Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

LESSON 1
PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCE
DEFINITIONS AND USEFUL INFORMATION
Pure substance is a substance that is homogeneous in composition and homogeneous and invariable in chemical aggregation (Faires, 1978). A substance is said to be pure substance if its chemical compositions do not change even in solid, liquid, or gaseous phase. Example of which is water that has two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen as it is in solid, liquid or gaseous state. State of pure substance or system refers to its condition as quantified or identified through the thermodynamic properties of the substance. Phase is a quantity of substance that is homogeneous throughout. Relevant Reversible Work Modes refers only to the important work modes for the system in question and irreversible work modes are not considered. Reversible work mode refers to the amount of energy added in a forward process that can be removed by the reversed process.

Additional Thermodynamic Properties

1. Enthalpy is a thermodynamic property with the following definitions: For a closed system, it means the sum of internal energy and the product of pressure and specific volume, and given by the relation:

h = u + pv
Where, h = enthalpy, kJ/kg, Btu/lb v = specific volume, m3/kg p = pressure, kPaa, psia

For an open system, enthalpy means the sum of internal energy and the flow energy or flow work, and given by the relation:
H = U + Ef

Where, H = total enthalpy, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min U = total internal energy, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min Ef = flow energy or work, kJ. KW, Btu, Btu/min 2. Entropy is a thermodynamic property first introduced by Clausius in 1865 and could be defined as follows: Entropy is the measure of the microscopic disorder of the molecules of a substance. It is a thermodynamic property that remains constant in an adiabatic reversible process. The change of entropy in an irreversible process is the measure of the unavailable energy. Entropy is also defined as the measure of the irreversibility of the system or substance. The change of entropy for a reversible process is given by the relation:

dQ s = s 2 s1 = T rev
Details of entropy werre discussed in the Second law of thermodynamics.

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

Where, s = change of entropy, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR s1 = initial entropy, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR s2 = final entropy, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR Q = heat transfer during the process, kJ/kg, Btu/lb T = absolute temperature, oK, oR

Three Phases of Matter or Pure substance

1. 2. 3. Solid phase Liquid phase Vapor or gaseous phase

Manners of Changing the Phases

o o o o o Melting or fusion is the change of phase from solid to liquid. Freezing or solidifying is the change of phase from liquid to solid. Vaporization is the change of phase from liquid to gaseous phase. Condensation is the change of phase from vapor to liquid; during the process it is also called as condensing. Sublimation is the change of phase from solid to vapor or vice versa.

CHANGE OF PHASE AT CONSTANT PRESSURE

Change of phase at constant pressure means that a pure substance changes its phases from solid to gaseous without changing the applied or existing pressure. A typical example of which is water that changes its phases from solid to vapor at an existing pressure, say standard atmospheric pressure 101.325 kPa. As illustrated in figure 1.1 below, consider 1 kg water.

Figure 1.1. Change of Phases of 1-kg Water at 101.325 kPa

patm patm patm patm

Heating Q

Melting Q

Heating Q

Q Sub-cooled liquid at, say, t = 60 oC

patm

Solid phase at, say, t = - 20 oC

Solid phase at t = 0 oC

Liquid phase at t = 0 oC

patm

patm

patm

Heating

Boiling or Evaporating Q

Boiling or Evaporating Q

Superheating

Q Dry & Saturated Vapor or Steam at 100 oC

Q Superheated Steam at, say, 150 oC

Saturated liquid at 100 oC

Wet Vapor or steam at 100 oC

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

Explanation for the Change of Phase in Figure 1.1

o At state 1, water is at solid phase at, say, - 20 C under atmospheric pressure of 101.325 kPa. Heat is added to the solid water to undergo the process from state 1 to state 2 without melting. This process is heating of solid with temperature increases from 20 oC to 0 oC. At state 2, water is still at solid phase at 0 oC. This is the time in which melting process is about to start. With the heat addition continues, melting process is from state 2 to state 3. During the melting process, temperature remains the same at 0 oC. The temperature for process 2 to 3 is known as melting temperature or melting point. State 3 is the end of melting process but the temperature remains 0 oC. Water at this point is at liquid phase. Then heat addition continues to perform heating process from state 3 to state 4. During this process, temperature increases to, say, 60 oC. At state 4, water is called subcooled liquid and the temperature is called subcooled liquid temperature. Water heated but still no occurring of evaporation. With the heat addition continues, process 4 to 5 is performed with the increase of temperature from 60 oC to 100 oC. This process is still heating process. At state 5, water is called as saturated liquid and at this point evaporation or boiling process is about to start at 100 oC. With the heat addition continues, process 5 to 6 is performed without changing the temperature. At state 6, water is a mixture liquid and vapor and is called as wet vapor or wet steam. At his point the temperature remains the same at 100 oC. The proportion of the liquid and vapor components depends on time being considered from state 5 to state 6. The amount of vapor content may be determined if the quality of vapor or steam is given. With the heat addition continues, evaporation process is performed from state 6 to state 7 with the same temperature at 100 oC. At state 7, boiling or evaporation process ended with the temperature still 100 oC. At this point, all liquid are converted into vapor or steam and is called as saturated vapor/steam or dry and saturated vapor/steam. With the heat addition continues, process 7 to 8 is performed with an increase of temperature from 100 oC to, say, 150 oC. Temperature for processes 5 to 6 and 6 to 7 is called boiling temperature or boiling point and technically termed in thermodynamics as saturation temperature and the existing pressure is also called as saturation pressure. At state 8, the condition of water is called superheated vapor/steam and the temperature is superheated vapor temperature at, say, 150 oC. The temperature at this point is higher than the saturation temperature. Any point above point 7 at a given temperature higher than the saturation temperature and following the same existing pressure is called as superheated vapor or steam. The difference of superheated temperature and the saturation temperature or boiling temperature is called degrees of superheat (oSH). The difference of saturation temperature and the subcolled liquid temperature is called degrees subcooled (oSC). If the existing pressure is increased, melting and boiling temperatures are also increased. With further increased of an existing pressure, a critical point is attained, a point in which saturated liquid and saturated vapor conditions are coexisted in equilibrium. If the existing pressure is decreased, melting and boiling temperatures are also decreased. With the further decreased of an existing pressure, a triple point will be attained, a point in which melting and boiling temperatures are the same. Existing pressure lower than the triple point, sublimation will take place.

