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SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
A. Introduction
System development is a process that develops the information system.
Information System (IS) definition is a system that gathers information
and gives the related output.
How to produce the process of gathering Information? The system will
process the collection of data and verified it to produce the related
output. The system will process by following the instructions or
procedures.
Summary:
o Process is one of the elements in system.
o The information is generated by processing the collection of data.
B. Types of IS
KBS – Knowledge Based System.
EIS – Executives Information System.
DSS – Decision Support System.
MIS – Management Information System.
OAS – Offices Automation System.
TPS / AIS – Transaction Processing System / Accounting Information
System.
C. IS Objectives
To reduce manpower costs. Computer-based systems, done by fewer
staff.
To improve customer service. Allow organizations to serve customers
more quickly or to provide them with additional services.
To improve management information. Decisions can only be as good as
the information on which they are based, so many computer systems have
been designed to produce more, or more accurate, or timelier information.
To secure or defend competitive advantage. It’s become a major
justification for spending on information systems.
D. IS Architecture Framework
Planning.
o Why build the system?
o How should the team go about building it?
Analysis.
o Who use the system?
o What will it do?
o Where and when will the system be used?
Design: How will the system work?
Implementation: When will the system be delivered?
E. IS Users Involved
Individuals that uses IS for accessing information, update information,
process information and generate the reports or done the transactions.
Users can divide into 4 categories:
o System Owner. Create the scope of system.
o Internal and external users.
o System Designer. Design the system using the technology or follow
the technology.
o System Developer. Implementing system using the technical.
F. IS Basic Blocks Component
CAREER IN ORGANIZATION
A. The Role
Software Engineer:
o Ensuring the system conforms to infrastructure standards.
o Identifying infrastructure changes needed to support the system.
Systems Analyst:
o Identifying how technology can improve business processes.
o Designing the new business processes and IS.
o Ensuring that the system conforms to IS standards.
System Designer:
o Analyzing the key business aspects of the system.
o Identifying how the system will provide business value.
o Designing the new business processes and policies.
B. System Analyst Career Path
The key individuals in the system development process.
Need 4 skills:
o Analytical: understand the organization and its function, identify
opportunities and problems, analyze and solve problem.
o Management: manage projects, resources, risk and change.
o Technical: understand the potential and the limitations of information
technology, envision an IS and helps users solve problems that will
guide the system’s design and development, work with programming
languages, various operating systems and computer hardware
platform.
o Interpersonal: work with end users, other system analysts and
programmers, play major role as a liaison among users, programmers
and other systems professionals, have effective written and oral
communication including competence in leading meetings,
interviewing and listening.
Knowledgeable with business and organizations chart.
o Known each of the position in the organization.
o Known the needs of business.
Excellent in problem solving.
o Method of problem solving.
o Uses the computer as tools in problem solving.
Excellent in communication.
o Effectiveness in communication at any level.
o Knowledgeable in few method of communication.
Knowledgeable and expertise in IT:
o Internet.
o Interface.
o Object technology.
o Distributed database and data relations.
o Network and telecommunication.
o Programming and client server.
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Implementation:
o System Delivery.
o Steps taken:
Constructs.
Install system.
Maintain system.
Post-implementation.
C. SDLC – Web-based Application
Publish and Promotion:
o Handling all the public relations issues of a web; marketing
strategies.
o Steps taken:
Web principles.
Web techniques.
Web business models.
Innovation:
o Improving the usability and quality of the web; meet user
expectation.
o Steps taken:
Monitor the user’s information environment.
Continuously improve quality.
D. Principles Applied
Get the owner and users involved.
Use a problem-solving approach.
Establish phases and activities.
Establish standards.
Justify systems as capital investment.
Don’t be afraid to cancel or revise scope.
Divide and conquer.
Design systems for growth and change.
E. Methodologies
Model Driven:
o Structured:
Waterfall development.
Parallel development.
o Object-oriented.
Rapid Application Development (RAD):
o Phased development.
o Prototyping.
o Throwaway prototyping.
PARIS MODEL
A. Planning The Approach
First stages of system analysis.
