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n Service Retail Brand management Account-based marketing Marketing ethics Marketing effectiveness Market research Market segmentation Marketing strategy Marketing activation Marketing management Market dominance Promotional content Advertising Branding Underwriting Direct marketing Personal Sales Product placement Publicity Sales promotion Sex in advertising Loyalty marketing SMS Marketing Premiums Prizes Promotional media Printing Publication Broadcasting Out-of-home Internet marketing Point of sale Promotional merchandise Digital marketing In-game In-store demonstration Word-of-mouth marketing Brand Ambassador Drip Marketing This box: view talk edit In marketing, positioning has come to mean the process by which marketers try to create an image or identity in the minds of their target market for its product , brand, or organization. Re-positioning involves changing the identity of a product, relative to the iden tity of competing products, in the collective minds of the target market. De-positioning involves attempting to change the identity of competing products, relative to the identity of your own product, in the collective minds of the ta rget market. The original work on Positioning was consumer marketing oriented, and was not as much focused on the question relative to competitive products as much as it was focused on cutting through the ambient "noise" and establishing a moment of rea l contact with the intended recipient. In the classic example of Avis claiming " No.2, We Try Harder", the point was to say something so shocking (it was by the standards of the day) that it cleared space in your brain and made you forget al l about who was #1, and not to make some philosophical point about being "hungry " for business. The growth of high-tech marketing may have had much to do with the shift in defi nition towards competitive positioning. An important component of hi-tech market ing in the age of the world wide web is positioning in major search engines such as Google, Yahoo and Bing, which can be accomplished through Search Engine Opti mization , also known as SEO. This is an especially important component when att empting to improve competitive positioning among a younger demographic, which te nds to be web oriented in their shopping and purchasing habits as a result of be

ing highly connected and involved in social media in general. Contents [hide] 1 Definitions 2 Brand positioning process 3 Product positioning process 4 Positioning concepts 5 Measuring the positioning 6 Repositioning a company 7 See also 8 References 9 External links [edit] Definitions Although there are different definitions of Brand Positioning, probably the most common is: identifying a market niche for a brand, product or service utilizing traditional marketing placement strategies (i.e. price, promotion, distribution , packaging, and competition). Also positioning is defined as the way by which the marketers creates impression in the customers mind. Positioning is a concept in marketing which was first introduced by Jack Trout ( "Industrial Marketing" Magazine- June/1969) and then popularized by Al Ries and Jack Trout in their bestseller book "Positioning - The Battle for Your Mind." ( McGraw-Hill 1981) This differs slightly from the context in which the term was first published in 1969 by Jack Trout in the paper "Positioning" is a game people play in todays metoo market place" in the publication Industrial Marketing, in which the case is made that the typical consumer is overwhelmed with unwanted advertising, and has a natural tendency to discard all information that does not immediately find a comfortable (and empty) slot in the consumers mind. It was then expanded into th eir ground-breaking first book, "Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind," in whic h they define Positioning as "an organized system for finding a window in the mi nd. It is based on the concept that communication can only take place at the rig ht time and under the right circumstances" (p. 19 of 2001 paperback edition). What most will agree on is that Positioning is something (perception) that happe ns in the minds of the target market. It is the aggregate perception the market has of a particular company, product or service in relation to their perceptions of the competitors in the same category. It will happen whether or not a compan y s management is proactive, reactive or passive about the on-going process of e volving a position. But a company can positively influence the perceptions throu gh enlightened strategic actions. Positioning Statement (As written in the highly revered book Crossing the Chasm. Copyright 1991, by Geoffrey Moore, HarperCollins Publishers) For (target custom er) Who (statement of the need or opportunity) The (product name) is a (product category) That (statement of key benefit that is, compelling reason to buy) Unli ke (primary competitive alternative) Our product (statement of primary different iation) Differentiation in the context of business is what a company can hang its hat on that no other business can. For example, for some companies this is being the l east expensive. Other companies credit themselves with being the first or the fa stest. Whatever it is a business can use to stand out from the rest is called di fferentiation. Differentiation in todays over-crowded marketplace is a business i mperative, not only in terms of a companys success, but also for its continuing s urvival.* [edit] Brand positioning process Effective Brand Positioning is contingent upon identifying and communicating a b rand s uniqueness, differentiation and verifiable value. It is important to note that "me too" brand positioning contradicts the notion of differentiation and s hould be avoided at all costs. This type of copycat brand positioning only works if the business offers its solutions at a significant discount over the other c