Note:

OTHER DEFINITIONS
Existing pressure or applied pressure refers to the pressure of the system in which change of phase at constant pressure is considered. Solid water is a condition of water in which the temperature is below the freezing temperature corresponding to an existing pressure. Subcooled liquid is a liquid condition in which the given temperature is higher than the melting temperature and lower than the saturation or boiling temperature corresponding to an existing pressure.

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

Compressed liquid is a liquid condition in which the pressure is higher than saturation pressure corresponding to the given temperature. Saturated liquid is a liquid condition in which boiling or evaporation is about to begin and with the temperature is equal to the saturation or boiling temperature corresponding to an existing pressure. Wet vapor or wet steam is the mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor with the temperature equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to an existing pressure. Saturated vapor/steam or dry and saturated vapor/steam is vapor condition in which evaporation is ended and condensation is about to begin with the temperature equal to the saturation temperature equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to an existing pressures. Superheated vapor or steam is a vapor in which the temperature is higher than the saturation temperature corresponding to an existing pressure. Heat of fusion is the amount of heat required to change the phase from solid to liquid or vice versa. Latent heat or enthalpy of evaporation is the amount of heat required to convert saturated liquid to saturated vapor; it is the amount of heat required to change saturated liquid to saturated vapor at constant temperature without changing the pressure. Sensible heat is the amount of heat required to change the temperature without changing the pressure. Critical point is a point in which liquid and vapor are coexisted in equilibrium. Critical pressure is the existing pressure at the critical point. Critical temperature is the temperature at the critical point corresponding to an existing critical pressure. o For water, critical pressure, pc = 22.09 MPaa, and critical temperature, tc = 374.14 oC. Triple point is a point in which the melting and boiling or saturation temperature are the same corresponding to the existing pressure. o For water, at triple point: p = 0.6113 kPaa and t = 0.01 oC Sublimation is the process in which solid will directly change from solid to vapor at a temperature corresponding to an existing pressure. o For water, sublimation process will occur at p = 0.260 kPaa and t = - 10 oC. Super critical condition is a condition above the critical point (p > 22.09 kPaa for water). This is a condition where there is no liquid or vapor phase of pure substance existing in equilibrium. The thermodynamic properties considered in the study of pure substance are: P = Pressure, MPaa, psia T = Temperature, oC, oF v = Specific volume, m3/kg, ft3/lb u = Specific Internal energy, kJ/kg, Btu/lb h = Specific Enthalpy, kJ/kg/ Btu/lb s = Specific Entropy, kJ/kg-oK, Btu/lb-oR

DIAGRAMS
Diagrams hereto are graphical representation of the relation of thermodynamic properties for the change of phase at constant pressure such as pV, TV, Ts, pT, and ph diagrams.

Figure 1.2. Tv Diagram T

Saturated Liquid Curve Superheated temperature, tsh cp

sh
Pressure, p, line

SH

f
o

Saturation temperature, tsat Saturated Vapor Curve

SC

sc

Subcooled temperature, tsc

vf

vg

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

From Figure 1.2 above, Point sc is subcooled liquid condition Point f is saturated liquid condition Point x is wet vapor condition Point g is saturated vapor condition Point sh is superheated vapor condition Point cp is critical point condition o SH = tsh tsat o SC = tsat tsc Figure 1.3. pV Diagram p
cp

Superheated Temperature, tsh Existing pressure or Saturation pressure, p, line

x
sc

sh
Saturation Temperature, tsat

Subcooled liquid Temperature, tsc

V Figure 1.4. Ts Diagram T

tc tsh
L-V cp

pc sh p
o

tsat tsc tmp

S-L

SH SC

sc

ptp Saturated Liquid curve

ttp tsb
Triple Point Sublimation

Saturated Vapor Curve

psb

s From Figure 1.4 above tmp = melting point temperature ttp = triple point temperature tsb = sublimation temperature ptp = triple point pressure psb = sublimation pressure pc = critical point pressure tc = triple point temperature p = existing or applied pressure

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

Figure 1.5. hs Diagram h

tsh cp g tsat

sh

tsct

f
sc

s Figure 1.6. pT Diagram

p Liquid Melting Fusion Curve Evaporation

Critical Point

Solid Evaporation Curve Sublimation Triple Point

Vapor

Sublimation Curve T From figures above f stands for saturated liquid g stands for saturated vapor fg stands for evaporation or process from f to g Evaporation (fg) the process of boiling, liquid to vapor phase Condensation (gf) the process of opposite direction, from vapor to liquid Saturated liquid curve is the locus of all states of saturated liquid. Saturated vapor curve is the locus of all states of saturated vapor. Triple point is the state in which three phases may all be present in equilibrium. Enthalpy of sublimation, hig,- is the heat of sublimation or the amount of heat required to sublimate the substance.

