier envelope and a is the instantaneous amplitude of the envelope.
The distribution function is shown in Fig. 32.
Fig. 32, Resul tant car r i er envelope di st r i but i on funct i on
Note that the probability density function has a peak value of
0.6 at a = o where o is the
o
rms value of the received signal. The corresponding cumulative distribution
function (CDF) is Prob(a<A)= Pa(A)=1exp(A) (12)
2o
2
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When the CDF is known it is possible to determine the average number
of times per second that the signal envelope crossed a particular level in the
positive direction. This is known as the level crossing rate. The level crossing
rate is related to the velocity of the mobile V and the wavelength of the received
carrier and, for a vertical monopole antenna, we have that
N (A
o
) = \2a V P exp (- p
2
). (13)

Where P = A
o
/p and A
o
is the specified level.
The situation is shown in Fig. 33.
Note: N (A
o
) is a maximum when A
o
is 3 dB below the rms carrier level. This
can be explained by the observation that if A
o
is low, the envelope is this level
for a large proportion of the time and hence the number of crossings per second
decreases.
A similar situation
Fig. 33,
Fading experienced by a mobile is observed when Ao is set at a high
level, the envelope being below this level for a large percentage of the time
which again reduces the average number of crossing per second.
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The duration of a fade is the interval of time that the envelope remains
below the level Ao and this is also shown in fig. 33. Hence the average duration
of fades below the level Ao is
t (Ao) = Prob [a < A
o
]
N (A
o
)
However, prob [a < A
o
] = 1 exp (-p
2
), hence the average fade duration for a
vertical monopole antenna is
t (Ao) = [ exp (p
2
) - 1] (14)
PV \ 2a
QUESTIONS
1. Mention one special feature of cellular networks. Hence, state three
implications associated with such characteristic.
2. Briefly discuss the problems that may be encountered in attempting to
transmit high speed base band digital data over the public switched
telephone network (PSTN).
DIGITAL CELLULAR RADIO
There are a number of significant advantages to be achieved with digital
systems which makes their adoption as second generation systems attractive.
The global system for mobile communication (GSM) was chosen after
satisfying the following criteria based on the available digital techniques.
They include:
i. High subjective voice quality
ii. Low infrastructure cost
iii. Low mobile equipment cost
iv. High radio spectrum efficiency
v. Capability of supporting hand held portables
vi. Ability to support new services
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vii. The ability to coexist with existing systems.
THE GSM TECHNOLOGY
In GSM the voice wave form is digitally encoded before transmission.
The system is based in TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) hence
individual users are given access to the radio channel for a limited period and
transmit a burst of binary information. Before we go into the details of the
system, let us have a look at the principles of GSM operation and compare it
with the analogue system. RBS BSC MSC Destination.
GSM has two main objectives: pan- European roaming, which offers
compatibility throughout the European continent, and interaction with the
interacted services digital network (ISDN), which offers the capability to extend
the single-subscriber line system to a multi-service system with various services
currently offered only through diverse telecommunication networks system
capability was not an issue in the initial development of GSM, but due to the
expected rapid growth of cellular service, 35 revisions have been made to GSM
since the first issued specification. The first commercial GSM system, called
D2, was implemented in Germany in 1992.The Figure below shows the external
environment of the base station sub-system.
Fig 34: showi ng t he ext er nal envi r onment of t he BSS.
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Where MS means mobile station
BSS - base station sub-system
NSS - network and switching subsystem
OSS - operation subsystem
MULTIPLE ACCESS SCHEME
o General description: GSM is a combination of FDMA and TDMA. The
total number of channels in FDMA is 124, and each channel is
200khz.both the 935-960Mhz downlink have been allocated 25Mhz for a
total of 50Mhz.if TDMA is used within a 200Khz channel, 8 time slots
are required to form a frame, frame duration is 4.615ms, and the time slot
duration burst period is 0.577ms.there is a DCS1800 system, which has
the same architecture as the GSM, but it is up converted to 1800Mhz.the
downlink is 1805-1880Mhz (base TX) and the uplink is 1700-1785Mhz
(Mobile Tx).
o Constant Time Delay Between Uplink And Downlink: the numbering
of the uplink slots is derived from the down link slots by a delay of 3
times slots. This allows the slots of one channel to bear the same slot
number in both directions.
