Part I - definitions: m divides n: m , n(mn gcd(m,n):

k n=km)

greatest common divisor of m,n = d

for arbitrary pair a , b I ={ax +by : x , y } is generated by (d ) gcd ( m , n)=d : dm , n ( d m , n dd d ) d d

lcm(m,n):

least common multiple of m, n = l set of all common multiples of m,n is an ideal and is generated by the lcm(m,n) = l

I ={l :albl } is generated by (l) lcm(m , n)=l :m , nl (m , n l l) l l l l l 2 m , nl 1l 2 also: m , nl 1

prime #:

p( p is prime only p , 1 p) non set I is ideal ( a , b(a , b I abI )) ( a , b (a ,bI ab I )) I is deal ! d 0 : I ={ ada } is associative (S , )is semi group eS : aS (ae=ea=a )(S , ) is a monoid
e is called the identity element and is unique

ideal in Z:

note: (d) means I is generated by d. Such an ideal of Z is principal, and (Z,+,*) is called principal ideal domain (pid) semigroup: monoid:

group:

( S , ) is a monoid a S a 1 (S , ) is a group
abelian group:commutative group (S,+) alternatively from scratch:

closure of (S , ): for all a ,b S ! c :ab=c associativity of ( S , ) : for all a , b , c S (a(bc)=(ab)c ) Identity element in ( S , ):e S : ea=ae=a inverses ( S , ): aG a1G :aa1=a1a=e (G , ) is a finite group with order ord (G)=G if H G(H ,) is a group H is subgroup of G : H g G 1 H g G a , bG( a , bH ab H ) H g GG< HG G<a G n + : a n=c w/ min(n)=ord (a )(order of a) (a ) {a k : k 1}g G :(a)=ord (a) ord (a) GaG=e if a k =e ord ( a)k G< , a , bG : ab=ba G is commutative gcd ( ord (a ) , ord (b))=1 ord ( ab)=ord (a)ord (b) gcd ( ord (a i ), ord (a j))=1 :1i , jk i j0 (all relatively prime) ord (a 1. .. ai )=ord (a 1)ord (a k ) the triple (R ,+,)with set R with two binary operiations+is a ring (R ,+1) is abelian group with e=0 (inverse denoted by - : -a is inverse of a) (R ,) is semigroup + distribute : a , b , c R : a (b+c )=ab+ac(b+c )a=ba+ca (R ,) is commutative semigroup then ( R ,+,) is a commutative ring. (Z ,+, ) is a commutative ring with identity : U ={1,1 }

i) ii) iii) iv)

ring: cond. i: cond. ii: cond. iii:

ring with identity: units in a ring:

for a ring (R ,+,):R2( R ,)is a monoid (R ,+,) is a ring with identity a Ra1 a is called a unit, where ( R ,+,) is a ring with identity set of units U R{ 0 }(U ,) is a group , called group of units of R Z n is group of units for the commutative ring (Z N ,+,) with 0,1 respective identities of ( Z N ,+ )( Z N ,) (R ,+,) is a commutative ring with identity :U =R{0 } ( R ,+,)is a field if p is prime Z p =Z p {0 } , so Z p is a field and if Z n is a field then n is prime

field:

(R,+,*) a ring with identity and (R-{0},*) is an abelian group. a congruent to b mod n:

n + : ab( mod n) nab

Zn: integers modulo n Z n={0,1,. . n1} each element a (called element of least residue) represents equivalence class (equivalent to a modulo n)

then equivalence class for element of residue 2 is a : a2( mod n)

Zn*:

Z n ={a : gcd (a , n) = =1 } Z =(n) n if p is prime Z =Z p{0 } , so Z p is a field. also if Z n is a field n is prime p

phi(n): p is a prime

( n) { m[ n]: gcd (m , n)=1 } n1 p ( p)= p1 1 e e pe1 ( p )= p (1 ) p + m , n gcd (m , n)=1 ( mn)=(m)( n) k 1 n + (n= pe ... pe ) ( n)=n (1 e ) 1 k i=1 Pi
1 k i

ord(a):

for finite group G ord (G)=G for a finite group G with identiy e a G m + :ord ( a)=min(m): a m=e k ord ( a)=ma 1 mod n mk (m(n))
for finite group G

t ??? gcd ( k , t ) G is cyclic dord (G) G has (d ) elements order d G is cyclic H g G H is cyclic dord (G)! g G w /order=d a Gord (a )=t ord (a )=
k

def:

Z is a finite group of order (n)aZ n ord ( a)(n) n ord ( a)=(n) Z ={ 1, a , a 2 , .. , a (n)1 } n

Z =(n) n

cyclic group : and generator:

G is a group. a G :G=(a ) {a k : k 0 } G is cyclic and a is a generator of G G=( a) ord (a )=G Z is a generator primes p p(n) (n)/ p 1 mod n n is a generator b=i mod n is also a generator gcd (i , (n))=1 Z n is cyclic # of generators is (( n))

Results: Division Algorithm:

a , d + (exists unique pair) ! (q , r ): a=qd +r 0r d 1 r =a mod d (a % d ) q=a div d (ad ) a ,b { 0 } a a a a =largest integer =largest integer b b b b a a a =smallest integer r =a b b b b
every ideal in Z is a principal ideal: every n in Z drives an ideal set gcd(m,n) in terms of m and n:

gcd ( m , n)=d x , y :mx+ny

e1 ek

fundamental theorem of arithmetic(Prime Factorization):

n1 is a unique product primes :n= p 1 ... p k

explicit expression for phi(n) in terms of the factorization of n:

for n= p e ... p e 1 k
1

(n)=n (1
i=1

1 ) pe i
i

Chinese Remainder Theorem:

Let n1, n 2,. .. , nk + be relatively prime ( gcd ( ni , n j )=1 :1i , j ji j0)

then the system of simultaneous congruences

for n= p e ... p e 1 k
1

(n)=n (1

n )M j ni x mod n x x= ai (
i =1 k

1 ) has unique sol mod n=n 1 n2 ... nk ( Z n ) e i=1 pi n 1 where M j=( ) mod ni ni
k
i

facts regarding finite groups(see Proposition 3 of Mod II): i) ii) iii) iv)

(G , ) is a group H g G a , bG( a , bH ab1H ) H g GG< HG G<a G n + : a n=c w/ min(n)=ord (a )(order of a) k G k (a ) {a : k 1}g G :(a)=ord (a) ord (a) Ga =e if a =e ord ( a)k G< , a , bG : ab=ba G is commutative gcd ( ord (a ) , ord (b))=1 ord ( ab)=ord (a)ord (b) gcd ( ord (a i ), ord (a j))=1 :1i , jk i j0 (all relatively prime) ord (a 1. .. ai )=ord (a 1)ord (a k )

#(Zn*)=: Euler's Theorem:

=(n) n
(n )1 mod n x y mod (n) a x a y mod (n) n is product of distinct primes r , s>0 r s a (r s mod (n)) a a mod n

Fermat's Theorem:

ord ( a)=ma k 1 mod n mk (m(n)) by devision algorithm r p : ar mod p r0 p1 p1 p r a 1 mod pa a mod p a

ord(a^k):

for finite group G

a G : ord (G)=t ord (a )=

t gcd (t , k )

theorem on the structure of finite cyclic groups:

Z is cyclic
cyclic group : and generator:

n=2, 3, p , 2p

p3k 1

G is a group. a G :G=(a ) {a k : k 0 } G is cyclic and a is a generator of G G=( a) ord (a )=G Z is a generator primes p p(n) (n)/ p 1 mod n n is a generator b=i mod n is also a generator gcd (i , (n))=1 Z n is cyclic # of generators is (( n))

Part II - given a specific value of p, find all the generators of Zp*,one generator of Zp^3*,Z2p^3*.

(n)=number of elements ((n))=number of generators (n)/ p a n is generator iff p : p( n)a ! 1 mod n i a n is generator b=a mod n is also a genereator iff gcd (i , phi( n))= =1 p

k k

for: 1) 2)

a is gen iff q ( primes):q( p )= p

g is gen of p then find T : g if pT g gen of p if pT g+p gen of p
k k

k p

k1

( p1) a

(p) q

!1 mod pk

p 1

=1+ pT

for:

2p g' gen of p
k

if g' is odd then also generator of if g' even then

2p

g+p

is generator of

2p

Mod I / 3b,f;5b;6b Mod II / 4;10b;10c