Economic Geology Vol. 60, 1965, pp.

1459-1477

STRUCTURAL

ANALYSIS

OF

ORE

SHOOTS

AT

GREENSIDE

LEAD MINE,

CUMBERLAND,
DAVID GOUGH

ENGLAND

CONTENTS
PAGE

Abstract ............................................................. Introduction .........................................................

1459 1460

RegionalGeology..................................................... Stratigraphy, intrusions and structure................................ Ore deposits...................................................... Geologyof the mine area .............................................. Stratigraphyand intrusions.........................................
Borrowdale Volcanic Series ..................................... Skiddaw Slate Series ........................................... Intrusions .......................................
: .............

1461 1461 1462 1463 1463

1463 1463 1464

Folding,cleavage and jointing ...................................... Faulting and mineralization........................................

Caledonian faults ...............................................

1465 1466
1466

Itercynian Faults ..............................................

Post-Triassic
Introduction

1467
1467

faults .............................................

Structuralanalysisof ore shootformation ................................

......................................................

1467
1467

Method of analysis ................................................ Previous approaches............................................

Geometrical basis ...............................................

1469 1469
1469

Factorscontrolling extentand width of openings the ................ Application to GreensideVein ......................................

South ore shoot ................................................. Central ore shoot ............................................... North ore shoot ................................................ 2300N ore shoot ............................................... Conclusions ..........................................................

1470 1471
1473 1474 1475 1475 1476

Acknowledgments....................................................
References ..........................................................
ABSTRACT

1476
1476

The Greenside lead vein is a relativelyisolated ore deposit locatedin the EnglishLake District, and has yieldedapproximately 200,000tons of lead concentrates. The ore deposit a simplefissure-infilling is along
an essentially normalfault. The complex lithologicand tectonicenvironment of the vein is described.

The ore shoots controlled favorable are by variations dip and strike in of the fault plane along which mineralizationoccurred. The structural
A part of a thesis submittedfor the degree of Doctor of Philosophyat the University
of London, 1962.
1459

].460

D.4VID

GOUGH

analysis the development ore shoots not only concerned o o is with the general relation of the ore shoots with the steepersections the fault, of but with determining the precise theoretical limits of the ore shoots. The analysis developed is from a geometrical standpoint then geologic and implications considered. are It is concluded that the development fissuresalong a fault plane o depends basicallyon the variationsin the profile of the fault plane as measuredin a plane containingthe net-slip direction. A quantitative measurement the variationsin the profile--termedthe "profile-dip"-of
is defined.

Profile-dip values for the GreensideVein were determinedand a contoured diagram produced. Theoretical and actual ore shootsshow, in general,a very good correlation. Stressis laid on the importance of usingthis geometrical analysisin conjunction with conventional geologic

approaches.
INTRODUCTION

'

GREENSIDE Lead Mine, prior to its closurein 1961, was the propertyof Greenside Mines Ltd. The mineis situated the countyof Cumberland, in on theeastern sideof the EnglishLake District (Fig. 1). The early historyof the mine is obscure. Althoughin otherparts of the Lake Districtminingwasprobably carriedout in Romantimesand flourished in the Elizabethan the earliest era, documentary evidence miningoperations of at Greenside dated1784. From 1827until recently minewasworked is the almostcontinuously, firstly by Greenside Mining Companyand then by Basinghall Mining Syndicate (later Greenside Mines Ltd.). Lack of ore,

FiG. 1. Locationmap.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF ORE SHOOTS

1461

in spiteof an intensive exploration program carriedout in 1957,finallyforced the company wind up operations. to The mine produced approximately 2,400,000tons of ore which yielded
200,000 tons of lead concentrates 2 million ounces silver. This output and of wasobtained almost entirelyfrom a single vein. Although the mine has been visited throughoutthe years by numerous geologists, singlecomprehensive no report on the geologyof the ore deposit has beenwritten. The mostcomplete description amongpublished material is by Eastwood(5, 6), whereasof private reportsthe fullestaccount by is Willson (19). The surface area in the vicinity of the mine hasbeencovered, though in greatdetail,by the Geological not Survey(18) andby I-tartley (8). The present paperis based underground surface on and mapping carriedout
between 1959 and 1962.
REGIONAL GEOLOGY

Stratigraphy, Intrusions Structure and

The geology the Lake District is well knownin British geological of circles. A wealth of literaturehas beenwritten on the regionand thereforeonly a brief description given here; the readeris referredto a paperby Mitchell is (12) for greater detail. Figure 2, illustratingthe geologyand ore deposits of the region,hasbeencompiled from mostexistingpublications majority the of which,excluding (14, 16), are listedin Mitchell (12). The fundamentalstructureof the region is that of an inlier: the central coreis composed foldedLower Palaeozoic of rocksand Caledonian intrusions, whereasthe peripheralarea is formed of gently dipping Carboniferous and
Pertoo-Triassic rocks.