First step taken by the system analyst should be to plan the approach
carefully: ‘failure to prepare is prepare to fail’.
Plan the actions, consider few factors:
o Objectives of the project.
o What type of information is required?
o What are the constraints on the investigation?
o What are the potential problems that may make the task more
difficult?
Plan the investigation.
o Critical information you require before the investigation starts.
o How you will get this information.
o The fact-finding techniques that will be appropriate.
o The danger areas for the project and for your company.
A part of the planning process, must ensure:
o Understand the objectives and terms of reference agreed with the
client.
o Aware of constraints that affect the analysis process.
o Plan the research, initial contact and other tasks to be completed
during the investigation and manage time appropriately.
B. Objective And Terms Of Reference
Objectives the analysis: to understand about client’s expectations.
Key questions in beginning of analysis phase:
o Who initiated the project?
o What is their role in the organization?
o What are their objectives for the project?
o What are the company objectives?
Stated objectives of the client will usually be recorded in the terms of
reference.
Scope use to summaries the main areas included in the terms of
references.
o System boundary:
Define the area of the organization under investigation.
May also specify the limit of any new system implemented as a
result of the project.
o Constraints:
Factors, including budget, timescale and technology, which may
restrict the study, or the solution, in some way.
Will enable the analysis to determine which fact-finding methods
are most appropriate to help them to put together a detailed plan
for the investigation.
o Objectives: an unambiguous statement of the expectations of those in
the client’s organization who have initiated the project. These may be
broken down by function or department. Well-defined objectives are
clear and measurable.
o Permission: this will indicate who in the client’s organization is
responsible for the supervision of the project and, if permission needs
to be granted.
o End products: a description of the deliverable or end products of the
investigation. These will usually the form of a written report and a
supporting presentation to managers of the client organization.
INTRODUCTION
Requirements:
o A text report that lists the functional and nonfunctional requirements.
o To provide information needed by other deliverables in the analysis
phase, which include use case, process models and data models.
o To define the scope of the system.
REQUIREMENTS
Functional requirements: related directly to a process the system has to
perform or information it needs to contain.
Non-functional requirements: refer to the behavioral property that the
system must have.
o Operational: physical and technical environments in which the system
will operate.
o Performance: speed, capacity and reliability of the system.
o Security: who has authorized access to the system under what
circumstances.
o Cultural and political: cultural, political factors and legal requirements
that affect the system.
IT SWOT ANALYSIS
Act as a structure and tool for marketing proposals and strategy
development.
Identifies features of a proposal as follows:
o Strengths.
o Weaknesses.
o Opportunities.
o Threats.
SWOT analysis looks into two factors:
o Internal factors.
Strengths.
Weaknesses.
o External Factors.
Opportunities.
Threats.
All these factors includes:
o People (management / customers / suppliers).
o Money.
o Information.
o Technology.
C. DFD Elements
Elements Descriptions
Process An activity or function performed for a specific
business reason
Manual or computerized
Data flow A single piece of data or a logical collection of data
Always starts or ends at a process
Data store A collection of data that is stored in some way
Data flowing out is retrieved from the data store
Data flowing in updates or is added to the data store
External entity A person, organization, or system that is external to the
system but interacts with it.
D. Naming and Drawing DFD Elements
DFD
A. Context Diagram
First DFD in every business process.
Shows the context into which the business process fits.
Shows the overall business process as just one process (process 0).
Shows all the external entities that receive information from or contribute
information to the system.
B. Level 0 Diagram
Shows all the major processes that comprise the overall system – the
internal components of process 0.
Shows how the major processes are interrelated by data flows.
Shows external entities and the major processes with which they interact.
Adds data stores.
C. Level 1 Diagrams
Generally, one level 1 diagram is created for every major process on the
level 0 diagram.
Shows all the internal processes that comprise a single process on the
level 0 diagram.
Shows how information moves from and to each of these processes.
If a parent process is decomposed into, for example, three child processes,
these three child processes wholly and completely make up the parent
process.
D. Level 2 Diagrams
Shows all processes that comprise a single process on the level 1 diagram.
Shows how information moves from and to each of these processes.
May not be needed for all level 1 processes.
