1.

Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions among organisms and the interactions between the organisms and their environment. 2. Every living organism and the component of an environment cannot exist as a separate entity. Instead, they are interrelated and from a complex system. 3. An environment consists of living organisms and non-living factors. The living organisms in an environment are called the biotic components and the non-living factors are called the abiotic components. 4. The abiotic components in an ecosystem are the pH value, temperature, light intensity, humidity, topography and the microclimate of the ecosystem which determine the population and distribution of the biotic components.

pH

The pH value of the soil or water has a significant effect on the distribution of organisms which live in a habitat. Most organisms survive well in neutral or nearly neutral environments. Aquatic organisms are sensitive to the effects of the pH of water and may be killed if the pH changes considerably. Some plants prefer a slightly acidic soil (for example, pineapple) while others prefer a slightly alkaline soil (for example, ferns).

Humidity
Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour in the air. Humidity affects the rate of water loss from plants and animals. When the humidity of the surrounding environment is low, water evaporates faster from moist surfaces. Humidity is usually higher during the night and lower during the day. Most organisms, for example, snakes, frogs, liverworts and mosses prefer humid habitats. Some organisms regulate their activities to avoid dehydration, for instance, woodlice which are usually found under stones and rotting tree stumps.

Light intensity
The intensity of light affects the distribution and growth of plants, and the distribution of animals. The sun is the source of energy for photosynthesis in plants. The varying light intensity in a forest leads to the growth of different types of plants. For example, tall trees, which are exposed to a the forest while plants such as ferns and vines survive in the cover of the overhead shady trees. Birds, bats and tree frogs are some animals which live below the canopy. Mosses and small animals such as ants and earthworms live at the ground level where there is less light. Bacteria and fungi that live in the soil prefer dark conditions.

Temperature
Temperature affects the physiological activities of plants and animals. Most living organisms can only live within a narrow range of temperatures. A drop in temperature within a certain range usually results in a decline in the metabolic activities of the organisms. Temperatures higher than 45 C usually lead to the denaturation of enzymes within the organisms. However, certain species can live in extreme temperatures; the thermophilic bacteria, for example, can survive in hot springs. Aquatic environments undergo less extreme temperature changes and, therefore, provide more stable habitats when compared to terrestrial environments.

Topography
Topography refers to physical land features such as the altitude, gradient and aspect of a region. It affects the humidity, temperature and light intensity of an ecosystem; hence, it determines the distribution and growth of organisms The main topographic factor is altitude. Higher altitudes are associated with lower atmospheric pressures and temperatures. This results in different types of plants growing at different altitudes. For instance, pine trees can be found growing at a higher altitude but not tropical plants. Gradient, which refer to the steepness of slope, is another important topographic factor. Steep slopes suffer from more drainage and runoffs. The soil on the steep slopes is, therefore, thinner and drier. These habitats are not suitable for the survival of living organisms. Another important topographic factors is the aspect of a slope. Windward mountain slopes normally receive more rain than leeward slopes which are protected from winds and other physical elements. Therefore, different organisms live on the different sides of a slope.

Microclimate

Microclimate refers to the climate in a microhabitat, for example, underneath a rock. Microclimate includes the humidity, temperature, light intensity and atmospheric conditions of a habitat where organisms live. Microclimate also affects the population and distribution of organisms.

1. In any ecosystem, the primary source of energy for all living organisms is sunlight. 2. The living organisms in an ecosystem can be identified as procedures, consumers or decomposers.

Procedures
a. Procedures are autotrophs and consist mainly of plants which synthesise organic substances or food from nutrients and sunlight. b. In doing so, procedures directly or indirectly produce food for almost all other organisms.

Consumers
Organisms that cannot photosynthesise must acquire energy and most of their nutrients by feeding on other organisms. Therefore, they are called consumers. They of heterotrophs which directly or indirectly depend on the photosynthetic output of the primary producers. a. Primary consumers are herbivores which obtain their energy and nutrients by eating procedures. b. Secondary consumers are carnivores which eat primary consumers. c. Tertiary consumers are carnivores that prey on secondary consumers.

Decomposers
Another important group of heterotrophs is the decomposers such as bacteria and fungi. They obtain energy from non-living organic material. They carry out decomposition, the breakdown of the remains of dead organisms including animal waste products into simpler inorganic substances to be used by plants.

1. A food chain (Figure 8.1) is the feeding relationship between living organisms in an ecosystem. It shows a sequence of organisms through which energy from the sun is transferred. 2. A food chain usually starts with a producer from which energy is transferred through several levels of consumers. 3. When organisms in a food chain die, they are decomposed by the composers, usually bacteria and fungi, which secrete digestive enzymes into the environment. 4. Each category of organism in food chain is known as a thropic level (feeding level). 5. A food chain can be arranged in the form of a pyramid of numbers. 6. A pyramid of numbers (Figure 8.2) is a diagram showing the number of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain in ascending order. a. The producers, which from the first trophic level, are at the base of the pyramid. b. The primary consumers occupy the second trophic level while the secondary and tertiary consumers occupy the third and fourth trophic levels respectively (Figure 8.2). 7. Food chain do not reflect the complex feeding relationships that exist in most communities.

8. Most organisms within a community have a wide range of food sources and, therefore, belong to more than one trophic level. 9. The food chains in a community are usually interconnected to from a food web. The food web describes the actual feeding relationship within the community (Figure 8.3).