In this case, the mobile station will not transmit and receive
simultaneously because the two time slots are physically separated. Propagation
delay when the mobile station is far from the BTS (Base Transreceiver Station)
is a major consideration. For example, the round trip propagation delay between
an MS and BTS which are 35km apart is 233 s. as a result, the assigned time
slot number of the uplink and down link channels may not be the same (less
than 3 time slots apart).the time compensation for the propagation delay
(sending to the mobile station via Slot associated control channel (SACCH) is 3
time slots minus the time advance. Recall that the solution to the propagation
delay earlier mentioned is to let the BTS compute a time advance value. And
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the key purpose to allow significant guard time by taking into account that
BCCH (Broadcast control channel) is using only even time slots.
o Frequency hoping: GSM has a slow frequency hoping radio interface.
The slow hoping is defined in bits per hop. Its regular rate is 217 hops/s,
therefore with a transmission rate of 270 kbps, the result is approximately
1200 bits/hop.
o Different types of time slots: each cell provides a reference clock from
witch the time slots are defined. Each time slot is given a number (TN)
which is known by the base station and the mobile station. The time slot
numbering is cyclic.
o Burst and training sequences: In TDMA, the signal transmits in bursts.
The time interval of the burst brings the amplitude of a transmitted signal
up from a starting value of 0 to its normal value. Then a packet of bits is
transmitted by a modulated signal. Afterward, the amplitude decrease to
zero. These bursts occur only at the mobile station transmission or at the
base station if the adjacent burst is not transmitted.
BASIC OPERATIONS OF THE DIGITAL CELLULAR RADIO (GSM)
The word cellular loosely translated refers to a honey comb like structure of
a network such as the one being constructed by Celtel Wireless. The area
covered by a cellular network is divided into cells and each cell has a base
station which receives and transmits calls made to and from cellular phones.
Each cell is in turn connected to a mobile switching centre (MSC), and can
handle many calls simultaneously. The MSC directs your calls to the
destination cell in the network of telephone exchange area, and because some
calls will be destined for the fixed line telephone network, in such situations,
the MSC will route the calls to the Telephone Network Exchange popularly
called public switched telephone network (PSTN) which is currently managed
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by NITEL. From there the call finds its route to the specific fixes line telephone
being called. If the call is originating from NITEL line, MSC will transmit the
call to as Celtel base station from where it is routed to the receiving subscriber.
All these protocols happen in milliseconds.
Note: Inserting a SIM card and entering your PIN (personal identification
number) which Logs you onto the network activates your cell phone. Once the
PIN has been accepted, you are ready to make and receive calls. SIM card
(subscriber identity module) is the key to making and receiving calls, and also
ensures accurate billing each moment. If you remove the SIM and fit it to
another compatible phone, the calls you make will be charged to your account.
SIM cards come in two sizes, large and small you should be supplied with the
right size to fit your phone.
Smart phone - a combination of mobile phone and pocket computer.
Roaming some digital mobile phones can be used abroad. This is called
roaming. All charges are higher than normal; however, you can pay for
incoming calls. To use abroad, arrangements have to be made with your
network before you travel and they may require some deposit in order to grant
you access.
THE GSM RADIO INTERFACE
The radio subsystem constitutes the physical layer of the link between mobile
and base stations.
The main attributes of GSM interface are:
1. Time division multiple access (TDMA ) with 8 channels/ carrier
2. 124 radio carriers in a paired band (935 to 915 MHz) mobile to base
station, (935 to 960 MHz) base to mobile, inter-carrier spacing 200 KHz.
3. 270. 833.kb/ S per carrier
4. Gaussian minimum shift keying with a time band-width product BT= 0.3
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5. Slow frequency hopping ( 217 hops/ second )
6. Synchronization compensation for up to 233 absolute delay.
7. Equalization of up to 16 time dispersion
8. Down link power control
9. Discontinuous transmission and reception
10.Block and convolution channel coding coupled with inter leaving to
combat channel perturbations.