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

Quality of Vapor/Steam; x
o Quality of vapor/steam or dryness factor is the ratio of the mass of vapor content in the mixture to that of the mass of the mixture of vapor and liquid.

x=

mg mf + mg

100 %

Moisture Content; y
o Moisture content is amount of saturated liquid in the mixture of saturated vapor and saturated liquid; it is the ratio of the mass of saturated liquid to that of the mass of the mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor.

y=
Figure 1.7. Quality of vapor

mf 100 % mf + mg

Note: x + y = 100 %

mf

mg

Where, mf = mass of saturated liquid content, kg, lb. mg = mass of saturated vapor content, kg, lb. x = quality of vapor or steam, or dryness factor, % y = moisture content, %

THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF EACH STATE

For Subcooled or Compressed Liquid To obtain the properties v, u, h, & s, p and t must be given. Properties are obtained from steam tables if the given substance is water. Values of properties for subcooled liquid must be lower than the properties of saturated liquid as indicated in the following relations:

v f v u < u f h f h s s f Subcooled temprature, t, is lower than the saturation temperature corresponding to the existing pressure, p. t sc < t sat . Quality, x, if computed is negative. Subcooled liquid condition is indicated by point sc in the Ts diagram as shown in Figure 1.8 below.

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

Figure 1.8. Subcooled Liquid

T tsat f p

sc

tsc
Subcooled Liquid

For Saturated Liquid

To obtain the properties, the given property is either pressure or temperature. Properties to be obtained are indicated as follows: vf, uf, hf, and sf. Temperature is equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to an existing pressure. The quality of vapor, x = 0 Moisture content, y = 100 % Values of properties of saturated liquid are lower than the properties of wet vapor, and are higher than the properties of subcooled liquid,

v f v v u < u f < u h f h h s sc s wet s f

Properties for water are obtained from steam tables. Saturated liquid condition is indicated by f in Figure 1.9 below in Ts diagram.

Figure 1.9. Saturated Liquid T tsat f p

Saturated Liquid Curve

Saturated Liquid s

For Wet Vapor or Wet Steam

To obtain the properties, there may have given properties of either pressure & quality of vapor, or temperature & quality of vapor. Properties to be obtained are v, u, h, and s. Temperature of wet vapor must be equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to an existing pressure. The quality is within the range: 0 % < x < 100 %. Moisture content is within the range: 100 % > y > 0 %.

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

Values of properties are in accordance with the following relations:

v g v f v u uf u g < < h f h h g s g s wet s f

Properties of wet vapor may be computed using the following equations:

( ) u = u + x (u ) h = h + x (h ) s = s + x (s )
v = v f + x v fg
f f fg fg f fg

Where, fg = refers to the properties of evaporation

v fg = v g v f

u fg = u g u f h fg = h g h f s fg = s g s f
Values of fg properties for water are to be obtained directly from steam tables except for vfg. Quality of vapor may also be obtained in terms of properties as indicated in the following relations:

v vf x= v fg

(100 % ) = u u f u fg

(100 % ) = h h f h fg

(100 % ) = s s f s fg

(100 % )

Where, the properties v, u, h, and s are of wet vapor. Wet vapor condition is indicated by point x in the Ts diagram as shown in Figure 1.10 below.

Figure 1.10. Wet Vapor

T p g

tsat f

Wet Vapor
s

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

For the Saturated Vapor

To obtain the properties of saturated vapor, there may have given properties of either pressure or temperature. The properties to be obtained are indicated by vg, ug, hg, and sg. The temperature of saturated vapor must be equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to the existing pressure; and also equal to the temperature of saturated liquid and wet vapor. The quality of saturated vapor is x = 100 % The moisture content is y = 0 %. The properties of saturated vapor are lower than the properties of superheated vapor and higher than the properties of wet vapor as indicated in the following relations:

v g v v u u < g < u h h h g s g s wet s sh

Saturated vapor condition is indicated by point g in the Ts diagram as shown in Figure 1.11 below.

Figure 1.11. Saturated Vapor

T p

tsat f

x g

Saturated Vapor

For the Properties of Superheated Vapor

To obtain properties v, u, h, and s, pressure and temperature must be given. The given temperature must be higher than the saturation temperature corresponding to the existing pressure or given pressure Values of properties of superheated vapor must always be higher than the properties of saturated vapor as indicated by the following relations:

v g v u u g < h h g s g s sh
If the given substance is water, values of properties are directly obtained from steam tables. If quality x is computed, x > 100 %. Superheated vapor condition is indicated by point sh on the Ts diagram as indicated in Figure 1.12 below.