ompetitor(s). Generally, the brand positioning process involves: 1. Identifying the business s direct competition (could include tertiary pl ayers that offer your product/service amongst a larger portfolio of solutions) 2. Understanding how each competitor is positioning their business today (e .g. claiming to be the fastest, cheapest, largest, the #1 provider, etc.) 3. Documenting the provider s own positioning as it exists today (may not e xist if startup business) 4. Comparing the company s positioning to its competitors to identify viab le areas for differentiation 5. Developing a distinctive, differentiating and value-based brand position ing statement, key messages and customer value propositions. [edit] Product positioning process Generally, the product positioning process involves: 1. Defining the market in which the product or brand will compete (who the relevant buyers are) 2. Identifying the attributes (also called dimensions) that define the prod uct space 3. Collecting information from a sample of customers about their perception s of each product on the relevant attributes 4. Determine each product s share of mind 5. Determine each product s current location in the product space 6. Determine the target market s preferred combination of attributes (refer red to as an ideal vector) 7. Examine the fit between: o The position of your product o The position of the ideal vector 8. interest and started a conversation, you ll know you re on the right tra ck. [edit] Positioning concepts More generally, there are three types of positioning concepts: 1. Functional positions o Solve problems o Provide benefits to customers o Get favorable perception by investors (stock profile) and lenders 2. Symbolic positions o Self-image enhancement o Ego identification o Belongingness and social meaningfulness o Affective fulfillment 3. Experiential positions o Provide sensory stimulation o Provide cognitive stimulation [edit] Measuring the positioning Positioning is facilitated by a graphical technique called perceptual mapping, v arious survey techniques, and statistical techniques like multi dimensional scal ing, factor analysis, conjoint analysis, and logit analysis. POSE Analysis[1] of fers a somewhat more sophisticated approach than perceptual mapping and allows o ne to not only determine the positioning of a brand but also the overal strength of a brand s proposition. [edit] Repositioning a company In volatile markets, it can be necessary - even urgent - to reposition an entire company, rather than just a product line or brand. When Goldman Sachs and Morga n Stanley suddenly shifted from investment to commercial banks, for example, the expectations of investors, employees, clients and regulators all needed to shif t, and each company needed to influence how these perceptions changed. Doing so involves repositioning the entire firm. This is especially true of small and medium-sized firms, many of which often lac k strong brands for individual product lines. In a prolonged recession, business approaches that were effective during healthy economies often become ineffectiv

e and it becomes necessary to change a firm s positioning. Upscale restaurants, for example, which previously flourished on expense account dinners and corporat e events, may for the first time need to stress value as a sale tool. Repositioning a company involves more than a marketing challenge. It involves ma king hard decisions about how a market is shifting and how a firm s competitors will react. Often these decisions must be made without the benefit of sufficient information, simply because the definition of "volatility" is that change becom es cult or impossible to predict. [edit] See also Brand management Brand community Customer engagement Marketing Marketing management Target market Product management Market segment Product differentiation Proximity mapping Marketing plan Sustainable competitive advantage Strategic management Marketing strategies Placebo (origins of technical term) Points-of-parity/points-of-difference The 22 Immutable Laws of Marketing List of renamed products [edit] References Trout, J., (1969) ""Positioning" is a game people play in todays me-too market pl ace", Industrial Marketing, Vol.54, No.6, (June 1969), pp. 5155. Ries, A. and Trout,J. (1981) Positioning, The battle for your mind, Warner Books - McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, 1981, ISBN 0-446-34794-9 Trout, J. and Rivkin, S. (1996) The New Positioning : The latest on the worlds # 1 business strategy, McGraw Hill, New York, 1996, ISBN 0-07-065291 Moore, G. (1991) Crossing the Chasm, HarperCollins Publishers, 1991. Levi, K. (2007) "Differentiate or Diminish: The Art and Necessity of Business Po sitioning", (March 2007), p.9 [edit] External links 1. ^ POSE Analysis explained Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positioning_(marketing)" View page ratings Rate this page What s this? Trustworthy Objective Complete Well-written I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional) I have a relevant college/university degree It is part of my profession It is a deep personal passion The source of my knowledge is not listed here I would like to help improve Wikipedia, send me an e-mail (optional) We will send you a confirmation e-mail. We will not share your address with anyo ne. (Privacy policy) Submit ratings