It should be recalled that the first pair of carriers in the GSM system are
890.2 MHz and 930 MHz .This gives a spacing of 45 MHz. GSM recommends
that the carriers 1 and 124 are not used due to energy of the modulated carrier
lying outside the nominal 200 KHz bandwidth. Multiplexing techniques is
employed in GSM system. Each cell can have from 1 to 15 pairs of carriers and
each carrier is time multiplexed into 8 slots. The carriers and their associated
time multiplexed slots from the physical channels of the GSM system. The
operation of the radio subsystem is divided into a number of logical channels
each of which has a specific function in terms of handling the transmission of
information over the radio subsystem.
There are two major categories of this channel viz:-
1. Traffic channels (TCH)
2. Signaling channels
Under signaling channels, we have
a) Common control channel (CCCH)
b) Broadcast control channel (BCCH) and
c) Dedicated control channel (DCCH)
The radio subsystem requires two channels for its own purposed. They are:
a) The synchronization channel (SCH)
b) The frequency correction channel (FCCH) some tasks performed
by the physical layer include:
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1. Create physical channels by building data bursts and
transmitting them over the radio path.
2. Map the logical channels onto the created physical channels,
taking into account the through put needs of particular logical
channels.
3. Apply error protection to each logical channel according to its
particular needs.
4. Monitor and control the radio environment to assign dedicated
resources, and combat changes in propagation characteristics by
functions such as handover and power control.
QUESTION
What is the significant of slow frequency hopping in GSM system?
Hint: Since fading is frequency dependent, slow frequency. hopping may be
used to over come fading.
GSM MODULATION, CODING AND ERROR PROTECTION
There are several stages of coding and decoding in the GSM traffic
channels. These are shown in Fig.35.
Fig. 35, Codi ng and Decodi ng i n GSM
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The channel coding is most efficient when bit errors are uniformly
distributed within the transmitted bit stream. However errors due to fading
cause errors to occur in burst. The problem is reduced by a technique known as
bit inter-leaving. Clearly it is necessary to have two speech blocks available
before a normal burst can be formed. This requires an interval of 40ms and
hence the coding delay for GSM is of the order of 40ms. The radio path is
subject to multipath propagation which can produce a delay spread of several
microseconds. This becomes apparent at the receiver as inter-symbol
interference.
The form of modulation used in GSM is the Gaussian minimum shift
keying (GMSK).Two problems need to be addressed here.
1. Minimum bandwidth
2. Minimum error probability.
It should be recalled that the standard frequency shift keying uses two
separate carriers f
0
and f
1
to transmit binary o and binary 1. In order to produce
the smallest error probability the carriers f
0
and f
1
must be orthogonal, i.e. they
must have a correlation coefficient which is Zero. Also to minimize the
bandwidth of the transmitted signal it is necessary to determine the minimum
difference between f
0
and f
1
which will produce orthogonal signals and this is
called minimum shift keying. If the number of cycles of f
0
in the interval T (
where T is the duration of bit period ) is no, then the number of cycles of M in
the same interval to achieve orthogonality must be n1= no + 0.5 or ( f
1
- f
0
) =
1/2T. Hence MSK is effectively FSK with the minimum frequency difference
between f
1
and f
o
.
If MSK is considered in terms of the modulation of a single carrier
frequency f
o
, then the instantaneous frequency is given by
f
I
= f
c
+ af
d
. (15)
Where a = + 1 and f
d
is the carrier deviation.
For MSK the carrier deviation f
d
= T.
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Hence, considering the MSK signal in terms of frequency modulation gives an
expression for the modulation carrier of
1
V
c
(t) = cos (2 fct + a fd dt) (16)
0
QUESTIONS
1. Mention three ( 3 ) attributes of GSM interface and explain briefly what
each represents.
2. What do you understand by through- put in relation with data
transmission?
3. Differentiate between fast fading and slow fading.
4. Why is frequency planning a major issue in the design of a cellular
system?
5. Fading is a frequency selective phenomenon discuss.
6. Given that a carrier frequency of 900 MHz and a mobile speed of 48Km
/h the level crossing rate at Ao= 3 dB. Calculate N (A
0
)
7. What constitutes the physical layer of in the GSM technology?
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Telecommunication Engineering (ECE-542). Lecturer: Engr. M. A.

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