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Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

Figure 1.12. Superheated Vapor

T

sh
f g

tsh tsat

STEAM TABLES
Steam Tables are tabulations of the values properties of water for different conditions. For the purposes of discussion in this book, values of properties are all obtained from Steam Tables (S.I. Units) by: Keenan, Keyes, Hill, & Moore). To obtain the properties of water, the following tables are to be used: Table 1. Saturation: Temperatures o If the given property is temperature, use this table to determine the values saturation pressure, properties of saturated liquid, properties of wet vapor, properties of saturated vapor, and the properties of evaporation. Table 2. Saturation: Pressures o If the given property is pressure, use this table to obtain the values of saturation temperature, properties of saturated liquid, properties of wet vapor, properties of saturated vapor, and properties of evaporation. Table 3. Vapor o Use this table, to determine the properties of superheated steam. With the given p and t, properties v, u, h, & s are obtained. Table 4. Liquid o Use this table to determine the properties of subcooled and compressed liquid. With the given p & t, properties v, u, h, & s are obtained. Table 5. Critical Region o Use this table if the given conditions are in the critical region.

STEAM CHARTS
Steam Charts refer to Ts Chart (looks like Ts diagram as in Figure 1.4), and Mollier Chart or hs Chart (looks like as in Figure 1.5). These charts are graphical representation of water liquid-vapor properties. These are used to determine the properties as obtained in the steam tables. Ts and Mollier Charts are provided in the Steam Tables by: Keenan, Keyes, Hill, & Moore. Ex. # 1.1] Determine the properties of water for the following conditions: a) p = 0.5 MPaa b) t = 200 oC c) p = 2.0 MPaa, & x = 90 % d) t = 200 C & x = 80 % e) t = 103.6 oC & x = 90 % f) p = 1 MPaa & t = 300 oC g) p = 5 MPaa & t = 200 C h) p = 1 Mpaa & t = 353.75 oC i) p = 0.535 MPaa & t = 300 C Solution: a) For p = 0.5 MPa o Since specific condition is not indicated in the problem, properties for f, x, g, & fg are to be determined. Conditions are indicated in the Ts diagram below.

11

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

Ts Diagram: T p = 0.5 Mpaa

tsat f

x g

Using Steam Tables, Table 2, at p = 0.5 MPaa, the following properties are obtained. t = tsat = 151.86 oC For the properties of saturated water: uf = 639.68 kJ/kg vf = 1.0926 x 10-3 m3/kg hf = 640.23 kJ/kg sf = 1.8607 kJ/kg-oK For the properties of saturated vapor: ug = 2561.2 kJ/kg vg = 374.9 x 10-3 m3/kg hg = 2748.7 kJ/kg sg = 6.8213 kJ/kg-oK For the properties of evaporation: vfg = vg vf = (374.9 - 1.0926) 10-3 = 373.8074 x 10-3 m3/kg ufg = 1921.6 kJ/kg hfg = 2108.5 kJ/kg sfg = 4.9606 kJ/kg-oK b) For t = 200 oC o Since specific condition is not indicated in the problem, properties for f, x, g, & fg are to be determined. Conditions are indicated in the Ts diagram below. Ts Diagram. T psat

tsat f

x g

t = 200 oC

Using Steam Tables, Table 1, at t = 200 oC, the following properties are obtained. p = psat = 1.5338 MPaa For the properties of saturated water: vf = 1.1565 x 10-3 m3/kg uf = 850.65 kJ/kg sf = 2.2309 kJ/kg-oK hf = 852.45 kJ/kg For the properties of saturated vapor: vg = 127.36 x 10-3 m3/kg ug = 2595.3 kJ/kg sg = 6.4323 kJ/kg-oK hg = 2793.2 kJ/kg For the properties of evaporation: vfg = vg vf = (127.36 1.1565) 10-3 = 126.2035 x 10-3 m3/kg ufg = 1744.7 kJ/kg hfg = 1940.7 kJ/kg sfg = 4.1014 kJ/kg-oK

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Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

c) For p = 2 MPaa and x = 90 % o Since quality x is given, the condition of water is wet vapor as indicated in Ts diagram below.
T

p = 2 MPaa x = 90 %
f g

tsat

Wet Vapor s From Table 2 (Steam Tables), at p = 2 Mpaa, t = tsat = 212.42 oC uf = 906.44 kJ/kg vf = 1.1767 x 10-3 m3/kg hf = 908.79 kJ/kg sf = 2.4474 kJ/kg-oK vfg = vg vf = (99.63 1.1767) 10-3 = 98.4533 x 10-3 m3/kg hfg = 1890.7 kJ/kg ufg = 1693.8 kJ/kg sfg = 3.8935 kJ/kg-oK For the properties of wet vapor, v = vf + x (vfg) = 1.1767 x 10-3 + (0.90) (98.4533) 10-3 v = 89.7847 x 10-3 m3/kg u = uf + x (ufg) = 906.44 + (0.90) (1693.8) = 2 430.86 kJ/kg h = hf + x (hfg) = 908.79 + (0.90) (1890.7) = 2610.42 kJ/kg s = sf + x (sfg) = 2.4474 + (0.90) (3.8935) = 5.95155 kJ/kg-oK d) For t = 200 C and x = 80 % o Since quality x is given, the condition of water is wet vapor as indicated in Ts diagram below.
T psat

x = 80 %
f g

t = 200 oC

Wet Vapor
s

From Table 1 (Steam Tables), at t = 200 C, p = psat = 1.5338 MPaa vf = 1.1565 x 10-3 m3/kg uf = 850.65 kJ/kg sf = 2.2309 kJ/kg-oK hf = 852.45 kJ/kg vfg = vg vf = (127.36 1.1565) 10-3 = 126.2035 x 10-3 m3/kg ufg = 1744.7 kJ/kg hfg = 1940.7 kJ/kg sfg = 4.1014 kJ/kg-oK For the properties of wet vapor, v = vf + x (vfg) = 1.1565 x 10-3 + (0.80) (126.2035) 10-3 v = 102.1193 x 10-3 m3/kg u = uf + x (ufg) = 850.65 + (0.80) (1744.7) = 2246.41 kJ/kg h = hf + x (hfg) = 852.45 + (0.80) (1940.7) = 2405.01 kJ/kg s = sf + x (sfg) = 2.2309 + (0.80) (4.1014) = 5.51202 kJ/kg-oK