The total thickness the Lower Palaeozoicrocks is in the order of 35,000 of

feet. Four divisions are recognized(Fig. 2). The oldest strata--the Skiddaw Slate Series of Lower Ordivician agc are composed mainly of argillaceousand arenaceous rocks. These strata are followed, essentially conformably, the BorrowdaleVolcanic Series which consists a thick by of group of lavas, tuffs and breccias, predominantly of andesiticcomposition. The ConistonLimestone Group, of Upper Ordivician age, unconformably overliesthe BorrowdaleVolcanicSeries,and is in turn followedby Silurian stratabpredominantly shales and sandstones.A description the Carbonof iferous andlater rocksis not pertinent thiscontext. in Caledonian intrusive rocks,mainly of granitic-granodioritic composition, occupy large area of the Lake District. Most of the intrusions a are stocklike in form.

The oldestrocksof the Lake District havebeensubjected four periods to of earth movements. The earliest orogenicactivity--the pre-Bala earth movements--is evidenced the unconformity by between Borrowdale the VolcanicSeriesand the Coniston LimestoneGroup. The strongfolding of the Lower Palaeozoicrocks, particularly the Skiddaw Slate Series, was producedby the Caledonian orogeny;the fold axes have an overall ENE-WSW trend, and a cleavage with a similar trend is developed somehorizons. on

1462

DAVID

GOUGH

The Hercynian orogenycausedgentle folding of the Carboniferous rocks which surroundthe Lower Palaeozoic rocks,and also probablyaccentuated the existingCaledonian structures. During the minor and intermittent postTriassicearth movements gentleupliftingand domingtook place.

PENRITN .

DEV'N, CARB. PERNO-tRIASSIC 8

CONISTON LST. 6ROUP

_ SILURIAN
I RISN
SEA

r'

BORROWOALE VCAN SIES

.=.' SKIOW SLATE SE

CALEOONI INTRUSIS
FAULT

SCALE
2

4ML

- - - - ."

.' '
....

...-'

..........

VEIN; TYPe: Cu
[ SE

TEXT ]

W Fe

FIG. 2. Geologic mapof Lake District.

The predominant fault pattern of the Lake District--two sets of faults lying between NW-SE and NE-SW--has generally beenattributedto the Caledonian orogeny(12); howeverthis is almostcertainlyan over-simplificationin view of the four periodsof folding.

Ore Deposits

Except for the massive hematitedeposits locatedin the Carboniferous

Limestone the west of the region,the ore deposits the Lake District are in of

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF ORE SHOOTS

1463

veinsthat have beenformedby fissure-infilling steeply-dipping, of generally normalfaults. The majorityof the veinsare confined the SkiddawSlate to Seriesand BorrowdaleVolcanic Series. As might be expected a region in that has sufferedfour periodsof earth movements, relationbetween the mineralization, intrusiveactivity,foldingand faulting is complex. The veinsof the Lake Districtare classified thispaperas follows: in
Designation
Mineralogy (major minerals only)

Age

Copper veins Wolfram veins' Lead veins Barite veins

Hematite veins

Chalcopyrite-pyrite-quartz Wolframite-scheelite-quartz Galena-sphalerite-chalcopyrite-quartz-barite Barite

Hematite-quartz-carbonate

Caledonian-- ? Caledonian (3) ,-,Hercynian (13) Hercynian-- ?

Post-Triassic

(Quantitative data on geolog'c dating (3, 13), as interpreted by the present author, substantiate these ages.)

It should notedthat the leadveinsas defined be herehavebeenexploited at some minesfor zinc,copper andbarite,in addition lead. The distribution to of the lead veins (s.1.) tendsto be more sporadic than that of the copper veins; the Greenside Vein, for example, relativelyisolated. The lead veins is havea well developed crustified vuggystructure and can probably referred be to the leptothermal category defined Dunham (4). as by
GEOLOGY OF THE MINE AREA

S'tratigraphy Intrusions and

BorrowdaleVolcanicSeries.--On the basisof lithologythe Borrowdale

Volcanic Series(Figs. 3, 4) hasbeendivided into threegroups. The Greenside Vein is locatedin the lowermost division--theUllswater Group. As
a broad generalization the wall rocks of the GreensideVein above the 90 fm (fathom) level are acid andesites, whereasbelow this level the predominant wall rocks are basic andesites with tuff and breccia intercalations. In

the immediatevicinity of the mine and within the mine-workingsthe strata

havea southerly south-easterly generally to dip, between and 60. The 30 ore shoots,however, show no apparent relation either with the dip of the
strataor with the variationsin rock-type. SkiddawSlate Series.--The uppermost strataof the SkiddawSlate Series, composed here of dark-colored induratedshales, outcropin the mine area and are exposedin the lowermostworkings of the mine. The GreensideVein becomes barren on encountering theseshales. The junction of the Skiddaw Slate Series and the Borrowdale Volcanic Series,as encountered the mine, is essentially in conformable, and is marked by a transitionzone consisting thin flows of andesitein the uppermost of

shales, bands shale and of and shale-andesite breccia the overlying in Borrowdale VolcanicSeries. Althoughthe SkiddawSlate Serieshasan unfavorable effecton the mineralization, junctionwith the more competent the overlying volcanic rocksis importantsinceit actedas a planeof weakness that localized

theGreenside Vein. The junction irregular formbut is essentially is in domelike, havingan approximately N-S longaxis. The eastlimb of the domeis

1464

DAVID

GOUGH

followed the Greenside by Vein (Fig. 5). This dome-like structure difficult is to correlatewith the ENE-WSW folding in the mine area, and possibly represents earlier pre-Bala folding; on the other hand it is conceivable that the structureis nondiastrophic origin. in

' ',,,- - "%..............

t ........