Correctly numbering each process helps the user understand where the
process fits into the overall system.
INTRODUCTION
PARIS model – frequently an overlap between analysis and design.
High-level design:
o Begins during analysis.
o Analysis continuing as part of design.
Final deliverables from system analysis: a document containing an
unambiguous statement of clients’ requirement.
Functional specification:
o States what the development project will have to deliver.
o Written by analysis team and agreed and signed off by the client.
o All the information must be precisely and accurately will be the
foundation for the design phase to begin.
Information systems design is defined as those tasks that focus on the
specification of a detailed computer-based solution, also called physical
design.
Systems design: emphasis on the technical or implementation concerns of
the system.
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Feasibility is the measure of how beneficial or practical the development of
an information system will be to an organization.
Feasibility analysis is the process by which feasibility is measured.
Creeping Commitment: An approach to feasibility proposes that feasibility
should be measured throughout the life cycle.
FEASIBILITY CHECKPOINTS
Systems analysis:
o Preliminary investigation.
o Problem analysis.
Systems design: decision analysis.
SUMMARY
Set of logical models produced during analysis: emphasized and describes
these models bridge the gap between analysis and design.
If analysis has been carried out thoroughly and documented in an
unambiguously manner, it will increase the chance of delivering a quality
product.
The process of design includes:
o Controls.
o Human-computer interfaces (input, output, and dialogues).
o System interfaces.
o Data-logical models, files, databases and physical storage media.
o Processes.
SYSTEM DESIGN: FILES AND DATABASES
FILES
A. Introduction
Files are an organized collection of related records.
How data is organized and accessed – effectiveness of computer system.
Data processing: input process output.
B. Data Types
Master data Records that are relatively permanent
Transaction data Records that describe business events/activities
Output files Information for output from the system
Transfer files Carry data from one stage of processing to another
Security/Dump files Copies of data held in the computer at particular
time
Archive files Contain master and transaction data that have been
deleted, audit purposes
Library files Library routines
Audit files Special records of updates to other files, tracing
purposes
C. File Organization
Serial organization.
o Records are placed one after another each time stored, go to next
available storage space.
o Disadvantage: not cater for direct access to particular record.
Sequential organization.
o Records are sequenced.
o Batch processing environment.
o Disadvantage: take too long for particular record if the files have to be
read from beginning each time.
Indexed sequential organization.
o Records are sequenced and index provided.
o Can locate/point directly to particular record.
o Disadvantage: records might be inserted into overflow areas slow
down access.
Random organization.
o Stored with no regard to the sequence of key fields.
o Only can be used with direct access devices.
Others.
o Full index organization.
o Chained data.
D. Access Methods
Key transformation algorithm.
o Fastest access method to locate individual method.
o Single calculation provides required record address.
o Suitable for large datasets.
Database management software.
o Use shared data.
o Organization method based on requirements of all applications.
DATABASE
A. Introduction
Database is a single collection of structured data stored with minimum of
duplication of data items.
Data contains sharable by all users who has authority to access.
3Is, facilities in DBMS:
o Integration: allows applications to share data and avoids the need for
data duplication and inconstancies this can cause.
o Integrity: removals of duplication, inconsistencies that can arise
when duplicated data is updated at different times are removed.
o Independence: allows developer to modify the structure of the
database without changing all the application programs that use it.
B. Concepts
Distributed database:
Several nodes/machines linked together using a computer network.
Reduce response times, communication costs.
C. Models
Types of DBMS:
o File Management System.
Describe how data is physically stored sequentially.
Disadvantage: no indication of relationships between data items,
need to know exactly how data stored, not enforced for data
integrity, etc.
ARCHITECTURE CHOICES
Server-based architecture.
Client-based architecture.
o Three-tiered.
o Four-tiered.
CLIENT-SERVER ATTRIBUTES
Benefits:
o Scalable.
o Works with multiple vendors/products through middleware.
o Improved modularity of web-based systems.
o No central point of failure.
Limitations:
o Complexity.
o New programming languages and techniques (adds stress for personnel).
o More complex to update.