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Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

e) For t = 103.6 C and x = 90 % o Since quality x is given, the condition of water is wet vapor as indicated in Ts diagram below.
T psat

x = 90 %
f g

t = 103.6 oC

Wet Vapor
s o Since the temperature, t = 103.6 C, is not exactly found in the table, use interpolation, t, oC p, MPaa vf 103 m3/kg vg 103 m3/kg uf, kJ/kg ufg, kJ/kg 103 0.11269 1.0459 1514.9 431.58 2078.5 103.6 p vf vg uf ufg 104 0.11669 1.0467 1466.2 435.80 2075.4
o

hf, kJ/kg 431.71 hf 435.92

hfg, kJ/kg 2249.0 hg 2246.4

sf, kJ/kg-oK 1.3406 sf 1.3518

sfg, kJ/kg-oK 5.9786 sfg 5.9557

vg 1514.9 x103 103.6 103 p 0.11269 v f 1.0459 x103 = = = 3 104 103 0.11669 0.11269 (1.0467 1.0459 )10 (1466.2 1514.9 )103 = u fg 2078.5 h fg 2249.0 u f 431.58 h f 431.71 = = = 435.80 431.58 2075.4 2078.5 435.92 431.71 2246.4 2249.0 s fg 5.9786 s f 1.3406 = = 1.3518 1.3406 5.9557 5.9786

Solving for the values of variables, p = 0.11509 MPaa vg = 1485.68 x 10-3 m3/kg vf = 1.04638 x 10-3 m3/kg uf = 434.112 kJ/kg ufg = 2076.64 kJ/kg ufg = 2247.44 kJ/kg hf = 434.236 kJ/kg sf = 1.34732 kJ/kg-oK sfg = 5.96486 kJ/kg-oK Then, for the properties of wet vapor, v = vf + x (vg vf) = [1.046638 + (0.80) (1485.68 1.046638)] 10-3 v = 1188.753 x 10-3 m3/kg u = uf + x (ufg) = 434.112 + (0.80) (2076.64) = 2095.424 kJ/kg h = hf + x (hfg) = 434.236 + (0.80) (2247.44) = 2232.188 kJ/kg s = sf + x (sfg) = 1.34732 + (0.80) (5.96486) = 6.119208 kJ/kg-oK f) For p = 1 Mpaa and t = 300 oC From Steam Tables, at 1 MPaa, tsat = 179.91 oC. Since 300 C > 179.91 oC, the given condition is superheated steam. T tsh = 300 oC
f g

Superheated Vapor

p = 1 MPaa

tsat =179.91 oC

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Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

From Steam Tables, Table 3, at p = 1 MPaa & t = 300 oC, v = 257.9 x 10-3 m3/s u = 2793.2 kJ/kg h = 3051.2 kJ/kg s = 7.1229 kJ/kg-oK g) For p = 5 MPaa and t = 200 oC From steam tables, at 5 MPaa, tsat = 263.99 oC. Since 200 oC < 263.99 oC, the given condition of water is subcooled liquid.

tsat = 263.99 oC
sc

p = 5 MPaa

tsc = 200 oC Subcooled Liquid

s

From steam tables, table 4, at p = 5 MPaa & t = 200 C, v = 1.1530 x 10-3 m3/s u = 848.1 kJ/kg h = 852.8 kJ/kg s = 2.3294 kJ/kg-oK h) For p = 1 MPaa & t = 353.75 oC From steam tables, at p = 1 MPaa, tsat = 179.91 oC. Since 353.75 oC > 179.91 oC, the given condition is superheated vapor. T
tsh = 353.75 C
o

Superheated Vapor

p = 1 MPaa

f g

tsat =179.91 oC

s Since 353.75 oC cannot be found exactly from steam tables, use interpolation, t, oC v 103 m3/kg u, kJ/kg h, kJ/kg s, kJ/kg-oK 350 282.5 2875.2 3157.7 7.3011 353.75 v u h s 360 287.3 2891.6 3178.9 7.3349

Interpolating,
353.75 350 v 282.5 x103 u 2875.2 h 3157.7 s 7.3011 = = = = 360 350 ( 287.3 282.5)103 2891.6 2875.2 3178.9 3157.7 7.3349 7.3011

v = 284.3 x 10-3 m3/s h = 3165.65 kJ/kg

u = 2881.35 kJ/kg s = 7.313775 kJ/kg-oK

i) For p = 0.535 MPaa & t = 300 oC o The given condition is superheated vapor because the temperature is higher than the saturation temperature of the given pressure.