.,d"'"'

"-'

....

..-'5:::: .....' /::::: {,,. '.',/..'....... " :: : :: '.'..----:'.'-:' "" aR~o ...... . : '

:'.:/:::::

:::::::::::p2'.'..:.),;-,

.- ii"iii :'.-. .;'- ;,it :.::,o,-.' .,'" : .- '.'. :...,:,i,: ..... :.::::,: :::: ,'i. :. :. ' ': r : ...,............'-"" :I' ::' ,:.... ';-.-'-'-,

.........
......

................. ,r . :f'/:::::.-:tff./7'? tfi :',

,,,, ..... ".,'; "-:' ..'_ "2,,-:'i :: '", "'t ':. _: i :-'
? ............... . 2 .............

:2

:::::::":'':2::::

..,

,o,: ;,,... "., "F : 111J',';lllLlY ......:?;'t" _

,o. :.........,

.:...:.!:i:i.':::.:!::i::ii'.;''"'""'...'ii::,'.i.:
:
.'. :.;.'.......'. :... ,,,,"" SKIOOAW SLATE

ItLAII O I C

:'....;.' :........" .iT4 ....'... 2 rz-,n,RY POYn' rT-q

5.'.;::.,.:.::.:.;,i.',.:t.. .."'"''~' 5::..;i.5 ..."

ASE$:
87

C4L.

C4LEOONIAN,
.. UNCERTAIN

. HE'RCYNI4N P-T,, POST lRI4SSlC

:' .........'.T.:..:.:. "' MAPP! 05 BY ":'.'....:!5':.!:[!. 8.8

-'

'-

OFSTRATA

Fro. 3. Geologic mapof minearea.

Intrusions.--There are severalsmall dikesand plug-likeintrusions the in minearea. Although intrusions the havevaryingcompositions, majority the probably represent singleintrusivesuite relatedto the major Caledonian a
intrusions the region. of

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF ORE SHOOTS

1465

The mostimportant dike encountered the mineworkings composed in is of quartz-porphyry. This dike influenced localization the Greenside the of
Vein as a whole,and alsocontrolled development individual shoots. the of ore On surface dikehasa dog's-leg the shape (Fig. 3): the contacts part of the of

N-S trending portion afforded planes weakness localized Greenof that the sideVein and branch veins;the E-W trendingportionlocalized North the
Fault--an important pre-mineralization structure.

EXPLA N4 TION
BOIOWOALE OLCANIC SERIES

-4

RftYOLITE

-2

TUFF BRECC/A AND

SK/OOAW SLATg
SERIES L

FIG. 4. Stratigraphicsuccession mine area. of

Folding,Cleavage Jointing and Two major fold structures--theI-Ielvellyn Synclineand the Glencoyne Anticline--have been delineated the mine area (Fig. 3). Both folds are in broad, open structures with ENE-WSW trends, and are assumed be to Caledonian 'age. The Glencoyne in Anticlinedies out to the west, whereas the I-Ielvellyn Synclinebecomes monoclinal the east and eventuallydies to
out in this same direction.

Cleavageis developedin the BorrowdaleVolcanic Series, particularly in the fine-grained tuffs. The strike of the cleavage planesis similar to the trends of the folds,thus pointingto a commonorigin. The two major joint directionsdetermined--N19E and N30W---can tentatively be referred to conjugatetear directions related to the NNW-SSE Caledonian compression. The GreensideVein showsno significantrelation either with the cleavage or the jointing.

1466

DAVID GOUGH

Faulting and Mineralieation

In the mineareathreegroups faults,eachwith a characteristic of of type mineralization, havebeenrecognized.The groups described are below,under headings their probable of ages.

ALTITUOE IN FEET ABOVE SEA lEVEL: -2400

lEVELS
HIGH HORSE

90

FM

120 FM

BRECCIAS lULLSWATER GROUP]

SO FM

ANOESITES, TUFFS AND

sKOUAw
175 FM

SHALES SL, TE

0TZ-GRFHYr
200 FM

217 FM

( MIRALISEO

RN

SCALE: 400 W 0 400 E

Fro. 5. Transversesection Greenside of Vein at 1,400N.