APPLICATION ARCHITECTURE
It’s specifies the technologies to be used to implement one or more (and
possibly all) information systems in terms of DATA, PROCESS, and
INTERFACE, and how these components interact across a network.
It serves as an outline or blueprint for detailed design and implementation.
PHYSICAL PROCESSES
Definition: is either a processor (such as a computer or person), or a technical
implementation of specific work to be performed (such as a computer
program or manual process).
o Logical processes may be assigned to physical processors such as PCs,
servers, mainframes, people, or devices in a network.
o A physical DFD would model that network structure.
Each logical process requires an implementation as one or more physical
processes. Note that a logical process may be split into multiple physical
processes:
o To define those aspects that is performed by people or computers.
o To define those aspects to be implemented by different technologies.
o To show multiple implementations of the same process.
o To add processes for exceptions and internal control (e.g. security).
DATA ARCHITECTURES
Relational database.
o Stores data in tabular form implemented as a table.
o Each field is a column in the table.
o Related records between two tables are implemented by intentionally
duplicated columns in the two tables.
Distributed relational database: distributes or duplicates tables to multiple
database servers located in geographically important locations.
Distributed relational database management system: is a software
program that controls access to and maintenance of stored data in the
relational format.
INTERFACE ARCHITECTURES
Batch inputs and outputs.
On-line inputs and outputs.
Remote batch.
Keyless data entry (and automatic identification).
Pen input.
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI).
Middleware.
PROCESS ARCHITECTURES
A software development environment (SDE) is a programming language and
tool kit for constructing information systems software applications.
o SDEs exist for centralized computing.
o SDEs exist for distributed presentation.
o SDEs exist for two-tiered client/server.
o SDEs exist for multi-tiered client/server.
o SDEs exist for Internet and intranet client/server.
Many SDEs support clean layering, the requirement that the presentation,
application, and data layers of an application be physically separated to allow
components of each layer to be replaced or enhanced without affecting the
other layers.
INFORMATION SECURITY
A. Introduction
Information Security aims to preserve:
o Confidentiality.
o Integrity.
o Availability.
o Accountability.
Control policy document guidelines:
o Control context.
o Controls in systems development and maintenance.
o Controls in area of operation and maintenance.
o Contingency planning measures.
B. Hacking And Viruses
Organization connected to Internet vulnerable to hackers and viruses.
Advices:
o Re-examine security policies.
o Latest version of anti-virus software.
o Upgrade access controls.
o Carry out audits internally.
C. Controls
Input.
o Aim to ensure accuracy, completeness and reasonableness of data.
o Input controls:
Format checks.
Limit checks.
Reasonable checks.
Check big numbers and data processing for online system.
Batch systems checking.
Batch control totals.
Hash totals.
Count number of items in the batch.
Output.
o Ensure output is complete and accurate.
o Gets to right people in a timely fashion.
o Output controls:
Control totals.
Spot checks.
Pre-numbering.
Others.
o Processing controls: operation of an IS.
o Storage controls.
Ensure no files damage.
Integrity of file data.
o Audit controls.
Internal audit.
External audit.
D. Contingency Planning
Steps:
o Business impact analysis.
o Preventive controls.
o Recovery strategies.
o Contingency plans.
o Testing and training plan.
o Regularly review and maintenance of the plan.
HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
A. Introduction
To communicate between user and computer system.
Outputs, inputs and dialogues forms.
Starting point to design: DFD of the system.
Designer proposes several options, users decide. Both should agree the
system boundary.
B. Input Design
Keyboard transcription from documents: data from forms, using
keyboard/keypad.
Direct input from peripheral device: bar codes reader, OCR, pointing
devices etc.
Direct entry through intelligent terminals: POS equipment has processing
power, able to store data.
Input by speech: voice patterns as input.
Validation
Types of validation:
o Completeness check.
o Format check.
o Range check.
o Check digit check.
o Consistency check.
o Database checks.
C. Output Design
Output technology: using printer, plotter, facsimile, speech.
Displaying information on a screen: needed content only, uncluttered and
easy to read, information logically arranged.
Use of tables and graphics: detailed information, create graphs, pie charts,
bar charts etc.