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Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

T tsh = 300 oC
f

Superheated Vapor

p = 0.535 MPaa

tsat

Since the given pressure is not found exactly from the table, use interpolation. From Table 3 and using interpolation, for t = 300 oC u, kJ/kg h, kJ/kg s, kJ/kg-oK p, MPaa v 103 m3/kg 0.52 502.2 2802.6 3063.7 7.4411 0.535 v u h s 0.54 483.4 2802.2 3063.2 7.4230 Interpolating,
0.535 0.52 v 502.2 x103 u 2802.6 h 3063.7 s 7.4411 = = = = 3 0.54 0.52 ( 483.4 502.2 )10 2802.2 2802.6 3063.2 3063.7 7.4230 7.4411

v = 488.1 x 10-3 m3/s h = 3063.325 kJ/kg

u = 2802.3 kJ/kg s = 7.427525 kJ/kg-oK

ans.

Ex. # 1.2] Specify the condition of water, whether subcooled liquid, saturated liquid, wet vapor, etc., for the following conditions. Justify your answer. a. t = 250 oC & h = 1235.65 kJ/kg b. p = 250 kPaa & u = 1000 kJ/kg c. p = 5 MPaa & t = 200 oC d. p = 900 kPaa & t = 300 oC e. p = 4 MPaa & s = 5.897 kJ/kg-oK Superheated
Solution:

Vapor T
Saturated Vapor

tsh
Saturated Liquid sc Subcooled Liquid

x g

tsat

Wet Vapor

a.

s For t = 250 oC and h = 1235.65 kJ/kg From steam tables, at t = 250 oC, hf = 1085.36 kJ/kg & hg = 2801.5 kJ/kg. hf < h < hg = 1085.36 kJ/kg < 1235.65 kJ/kg < 2801.5 kJ/kg Therefore, the given condition is wet vapor or steam.

b.

For p = 0.25 MPaa and u = 1000 kJ/kg From steam tables, at p = 0.25 kPaa, uf = 535.10 kJ/kg and ug = 2537.2 kJ/kg.

16

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

uf < u < ug = 535.10 kJ/kg < 1000 kJ/kg < 2537.2 kJ/kg Therefore, the given condition is wet vapor. Ans. c. For p = 5 MPaa & t = 200 oC From steam tables, at p = 5 MPaa, tsat = 263.99 oC, t < tsat = 200 oC < 263.99 oC. Therefore, the given condition is subcooled liquid. For p = 0.90 MPaa & t = 300 oC From steam tables, at p = 0.90 MPaa, tsat = 175.38 oC. t > tsat = 300 oC > 175.38 oC. Therefore, the given condition is superheated vapor.

Ans.

d.

Ans.

e.

For p = 4 MPaa & t = 5.897 kJ/kg-oK From steam tables, at 4 MPaa, sf = 2.7964 kJ/kg-oK & sg = 6.0701 kJ/kg-oK. sf < s < sg = 2.7964 kJ/kg-oK < 5.897 kJ/kg-oK < 6.0701 kJ/kg-oK Therefore, the condition is wet vapor. Ans. For t = 207 oC & x = 87 % Since the quality x is given, therefore, The given condition is wet vapor. For p = 0.90 MPaa & v = 870 x 10-3 m3/kg From steam tables, at p = 0.90 MPaa, vg = 215 x 10-3 m3/kg v > vg = 870 x 10-3 m3/kg > 215 x 10-3 m3/kg Therefore, the condition is superheated vapor.

f.

Ans.

g.

Ans.

h.

For p = 1.5 MPaa & oSH = 152.01 oC Since the given temperature is oSH, then from steam tables, at 1.5 MPaa, t = tsat + oSH = 198.32 + 152.01 = 350.33 oC > tsat Therefore, the given condition is superheated steam. Ans. For p = 5 MPaa & oSC = 65.43 oC Since the given temperature is oSC, then from steam tables, at 5 MPaa, t = tsat - oSH = 263.99 65.43 = 198.65 oC < tsat Therefore, the given condition is subcooled liquid. Ans. For p = 0.35 Mpaa and v = 850 x 10-3 m3/kg From steam tables, at p = 0.35 MPaa, vg = 524.3 x 10-3 m3/kg v > vg = 850 x 10-3 m3/kg > 524.3 x 10-3 m3/kg Therefore, the given condition is superheated vapor/steam.

i.

j.

Ans.

Ex. # 1.3] For water as a pure substance and using steam tables, determine the: a. p & u if t = 200 oC and h = 852.45 kJ/kg b. t & h if p = 150 kPaa and u = 1000 kJ/kg c. u & h if p = 800 kPaa and t = 300 oC d. u & h if p = 5 000 kPaa and t = 200 oC e. t & h if p = 300 kPaa and v = 0.850 m3/kg

17

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

Solution: T
Saturated Vapor

Superheated Vapor
p

tsh
Saturated Liquid sc Subcooled Liquid

x g

tsat

Wet Vapor

a.

s For the values of p & u if t = 200 oC & h = 852.45 kJ/kg From Steam tables, at t = 200 oC, hf = 852.45 kJ/kg. Since h = hf = 852.45 kJ/kg, water is at saturated liquid condition. Therefore, from steam tables, at t = 200 oC, p = psat = 1.5538 MPaa and u = uf = 850.65 kJ/kg ans.

b.

For the values of t & h if p = 0.15 MPaa and u = 1000 kJ/kg At p = 0.15 MPaa, uf = 466.94 kJ/kg and ug = 2519.7 kJ/kg Since uf < u < ug, water is at wet vapor condition. From steam tables, at p = 0.15 MPaa, uf = 466.94 kJ/kg ufg = 2052.7 kJ/kg hf = 467.11 kJ/kg hfg = 2226.5 kJ/kg tsat = 200 oC
f 100% = For quality x, x = u fg

uu

1000 466.94 100% = 25.97% 2052.7

Then,

h = h f + x h fg = 467.11 + 0.2597 ( 2226.5 ) = 1045.33kJ / kg

ans ans.

t = t sat = 111.37 C
o

c.