Caledonian Faults.--These faults have E-W to ENE-WSW trends and

normal displacements; locally they show quartz-pyrite-dolomite-ankerite-calcite mineralization. The trend of thesefaults,like the copperveins in other partsof the Lake District, is parallelto the Caledonian folds,and it is suggested that the faultsand copper veinshavea similarageand modeof origin. There are two importantCaledonian faultsin the mine: the Clay Fault limits
the extension of the Greenside Vein to the south, and the North Fault has influencedthe development an important ore shoot. of

STRUCTURALANALYSIS OF ORE SHOOTS

1467

HercynianFaults.--Thesefaults (or veins) are synonymous with the leadveinsdescribed previously.The trendof the leadveinsin the minearea
is variable: the Greenside Vein strikes almost due N'-S whereas other veins
have E-W or NE-SW trends.

The Greenside Vein and other lead veins in the mine-workings and cut displace Caledonian the faults; in additionrenewedmovement and locally lead mineralization took placealongtheseolderfaults. It is tentatively suggested that the Greenside Vein wasformedas a tensional structure a result as

of the Hercynian doming,which probablyaccentuated the Caledonian

Glencoyne Anticline. The Greenside Vein showsa well developed vertical zoning: barite increases markedlyupwardswhereassphalerite and chalcopyrite become more importantin depth. The paragenetic sequence the pattern of zoning and are closelycomparable. A characteristic feature of the paragenesis--typical of manyleadveinsin the Lake District--is the replacement bariteby quartz of
and the concomitant introduction of sulfides.

The hydrothermal alterationof the wall rocksof the Greenside Vein-mainly silicification--has beensuperimposed an earlier regionalalteration. on The intensity alteration of increases depthandwith the widthof the vein. with Mineralization and alterationapparently occurred approximately contemporaneously. Post-Triassic Faults.This groupof faultsis not as well defined, terms in of characteristic mineralization,as the older groups. The majority of the faults have NW-SE or N'NE-SSW trends; hematite mineralization(along with minor dolomite,calcite, quartz and barite) occursalong some of the faults,whichare thusclearlyrelatedto the hematite veinsof otherpartsof the Lake District. During the post-Triassic orogenic activity, renewedmovement took placelocallyalongthe Caledonian and Hercynianfaults.
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF ORE SHOOT FORMATION

Introduction

The Greenside Vein is a simple fissure-infilling along a fault that has sufferedessentially dip-slip (normal) movement. The exact displacement of the fault is difficultto determine, owing to the absence marker horizons of or suitablyorientatedintrusions. The downthrowis probablyin the order of 50 to 150feet,and thereis a smallstrike-slip component the order of 0-10 in feet. The fault has been traced 3,900 feet along the strike and 2,600 feet vertically. At the southend of the mine the fault dies out in a horse-tail
structure, but to the north the limit has not been determined. There are two

importantbranchveinsmbothcontrolled the quartz-porphyry by dike the East Branchand the Foot-wallBranch (Fig. 6). The four ore shoots the Greenside of Vein partially coalesce the upper in part of the mine,but pinchout in depth (Fig. 10). The vein variesin width from a fractionof an inch up to 30 feet, the averagewidth being 6 to 8 feet. The barren sections composed a breccia-gouge are of zone,generally5 to 7
feet wide.

1468

DAVID GOUGH

5',5-' I

,e.,-, Ili"

. ..,/\

no

75 FM

/;

,,o

' 'fi,',

II

i/

221

237 /

/,'
IW
IN

"'

LATE SERIE

ALESTE f AW

)
RIE )

FOOT- fALL

QUARTZ-RY

Fro. 6. Longitudinalgeologicsection Greenside of Vein.

The average assay value of the vein is 7% Pb; the wider sections the of vein,as in manyveins, tendto havelowerassay values, beingdilutedwith a greater quantity gangue of mineral. Assaydatafor largesections the mine, of particularly olderworkings the above Lucy Tongue the level,are not available. As a general rule, the decision whether specific on a section wasworth mining depended simplyon the extent of the vein alongthe strike and dip, the ore grade almostinvariablybeingadequate. The analysis the development of of ore shoots thussimplified, is reduced a studyof the development is and to of fissures alongthe fault plane,irrespective the gradeof subsequent of mineralization.

The most importantsinglefactor controlling the localization the ore of shoots thevariationin strikeand dip of the Greenside is Vein. This variation, of course,depends turn on secondary in factors, for examplethe quartzporphyry dikeandthe Skiddaw SlateSeries-Borrowdale Volcanic Series contact. As with mostveins developed fissure-infilling by along normalfaults, the ore shoots are developed along the steepersections the fault plane. of Figure 7 shows foot-wallof the vein on the major levels--a contourmap the of the fault plane. The relation of the ore shootsto the bunchingof the contours, to the steeper i.e., sections the fault plane,is obvious. The probof lem is thereforenot one of demonstrating simply that the localizationof the

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF ORE SHOOTS

1469

ore shoots depend the steepness thefault plane--thisis self-evident--but on of on determining factors the controlling precise the limits of theseore shoots.
Methodof Analysis