Saved successfully Your ratings have not been submitted yet Your ratings have expired Please reevaluate this page and submit new ratings. An error has occured. Please try again later. Thanks! Your ratings have been saved. Please take a moment to complete a short survey. Start survey Maybe later Thanks! Your ratings have been saved. Do you want to create an account? An account will help you track your edits, get involved in discussions, and be a part of the community. Create an accountorLog in Maybe later Thanks! Your ratings have been saved. Did you know that you can edit this page? Edit this page Maybe later Categories: Marketing 10 Key Attributes of Brand-Guided Company 2005 Breakaway Brands Brand Positioning Strategies October 19th, 2005 2 Comments 9,400 views Tags: Your brand positioning is the space that your services and solutions occupy in the minds of your target audience. The right positioning incorporates strong values and differentiators that are important to your customers. Brand positioning is important in deciding where you want to position your brand within its category and relative to the competition. Brand Positioning permeates virtually everythin g we do. It is the foundation to all communications and brand strategy. It is th e disciplined thinking that guides the basis for building relationships between brands and customers. Once you determine the way in which you can reach your market, the next thing to look at is how you are going to lure your customer to try your brand. Here is a list of nine positioning types you can think of before deciding on whi ch one you will attach to your brand: 1. Quality positioning Perception of quality is probably one of the most important elements for a brand to have and can be combined with any of the other prompts below. Quality, or the perception of quality, lies in the mind of the buyer. Build a po werful perception of quality, and you will succeed in creating a powerful brand. Al Reis and Laura Reis, authors of The 22 Immutable Laws of Branding say the b est way to increase perception of quality is to narrow the companys focus. When y ou narrow a products focus, they explain, you become a specialist rather than a g eneralist, and a specialist is perceived to know more, or be of higher quality tha n a generalist. Another way to build the perception of high quality is to simply attach a higher price tag to your brand. Most people think that they know a high quality produc t from another, but in reality, things are not always as they seem. Believe it or not, high price is a benefit to some customers. It allows the affl uent consumer to obtain psychological satisfaction from the public purchase and consumption of a high end product. Of course, the product or service does need t o have some perk or difference to justify the higher price. 2. Value positioning Although at one time, items that were considered to be a good value meant that the y were inexpensive, that stigma has fallen by the wayside. Today, brands that ar e considered a value are rising in popularity amongst consumers. Southwest Airli nes is probably the best example of how a company has been able to offer discoun t prices and still keep a strong brand identity. In fact, most of the other majo r airlines have followed Southwests lead by rolling out value-priced flights unde

r new, co-branded names. 3. Feature-driven positioning More marketers rely on product/service features to differentiate their brands th an any other method. The advantage is that the message is clear, and the positio ning will be credible if you stick to the facts about the product. Unfortunately , feature-orientated stances are often rendered useless if the competition comes out with a faster or more advanced model. 4. Relational positioning One of the most effective ways to create interest in a brand is to send out a po sitioning prompt that resonates well with potential buyers. For instance, Sketch ers equates sneakers with cool and that characteristic passes to all who wear th em. Apple computer, which was down on its luck in the overall computer marketpla ce, started asking computer users to liberate themselves from the PC camp and Thi nk Different. These brands have achieved positioning based on who buys what they sell, not solely by what they sell. 5. Aspiration positioning These are positioning prompts that offer prospects a place they might like to go , or a person they might like to be, or a state of mind they might like to achie ve. 6. Problem/solution positioning As the name implies, problem/solution prompts show the consumer how a sticky sit uation can be relieved quickly and easily with the brand or service. What proble m/solution campaigns lack in imagination, they usually make up for in directness and credibility. For example, frozen meals cut meal preparation time to minutes . Detergents and cleansers also make good use of these prompts. 7. Rivalry-based positioning By definition, positioning deals with how one brand is thought of compared to it s obvious competitors. Therefore, the idea of a rivalry-based position might see m redundant but many campaigns take this approach. Laundry detergents, for one, are constantly going head-to-head to prove which one has the most power to lift stains. 8. Warm and fuzzy positioning Underneath our capitalist driven needs to consume, we are still docile and emoti onal animals. As such, many marketers play on our feelings. In the book, Buildin g Brand Identity: A Strategy for Success in a Hostile Marketplace , author Lynn Upshaw writes, How people feel about a brand is oftentimes need- or desire based, which means that emotional or psychological approaches can oftentimes be very e ffective as positioning prompts. 9. Benefit-driven positioning Other brands base their entire positioning on the fact that they give back to th e consumer. Discover credit card, for instance tells customers that It Pays to Di scover. Use the card and get money back. Discover was among the first major credi t cards companies to provide its users with a financial incentive for using thei r card. Tag: Positioning, Brand Strategy Related posts: 1. 6 Basic Qualitites of Brand Positioning The right positioning incorporat es strong values and differentiators that are... 2. Positioning whats new? Since we discussed earlier that positioning is one key element... 3. Logo And Slogan Key Elements of Brand Positioning Interesting article ap proaching the use of visual identity and positioning... 4. 7 Important Factors in Building Brand Value Professor David Jobber ident ifies seven main factors in building successful... 5. Drive Growth Through Branding A brand is state of mind, a mental image t hat... 6. Brands and Branding Branding: yes, you need a brand. First, branding is a... rand knowledge comprises of brand awareness and brand image contribute to establ