For the values of u & h if p = 0.80 MPaa and t = 300 oC At p = 0.80 MPaa, tsat = 170.43 oC Since tsat < t, the water is superheated steam. From steam tables, at p = 0.80 MPaa & t = 300 oC, u = 2797.2 kJ/kg and h = 3056.5 kJ/kg ans.

d.

For the values of u & h if p = 5 MPaa and t = 200 oC At p = 5 MPaa, tsat = 263.99 oC. Since tsat > t, the water is subcooled liquid. From steam tables (table 4), at p = 5 MPaa and t = 200 oC, u = 848.1 kJ/kg and h = 853.9 kJ/kg

ans.

e.

For the values of u & h if p = 0.30 MPaa and v = 850 x 10-3 m3/kg At p = 0.30 MPaa, vg = 605 x 10-3 m3/kg. Since v > vg, water is superheated steam. From steam tables (table 3), at p = 0.30 MPaa and v = 850 x 10-3 m3/kg, and Using interpolation, V 103 m3/kg u, kJ/kg h, kJ/kg t, oC 280 843.8 2775.4 3028.6 T 850 u h 290 859.6 2791.1 3048.9

18

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

Interpolating,

t 280 850 843.8 u 2775.4 h 3028.6 = = = 290 280 859.6 843.8 2791.1 2775.4 3048.9 3028.6

t = 283.92 oC u = 2781.56 kJ/kg and h = 3036.57 kJ/kg

ans.

Ex. # 1.4] An 100-liter tank containing a mixture of saturated liquid water and saturated steam at 370 oC. a) Find the mass of each phase if their volumes are equal. b) Find the volume occupied by each phase if their masses are equal.
Given: 100-liter tank with saturated water and steam

t = 370 oC
Required: a. mf & mg if Vf = Vg b. Vf & Vg if mf = mg Solution: a. For the values of mf & mg if Vf = Vg From steam tables at t = 370 oC, vf = 2.213 x 10-3 m3/kg vg = 4.925 x 10-3 m3/kg

Vg Vf

Vapor

mg
o

t = 370 C
Liquid

mf

Considering the total volume, Vf = Vg = Therefore, m f =

mg =

VT = 0.05 m 3 2
ans ans.

Vf 0.05 m 3 = = 22.59 kg vf 2.213 x 10 3 m 3 / kg = 0.05 m 3 4.925 x 10 3 m 3 / kg = 10.15 kg

Vg vg

b.

For the values of Vf & Vg if mf = mg From steam tables at t = 370 oC, vf = 2.213 x 10-3 m3/kg vg = 4.925 x 10-3 m3/kg Considering the mass, m f = mg
Vf Vg = vf vg

Vg

Vapor t = 370 C
o

mg

Vf

Liquid

mf

v 2.213 Then, Vf = Vg f = V = 0.44934 Vg v g 4.925 g Considering the volume, Vf + Vg = VT = 0.10

eq. 1

Vf = 0.10 Vg
Equating eq. 1 and eq. 2, 0.44934 Vg = 0.10 Vg

eq. 2

Vg =

0.10 = 0.069 m 3 1.44934

3

ans

Then, Vf = 0.10 Vg = 0.10 0.069 = 0.031 m

ans

Ex. # 1.5] Determine the volume occupied by 2.25 kg steam at 8 MPaa and 60 % quality.

19

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

Given: Wet steam m = 2.25 kg p = 8 MPaa x = 60 %

Saturated Liquid Saturated Vapor

Required: The volume occupied by the wet vapor. Solution: From steam tables, at p = 8 MPaa,

vf = 1.3842 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg = 23.52 x 10-3 m3/kg For the specific volume of wet vapor,

v = v f + x v g v f = [1.3842 + 0.60 (23.52 1.3842)]10 3

v = 14.66568 x 10-3 m3/kg Then, for the volume occupied by the 2.25 kg wet vapor,

V = m v = 2.25 14.66568 x 10 3 = 0.033 m 3 = 33 liters

Ex. # 1.6] A rigid container with a volume of 2 000 liters contains 4-kg mixture of saturated water and steam at 120 oC. The mixture is slowly heated until the liquid content is completely vaporized. Determine the a) quality of the vapor at the initial condition; and b) temperature of water after heating.
Given: A rigid tank VT = 2 000 liters = 2 m3 x2 = 100 % Required: a. The initial quality of vapor b. The final temperature

m = 4 kg

t1 = 120 oC

Figure:

Vapor Liquid

Rigid Container

t2

t1 =120 oC
1 V

Q Solution: From steam tables, at t1 = 120 oC, vf1 = 1.0603 x 10-3 m3/kg vg1 = 891.9 x 10-3 m3/kg

V1 = V2

20

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

Solving for the initial specific volume of the mixture,

v1 =
a.