Previous/lpproaches.--Although fundamental the principle the relation of between dip of fault planes the and the development ore shoots of was recognizedlongago (2), and hassince beenexpanded utilizedby several and geologists (7, 9, 10, 11, 17), few workershaveexamined principlethoroughly the froma geometrical pointof view. One of the chief difficulties the geometrical of approachis to obtain a suitablegraphicalrepresentation the fault plane on which the most favorof able areasfor ore shootdevelopment easilybe plotted. Methodsthat incan volve the contouring the fault plane with reference a horizontalplane of to (15), as in Figure 7, or an inclined plane (1) are undoubtedly useful,but nevertheless not facilitate the determination the preciselimits of podo of
tential ore shoots. Another useful method, in which the inclination of the fault

planeis contoured, beendeveloped Willson (19) and appliedto the has by Greenside Vein. This method, though empirical approach, part inspired in in the analysis shortlyto bedescribed. Geometrical Basis.--The basisof the methoddeveloped this paperlies in in a graphical representation a seriesof profilesof the fault plane,each of profilebeingorientated with respect thenet-slip to direction thefault. of Consider first of all the incipient stages fault movement.The net-slip of direction anyfault,once fault-plane been of the has formed, will depend two on factors. The primaryfactoris of course magnitude direction the the and of forceactingon the fault plane--these forceswill determine #eneraldirecthe tion of movement, normal,reverse, i.e., obliqueor horizontal movement. The secondary factoris the shape the fault plane:the warpsand irregularities of of the fault surface will clearlymodifythis generaldirection movement. of So that the application the methodto faultswith variousdirections of of movement be understood, generalcasefor oblique can the movement will be considered (Fig. 8). Assuming that the generaldirectionof fault movement

hasbeendetermined, exactdirection the net-slip the of will depend solely on the shapeof the fault-plane alon# the line of movement. This shape--or profile---can described termsof theangleof inclination the fault plane be in of

FIG. 7. Plan projection Greenside of Vein showing footwallon major levels.

1470

DAVID

GOUGH

PLANE

PlaNE

EXPLANATION
S

PLANE

Nx//I
o
NET-SLIPfNJ,
SHOWN

STRIKE-SLIP [S),

DIP-SLIP (O) (AT BEARING SURFACE): ON SAME PROJECTION AS BLOCK BUT

EXAGGERATED.

ABCO = FAULT PLANE

PLANES 2, & 3 ARE VERTICAL l,

CONTAIN THE NET-SLIP OIR. ECTION
N. .""- NET-SLIP: ARROW INOICATES DIRECTION & AMOUNT
BS ., BEARING SURFACE
OPENING

Fro. 8. Isometric blockdiagramshowing theoretical positions openings of developed along an oblique-slip fault.

as measured a vertical planecontaining net-slip. (This angle,defined in the with reference the horizontal, to will hereafterbe termedthe "profile dip.") The section the fault surfacewith the least profile-dipmust act as a of bearingsurface duringfault movement therefore and mustcontrolthe inclination of the net-slip. Assuming, the present, for that the net-slipdirectionis constant, otherareasof the fault surfaces all that haveprofile-dips exceeding this minimumprofile-dipshouldbe pulledapart to form openings. This is illustrated Figure 8 wherethe short area of the fault planehavinga low in profile-dip controls formation openings the of alongthe complete fault plane. If thefaultplaneis contoured with respect the profile-dips, to thenthe theoretical positions openings, the potentialore shoots, be determined. of i.e., can In the example used(Fig. 8) the dip-slipcomponent fault movement of is greaterthan the strike-slipcomponent.For this type of fault, or for normal faults,it is clearlypreferable measure to variations the profileof the fault, in alongthe line of movement, with reference a verticalplane. However,for to

strike-slip faults,or oblique-slip faults wherethe strike-slip component is

greater than the dip-slip component, horizontalplane of referenceshould a
be used.

FactorsControllin# Extent and Width of Openin#s.MThe the extentand widthof openings depend threemainfactors. Theseare: a) amount will on of fault movement, natureof wall-rocks, variations profile-dip. b) c) in
Up to a certainextent an increased displacement causean increased will

STRUCTURALANALYSIS OF ORE SHOOTS

1471

developmentopenings. of However beyond certain a value, depending the on

variations the profile-dip, ill-fittingportions the fault planewill be in the of brought together; effect thisonthe development openings difficult the of of is to predict and will depend localconditions. on Increased displacement will alsocause greater a amount gouge breccia be produced, of and to whichwill tend to be transported the openings, to thus clogging them. Probably for this reason fissure-infilling deposits generally are foundalongfaultsthat have relatively smalldisplacement (15).
Under theoretical conditions, surfaces a fault that have profile-dips all of

exceeding minimum the profile-dip should pulledapartto form openings. be In practice walls of the openings the settleand collapse a resultof forces as acting normal the faultplane, to andthe openings become bridged partially or
or completely closed. Collapse the openings of almostcertainlywill occur,at least to someextent, during fault movement;it is thus probablethat the bearing surfaces havea rangeof profile-dips, will varyingfrom onesection of the fault to another. The variationin the profile-dips the bearingsurfaces of will be influenced the extent of the collapse the openings, by of and this in turn will dependon the competency, degreeof fracturing,etc., of the wall
rocks.