ishing of customer based brand equity. The process is gradual and requires in-de pth understanding of consumer mind. Connection between brand and consumer leads to long term partnership and loyalty. And, continued support to marketing effort s of the company. So when a company is trying to build up brand knowledge, Brand Positioning becomes very much relevant. For example, Apple and Windows both are well known brand. Consumers are aware that they both are computer brands dealin g in entertainment, but Apple stands for style, cool quotient, iPod etc where as Windows stands for world class operating system, quality etc. Consumer can easi ly identify point of similarities and points of difference between the two brand s. This process of creating point of similarities and points of difference in co nsumers mind is called Brand Positioning. Brand positioning strategy is about finding a right place for a brand in market place as well consumer mind. A consumer should easily identify that for a given need or want this is the brand. If brand fails to do this, it simply becomes just another product or commodity on supermarket or mall shelf. So for successfu l brand positioning, following points are of utmost importance for companies; ta rget consumer, main competitors, point of similarity with competitors and point of difference with competitors. So, to identify target consumer we must narrow down target market. A market comp rises of cluster of individual with similar behavior, referred to as segments. T hese segments can be defined on basis of personal consumption profile, which inc ludes marital status, consumption of product, usage rate of product and expectat ion from product. Another is demographic which includes age, sex, income level, race and family. Further segmentation can be done on location, if consumer, that is whether they are local or global. Other segmentation can be done on basis of emotional profile, which includes personal belief and values, chosen lifestyle, religious affiliation etc. Another market which is important is business market. Segmentation of business m arket is starts with product class, meaning target industry (chemical, agricultu re etc). Another segment is buying decision, that is, through tender process, bi dding process. By end customer (government, not profit organization etc). Finall y segmentation is done on basis of company profile, which includes financial str ength and geographical location. Knowing your competitor is very essential for survival in market. SWOT analysis is definitely good starting point. Competition may not be coming from the same p roduct class but maybe from substitute, such as, tea v/s coffee. The point here is that not to narrow down competition too much as to lose focus. In recent time apparel industry has facing competition from consumer electronics industry, as people are willing to spend buck on iPod, HDTV to make style statement and not c lothes. Point of difference could be defining in terms of the way consumer thinks for a given brand. These are the points which will make the brand stand out from compe tition. Point of difference is like unique selling proposition and this differen ce can be in form of appearance, predictable performance, quality, better custom er service. For example Wal-Mart, faces competition not only from Target but als o from Macys and Shaws. But point of difference is the product range it can offer at competitive prices compared to other stores. Points of similarity are common traits essential to make sure that consumer unde rstand the product. It helps in enforcing a simple point of identifying product within product class. This becomes important especially if brand is in extension mode and looking to enter another category. This is more prevalent in consumer goods industry, such as Old Spice earlier it was focus on shaving product but la ter moved to grooming products like deodorants. Brand positioning is very important step in establishing customer based brand eq uity. Target market, Knowing competitors, Point of difference and Point of simil arity together add to strategic branding process. Related Articles Brand Positioning