V1 2 m 3 = = 0.5 m 3 / kg = 500 x 10 3 m 3 / kg m 4 kg

For the quality of steam at initial condition

v vf1 (100 % ) = 500 1.0603 (100 % ) = 56.01 % x1 = 1 v fg1 891.9 1.0603

b. For the final temperature after heating Since the container is rigid, the volume does not change during the process. v2 = v1 = vg2 = 500 x 10-3 m3/kg From steam table (table 1), at v2 = 500 x 10-3 m3/kg and x2 = 100 % T, C 140 t 141 Interpolating, vg, m3/kg 508.9 x 10-3 500 x 10-3 495.6 x 10-3
t 140 500 508.9 = 141 140 495.6 508.9

Then, t = (141 140 )

500 508.9 o + 140 = 140.67 C 495.6 508.9

Ex. # 1.7] A piston-cylinder arrangement contains 100 liters of saturated water and 900 liters of saturated steam in equilibrium at 1 MPaa. Heat is added at constant pressure until the temperature becomes 300 oC. Determine a) the initial temperature; b) the total mass; c) the quality of vapor at initial condition; d) the final volume; and e) the work done during the process.
Given: A piston-cylinder device Vf1 = 100 liters = 0.10 m3 Vg1 = 900 liters = 0.90 m3 p1 = p2 = 1 MPaa t2 = 300 oC Required: a. Initial temperature b. Total mass c. Quality of steam at initial condition d. Final Volume e. Work done during the process Solution: a. For the initial temperature

Vg1 Vf1

From steam tables, at 1 MPaa, t1 = tsat = 179.91 oC

21

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

b.

For the total mass At 1 MPaa, vf1 = 1.1273 x 10-3 m3/kg and vg1 = 194.44 x 10-3 m3/kg Then,
mf 1 = Vf 1 0.10 m 3 = = 88.71 kg v f 1 1.1273 x 10 3 m 3 / kg

mg1 =

Vg1 vg1

0.90 m3 = 4.63 kg 194.44 x 103 m3 / kg

Therefore, the total mass will be

m1 = m f 1 + m g1 = m 2 = 88.71 + 4.63 = 93.34 kg

c. For the quality of vapor
x1 = m g1 4.63 100 % = 100% = 4.96 % m1 93.34

d.

For the final volume At point 2, p2 = 1 MPaa and t2 = 300 oC v2 = 257.9 x 10-3 m3/kg Then, V2 = m 2 v 2 = 93.34 kg ( 257.9 x103 m3 / kg ) = 24.07 m3

e.

For the work done during the process

W = 1 p dV = p 1 dV = p (V2 V1 )
2 2

W = 1000 ( 24.07 1.0 ) = 23070 kJ

IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER

Saturation temperature is a temperature at which vaporization of liquid or condensation of vapor takes place at a given or existing pressure. Saturation pressure is an existing pressure during the vaporization or condensation of the substance at a temperature known as saturation temperature. Sub-cooled liquid is the liquid that has a temperature lower than the saturation temperature corresponding to the given or existing pressure. Compressed Liquid, synonymous with sub-cooled liquid, is the liquid that has a pressure higher than the saturation pressure corresponding to the existing temperature. Saturated liquid is the liquid that has a temperature equal to the boiling point corresponding to the existing or given pressure. Vapor is a substance existing in the gaseous phase but relatively near its saturation temperature. Saturated Vapor is the vapor that has temperature equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to an existing pressure. Degree of superheat, oSH, is the difference between the temperature of superheated vapor and the saturation temperature for an existing pressure. Degrees Sub-cooled, oSC, is the difference between the saturation temperature for the given pressure and the actual sub-cooled liquid temperature.

22

Thermodynamics 2

Lesson 1

Wet Vapor is the mixture of saturated vapor and the saturated liquid. Quality of wet vapor, x, is the percentage by weight of vapor in the mixture of saturated vapor and saturated liquid. Percent Moisture, y, is the percentage by weight of liquid in the mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor. Latent Heat of Evaporation is the amount of energy required to convert saturated liquid to saturated vapor or from saturated vapor to saturated liquid with the temperature remains constant. Sensible heat is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of a substance without changing the phase. Critical point is a point that represents the highest pressure and highest temperature at which liquid and vapor can coexist in equilibrium.

PROBLEMS
Prob. # 1] Determine the properties and draw the Tv, pV, Ts, & hs diagrams of water for the following conditions: a) t = 102 oC & saturated liquid b) p = 700 kPaa & x = 100 % c) t = 70 C & x = 80 % d) p = 0.5 MPaa & h = 2895.6 kJ/kg e) p = 0.356 MPaa & t = 321.67 oC Prob. # 2] Specify the condition (subcooled liquid, saturated liquid, wet vapor, etc.) of water for the following conditions. Justify your answer and show pV and Ts diagrams for each item. a. p = 900 kPaa & v = 1.0245 x 10-3 m3/kg b. t = 76 C & u = 3542.2 kJ/kg c. t = 100 oC and p = 2.5 Mpaa d. p = 1.2 MPaa & oSH = 234.6 oC e. p = 1 Mpaa & oSC = 100 oC Prob. # 3] A pumping discharging water at 1 MPaa and 165 oC. Determine the specific volume and internal energy of the water at the pump discharge. Prob. # 4] A 500-liter tank contains saturated mixture of water at 300 kPaa. If the saturated liquid occupies 10 % of the volume, determine a) the the quality of vapor, and b) the total mass of water in the tank. Prob. # 5] A piston-cylinder device initially contains 300 liters of water at 420 kPaa and 110 oC. Heat is added to the water at constant pressure until the liquid is entirely vaporized. Determine a) the mass of water; b) the final temperature; c) the final volume of water; d) the work done during the process; and e) the amount of heat added.

23