In general largevariationin the profile-dip a fault-plane a of will tendto promotemore extensive and wider fissures than will a small variationin profile-dip. However, probably more important than the actual range of profile-dips,is the rate of changeof profile-dipsover the fault plane. A gradualchange profile-dips of from low to highvalueswill facilitatethe partial collapse closure gouge (or by filling) of the relatively narrowopenings formed under suchcircumstances, producing broad transitionzone extending thus a from bearingsurfaceto opening. A rapid changein profile-dipwill tend to produce narrow transitionzone and thus a better definedopening. Fura themore a rapid change profile-dip of will resultin a wider opening. Thus in selecting profile-dip a valueto outlinepossible openings, attention should be paidto any significant rapidchange profile-dip of from low to high values.
Applicationto Greenside Vein

The first stepin the production a contoured of diagramof profile-dips is to determinethe net-slipdirectionof the fault. In the caseof the Greenside Vein this directioncan be determined from the dip-slipand strike-slipdata given previously;however,sincethe strike-slip component (0-10 ft) is small

compared with the dip-slip(50-150 ft) component, was neglected the it for purposes profile-dip of calculation.The fault wasthusassumed havetrue to normal displacement, the profile-dipwas measured a vertical plane and in containing dip-slip the direction, at rightangles theaverage i.e., to strikeof the vein. Measurements were made at 100 feet intervalsalong the strike; this intervalwas selected experiment, by and was considered adequate reflect to the variations profile-dip. of A plan showing foot-wallof the vein on eachlevel (Fig. 7) was used the to determine profile-dips. The foot-wallof the vein for the greaterpart the

1472

DAVID GOUGH

of the vein surface was determined geological by mapping;in inaccessible

areas, datafromoldgeological maps(19) andmineplans wereemployed. The original planusedwasat a scale 1 inchto 100 feet; the average of strikeof the vein conveniently coincided with the N-S minecoordinates, so
that profile-dip measurements madealongsuccessive coordinates were E-W of the 100-footminegrid. The horizontal distance between vein on succesthe sivelevelswasmeasured, utilizingthe verticaldistance and between levels the

(from Fig. 10) the profile-dip the vein was calculated simple of by trigonometry (Fig. 9). The profile-dip values weretransferred a longitudinal to verticalsection, eachvaluebeingplottedmid-waybetween successive levels; the values werethencontoured (Fig. 11). Profile-dips the veinabove of the
Lucy Tongue level, betwenthe 105 fm. and 120 fm. levels,and betweenthe
75 fm. and 60 fm. levels north of Smith's Shaft were not measured since almost

all theseold workings inaccessible, havenot beenaccurately are and surveyed. The profile-dips the vein between 90 fm. leveland the Lucy of the Tonguelevel southof Smith'sShaft mustbe regarded approximate, as since
the surveys theseold workings probably altogether of are not reliable.

PLANSHOWING FOOT-WALL 6RENSIDE OF'

EIN MI. 3' SUCC3tI LEVELS

100 N

200 N

300 N

400 N

500 N

FOOT-WALL

CONTOURS
A V. STRIKE OF

61CC*ENSIDE VEIN

TR.4NSVERSE VERTICAL
SECTION AT 200 N

() LONGITUDINAL ECTION VERTICAL

lOOn 200N 300
135 FM

- 2

135 FM ',.

()

I)

4B PLOTTED
VALUES 50 FM

()

(
f75 FM

'FOOT'WALL

OF VEIN

Fro. 9. Diagramshowing method determining of profile-dip values.

STRUCTURAL

ANALYSIS

OF ORE

SHOOTS

1473

[::..:..'.:':.-.:.:?2. t [.z::.Z-_:. .\:.:.:..: g.r..-: I

[::'.:.::.::::k.i.- .'-' !..'.'.. .:':.::::,l .,,.'-"c.'i I ,os 5:-:4

.... '""
.-.?X...... . ,nx I-?:

......,o,'...'.'.:.:.:. P2 b.':':.p
'1:;::'.: .:7..\:'.'.::.' .:.' :.'.'!;:::";i

'l

:"::'"' ' e"::'" '"':"i:

' $KIOOAW SLATE
CROSS FAUT

,' BRANCH VEIN

FIG. 10. Longitudinalsectionof Greenside Vein showingstoped areas.

The profile-dipof the Greenside Vein varies from 58 east to vertical;

in oneplace, 300 S between 135fm. and120fm. levels profile-dip at the the

is 83 west. Bearingin mind the factorscontrolling formationof openthe ings,as outlinedin a previous section, 70 contourwas selected outline the to theoreticalopeningsalong the fault. This contour, more than any other, marks the change from low to high profile-dips across zonewith a rapid a
changeof values.

Theoretically areasof the fault plane with profile-dips all lessthan 70 shouldbe bearing surfaces and unmineralized, whereasall areas having a

profile-dip greaterthan 70 should fissures, be now mineralized.In Figure 11 the areaswith a profile-dip exceeding are stippled. Comparing 70 these stippled areaswith the longitudinal section showing the actualareas stoped (Fig. 10), it canbe seen that in general correlation very good. (Origithe is nally this correlation was facilitated meansof a transparent by over-lay.)