Specifying outputs: report generator which divide output into several
sections; report and page header, footers etc.
D. Dialogue Design
Website design.
o Known user target, structure, site navigation.
o Text, highlighting, color, animation used.
Dialogue types.
o Prompt to user to get inputs etc.
o Menus, Q and A, form-filling etc.
WIMP interfaces: Windows, Icons, Mouse, Pull-down menus.
User support.
o If user has problems during selecting option.
o Help document, manuals, training.
E. Ergonomics
Ergonomics:
o Study of physical and mental reactions people to their working
environment.
o Areas of study:
Anatomy: body dimensions, forces application.
Physiology: energy, effect to body.
Psychology: cognitive skills, perceptual-motor performance,
behavior and interaction with others.
Not even with powerful technology, but meet business need, minimizing
errors.
F. Interface Design
Process of defining how the system will interact with external entities:
customers, suppliers, other systems etc.
Principles:
o Layout.
o Content awareness.
o Aesthetics.
o User experience.
o Consistency.
o Minimal user effort.
SYSTEM DESIGN: LOGICAL DATA DESIGN
AND PHYSICAL DATA DESIGN
CONSTRUCTION
Phases:
o Build and test network.
o Build and test database.
o Install and test new software packages.
o Write and test new programs.
o Write documentation.
IMPLEMENTATION
A. Implementation Change
B. Conversion
Conversion style:
o Direct conversion: the new system instantly replaces the old.
o Parallel conversion: for a time both old and new systems are used.
The old is abandoned when the new is proven fully capable.
Conversion location:
o Pilot conversion: one or more locations are converted to work out
bugs before extending to other locations.
o Phased conversion: locations are converted in sets.
o Simultaneous conversion: all locations are converted at the same time.
Conversion modules:
o Whole system conversion: all modules converted in one step.
o Modular conversion: when modules are loosely associated, they can
be converted one at a time.
Factors to consider for conversion strategy’s selection:
o Risk: seriousness of consequences of remaining bugs.
o Cost:
Parallel requires paying for two systems for a period of time.
Simultaneous requires more staff to support all locations.
o Time: parallel, phased, and modular require more time.
MAINTENANCE
Activities:
o Provide support: assistance in using the system.
o Provide maintenance:
Repair or fix discovered bugs or errors.
Add minor enhancements to provide added value.
o Assess the project:
Analyze what was done well.
Discover what activities need improvement in the future.
Types of support:
o On-demand training at time of user need.
o Online support: frequently asked questions (FAQ).
o Help desk:
Phone service for known issues.
Level 2 support.
System maintenance tasks:
Validate the problem.
Benchmark the program: a test script is a repository of test
cases to be executed against all program revisions.
Study and debug the program to fix:
• Poor program structure.
• Unstructured (or poorly structured) logic.
• Prior maintenance (so-called “ripple” effects).
• Dead code.
• Poor or inadequate documentation.
Test the program: version control is a process whereby a
librarian program keeps track of changes made to programs to
facilitate backtracking.
System enhancement tasks:
Analyze enhancement request.
If appropriate, make quick fix.
Recover the existing physical system:
• Database recovering and restructuring.
• Program analysis, recovery, and restructuring.
• Software metrics are mathematically proven
measurements of software quality and productivity.
• Measurement of control flow knots (complexity of
logic).
• Measurement of cycle complexity.
• Code reorganization of modularity and/or logic.
• Code conversion from one language to another.
• Code slicing to create reusable software components or
objects.
Repeat appropriate phases and tasks of the original
development methodology.
WEB-BASED APPLICATION
INNOVATION
Definition: is a creative, dynamic process, in monitoring and understanding
user needs and developing web structures to meet those needs.
Continuous process, involve all team members.
Techniques:
o Monitor user’s information environment.
Web developers:
Should be aware of audience’s professional societies, trade shows,
conventions, periodicals, related Net resources, and changing
interests.
Should be aware of how their users perceive the web.
o Continuously improve quality.
Quality web information: correct, accessible, usable, understandable,
and meaningful.
To increase quality based on: content, presentation, discovery,
innovation, testing and evaluation, usability testing, feedback,
iterative analysis.