Therelation each shoot thecontoured of ore to diagram nowbeconsidered. will In addition geological the factors controlling variations profile-dip the in are
outlined.

SouthOre Shoot.--Thesouthern limit of this ore shoot fairly well deis finedby the 70 contour eventhough datahereare ratherincomplete. the

1474

DAVID GOUGH

AL 71TUD A80

2000 FT

LOWHORSE

1600

1200

LUCY

TON6UE

.v.:

Xk o u/

.?o{ Au/ 0, ,}i.::::.::':5:'..W".'N :.:

4 CTR INTVAL

,%,:. ,.. :: .:....:::. :?:/

x :::::':'.:9.....x ,.3..":>:':.:.:.:: j

( EORETICA

SO

Fie. 11. Longitudinalsection Greenside of Vein showing contoured profile-dips.

The Clay Fault, even though it doesnot intersectthe GreensideVein, has probablyexertedsomeinfluence the strike and dip of the vein, sincethe on plungeof the South ore shoot,and also the line joining all pointswhere the Greenside Vein dies out, are approximately parallel to the dip of this crossfault (Fig. 10).
The northern limit of the South ore shoot is not as well defined as its

southerncounterpart. Above the 90 fm. level this is perhapspartially due to the rather dubioussurveyingof the levelsin this area. Below the 90 fm.

level northern is notmarked the70 contour instead be the limit by but can
closelycorrelated with a significant and rapid changeof dip above78-82. Central Ore Shoot.--Comparedwith the other ore shoots, Central ore the shoot developed as belowthe Lucy Tonguelevel is patchyand discontinuous, and has an irregular,ill-defined overallshape. The profile-dipcontours, althoughreflectingthe generalpattern of the distributionof the stopedareas, fail to outlinetheir limits. Thus the theoretical positions fissures indiof as catedby the 70 contourhave a considerably smallerextent than the actual areasmined,which are better definedby the 66 contour. The range of profile-dips compared the remainderof the Greenside to Vein is remarkably small;suchuniformityof profile-dips, discussed as previously, not conducive is to the formationof openings, probably and accounts the irregular and disfor

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF ORE SHOOTS

1475

continuous nature of this ore shoot. The structuralor stratigraphical reasons

for the relative uniformity the profile-dips the Central shoot of of ore are
not known.

North

Ore 3'hoot.--Both

the northern and southern limits of the North ore

shoot well defined the 70 contour. A steep are by gradientof profile-dips m ranging from 66 to 74--marks each limit, more especially the southern. This limit roughlycoincides with the E-W trendingportionof the quartzporphyry dike, and also with the associated North Fault. The increasein profile-dipon approaching this zone of transverse dikes and faults can probably be attributed the slightlygreatercompetency the quartz-porphyry to of
comparedwith the andesitesand andesitictuffs and breccias. However, since

the quartz-porphyry dike is absentin the lower levels,where thereis neverthe-

lessa rapid increase the profile-dips, North Fault itself must have in the partiallyinfluenced course the Greenside the of Vein. Althoughthe mechanism is not clearlyunderstood, orientation the fault plane or fault the of planes the North Fault was suchthat the Greenside of Vein was favorably
deflected.

To the north of the North Fault, the Greenside Vein is controllel the by foot-wall contact the N-S section the quartz-porphyry of of dike. Although the vein does not everywhere faithfullyfollowthe contact the dike, the of strikeand dip of the vein are certainly influenced the latter,suchthat a by highprofile-dip maintained is wherever veinliesalong nearthefoot-wall the or contact the dike. On the 40 fm., 90 fm. andLucy Tonguelevels, of wherethe Greenside swings Vein abruptly away fromthequartz-porphyry contact, and onthe 150fm. and175fm. levels where quartz-porphyry out to the the dies north (Fig. 6), the vein becomes barren;the latter position, particularly, is markedby a decrease profile-dips.The quartz-porphyry thus,in in dike
effect, controlsthe North ore shoot.

The profile-dips alsoindicate position theoretical a of openings between

1,500N 2,300N and above 90 fm.level, the where facttheveinis largely in barren. The geological factors that are responsible this are uncertain. for However, above LucyTongue the leveltheGreenside cutsthrough Vein the
quartz-porphyry dike to the hanging-wall side, the positionwhere the vein

enters dikeapproximately the marking northern the limit of stoping the of

Northore shoot.The continuation thislimit below LucyTongue of the

leveldown the90, levelisperhaps to fm. controlled a similar in fashion. The Northoreshoot limited depth theintersection the Skiddaw is in by of Slate Series; veinabruptly the pinches onreaching out these strata. The 70
contourshows goodcorrelation a with this limit.

2,300NOreShoot.--The theoretical positions openings theactual of and

areas mined again fairlygood are in agreement thisoreshoot. As with the for

South North shoots limits marked a rapid and ore the are by chane profileof
dip. On the basis the contour of diagram, however, 2,300N ore shoot the ought extend to the LucyTongue to up level. The dyingout of the veinwell below thislevelis probably mainlydueto the splitting of the vein into up several stringers, indicated diamond as by drilling.

1476

DAVID GOUGH
CONCLUSIONS

The correlation between theoretical and actual positions ore shoots of is in general very good. As expected, profile-dips the bearing the of surfaces varyfromone partof thefaultplane another, to depending therange on of profile-dips each in specific of thefault. As a result this,no single area of
profile-dipcontourwill defineall the ore shoots. Except for the patchy Central Ore Shoot,the limits of the ore shoots

are markedby a steepgradientof profile-dips.This is clearlya most

significant factor.

Althoughthe good correlation theoretical of and actual ore shoots has beenstressed, thereare neverthelessfew areasof the fault planethat show a poorcorrelation. These anomalous canbe attributed special areas to geological conditions localinfluence, of whichhaveresulted the geometrical in ana-

lysis being onlypartially effective. follows anygeometrical It that analysis must always used conjunction theconventional be in with geological approach,
andonlywith thisproviso the method can presented herebe of value.
ACKNOWLEDGIENTS

FirstlyI wouldlike to thankGreenside MinesLtd. for their kindpermissionto studythe geology the mine; in particular, of thanksare due to Mr. L. H. Davies,Major H. R. Kerr, andMr. H. E. Evans. The research was financed a D.S.I.R. Studentship. The field work by and the laboratory work at the Royal School Mines,London, of were carried
out under the supervision Dr. A. P. Millman to whom I would like to exof pressmy great appreciation. Professor David Williams of the Royal School

of MinesandProfessor C. Dunhamof DurhamUniversityprovided K. useful

comments severalaspects. Examinationof drill core from the mine was on

madepossible permission by from the Directorof the Geological Surveyof Great Britain. Finally I would like to thank Dr. W. J. Lampard, Senior Geologist, Braden Copper Company, hiscritical for reading themanuscript. of
GEOLOGY DEPARTMENT, ERADEN COPPER COMPANY, RANCAGUA, CHILE, January 27,1965
REFERENCES

1. Conolly, J. C., 1936,A contoter H. method revealing of some structures ECON. ore i GEOL.,
v. 31, p. 259-271. 2. Yon Cotta, B., 1859, Die Lehre yon de Erzlagerstattenlehre, p. 161. 3. Dodson, M. H., and Moorbath, S., 1961, Isotopic ages of the Weardale Granite: Nature,
v. 190, p. 899-900.

4. Dunham, K. C., 1950, Introduction to the Symposium on "The geology, paragenesis, and reserves of the ores of lead and zinc": Int. Geol. Congr., 18th session, part VII.
section F.

5. Eastwood, T., 1921, The lead and zlnc ores of the Lake District: Special reports on the mineral resources of G.B., v. XXII, Mere. Geol. Surv. 6. Eastwood, T., 1959, The Lake District mining field: in "The Future of Non-ferrous Mining in Great Britain and Ireland": Inst. Min. Met., London, 614 p.

STRUCTURAL
178, p. 58-81.

ANALYSIS

OF ORE SHOOTS

1477

7. Emmons, W. H., 1948, Certain ore shootson warped fault planes: A.I.M.E. Tr., v.

8. Hartley, J. J., 1942, The geologyof Helvellyn and the southernpart of Thirlmere:
Q.J.G.S., v. 97, p. 129-162.

9. Hulin, C. D., 1929, Structuralcontrolof ore deposition: EcoN. GEoid., 24, p. 38-40. v. 10. Knopf, A., 1929, The motherlode systemof California: U.S.G.S., Prof. Paper 157. 11. Lovering,T. S., and Goddard, N., 1950, Geologyand ore deposits the Front Range E. of
Colorado:U.S.G.S., Prof. Paper 223. 12. Mitchell, G. H., 1956, The geological history of the Lake District: Yorks. Geol. Soc. Proc., v. 30, p. 407-463. 13. Moorbath, S., 1962, Lead isotope abundance studies on mineral occurrences in the British Isles and their geologicalsignificance:Roy. Soc. Lond. Phil. Trans., Series A, v. 254, p. 295-360.
14. Moseley, F., 1960, The succession and structure of the Borrowdale Volcanic Series

south-east Ullswater: Q.J.G.S., v. 116, p. 55-84. of 15. Newhouse, W. H., 1942 (Editor), "Ore Deposits as Related to Structural Features": Princeton, 280 p. 16. Oliver, R. L., 1961, The Borrowdale Volcanic Series and associated rocks of the Seafell area, English Lake District: Q.J.G.S., v. 117, p. 377-413.

17. Spurt, J. E., 1925, The Campbird compound vein dike: EcoN. GEoid., 20, p. 124. v. 18. Ward, J. C., 1876, The Geologyof the northern part of the English Lake District: Mere.
Geol. Surv.

19. Willson, J. D., 1939, Private company rqort.