The Importance of Creativity and Innovation in Business Posted in September 19th, 2008 by Mind Edge in Entrepreneurship, Marketing When running your own small business, one characteristic all business owners mus t have is creativity. Without it, it is nearly impossible to stay afloat. This innovative spirit is especially important to the small business owner who does not have the kind of budgets that big corporations can play with. You need to b e able to craft new and innovative ways to get the most bang for your buck; whethe r by refurbishing old unsuccessful projects into successful ones, cutting your c osts without cutting corners, and of course, by thinking of new ways of boosting your sales. While most small business owners embody this innovative spirit; oftentimes they forget to foster this spirit throughout their company. To run efficiently and p roductively as possible, your entire team needs to be on the same creative page as you. In Adrian Browns Creativity & Innovation in which he highlights five characteristic s that he has observed in creative organizations are highlighted. All of which I believe are important not just for large corporations, but also for small comp anies. They include: 1. Information is free flowing: Creativity is partially about making new co nnections: for example, applying a familiar technology to a completely new appli cation. 2. New ideas are welcomed: It is easy for individuals, and companies, to bec ome stuck in its ways. Habitual behaviors, a rigid adherence to best practices a nd groupthink can all act as barriers to new ideas. Of course, not all ideas ar e good ideas and you are ultimately responsible to filter the ideas that are bub bling up. 3. Good ideas are nurtured: New ideas are delicate and can easily be kille d off with an executive shrug or simply a lack of care and attention. 4. Risk taking is accepted: Experimentation and innovation involve some failu res along the way. Risk taking doesnt mean being reckless, rather it means under standing the risk/reward relationship and taking calculated risks where the pote ntial rewards are valuable. Innovators are rewarded: Creativity is hard to measure and can often be ignored b y compensation and reward systems. However, often it is enough to publicly recog nize creativity with a simple thank you for a job well done, believe it or not, this sends a powerful message The Role Of Creativity In Business By Nick Rice On August 12, 2006 Under Branding, Business, Marketing, Uncategoriz ed I read somewhere that the best test for creativity in business was simply to ask are you creative? So I tried it. And for the majority of people it seemingly prov ed true. The people that we all see as creative (designers, PowerPoint gurus, ou t of the box thinkers) said yes; and the planners, project managers, sales peopl e said no. So I naively believed it to be true. Then a few recent articles got me thinking more clearly. Namely Sir Ken Robinsons speech at TED and Mike Wagners post on drawing a picture. These guys really ceme nted something that my 2 year old daughter teaches me every time I watch her pla y. Were all creative. We all have boundless imaginations. We always have. Unfortu nately our educational system has progressively worked that aspect our being out of us since about the third grade. No educational system on the planet puts as much emphasis on creativity as they do logic. Think about the number of math and science classes you took versus the arts and humanities. Not that logic is bad. In fact, its a critical element of who we are. Its just over balanced compared to creativity. I believe the lack of creativity is slowly killing business. Its whats driving eve rything to a commodity price-driven market. Without creative thinking how will t he engineering team discover the next breakthrough product? How will the marketi

ng team break out and stand above a crowded market place. Creativity isnt solely the realm of designers and ad agencies. Thats what I love about Mike Wagners post. He asks the people in his seminar to draw a picture. Doesnt matter what just dra w what comes to mind. Initially most people struggle with it. Imagine your finan ce person on this task theyll hate it. And why not, weve had decades of structured learning that tells us to ignore our creative side and to only focus on the log ical. Mike tells a great story of a woman beginning to weep when she discovered she was just as creative now as when she was a little girl. Creativity isnt just associated with art. It does not equal wild and crazy. It do esnt equal foolishness. When you hear out of the box thinking; thats the call to cre ativity. Its coming up with a new approach. Its daring to think differently. After all, isnt that what were paid to do? If everyone has the same view, the same idea s, the same approach, the same results then why are all of us still here? To succeed in business is to be creative in your role (obviously Sarbanes-Oxley looks down at creative financial reporting and for good reason). Growth in busin ess demands creativity. It is what will separate you from the competition. As hu mans were trained to only notice whats different in our environment, in other word s, being different is the best way to raise awareness. The lack of creativity across the board is hurting your brand. Its hurting your p rofitability. Its hurting your employees. Creativity isnt a special gift were all b orn with it. It never leaves, its just hiding. Look for ways you can let the two year old inside come out and play. Nick Rice 5. through your organization. Creativity and Innovation Business Training It is important to tap into your own creativity as well as that of your employee s. You may be surprised at the ideas they may have to boost your business. If y ou are looking for more ways to develop your personal creativity, or that of you r team, enroll in an online, self-paced Creativity & Innovation course that expand s on Browns major themes and provides interactive exercises, additional readings, and offers learners hands-on exercises to spur personal creativity. The Creativity & Innovation class is just one of the many professional development programs of study recently added to Mobile Technical Institutes online business training offerings through a partnership with the Winchester Center for Manageme nt Development. Availalbe online courses inlcude: Business Communications, Lead ership, Finance, and Management. These courses are affordably priced, 100% web based and in a self-study format allowing you to improve your creative, business , or management skills at your convenience. No user commented in " The Importance of Creativity

Imp copy deisgn Creativity and design are important features of a well-developed knowledge econo my spurring innovation and having a favourable impact on peoples well-being and b usiness performance. The importance of creativity for innovation is reflected by the fact that 2009 will be the European Year of Creativity and Innovation: The a im is to exploit and promote creative and innovative approaches and initiatives in different domains of human activity and at all levels. While education and cu lture will be at the centre of the Year, it feeds into many other policy areas, such as enterprise, information society, employment or regional policy. In preparation of a Commission Staff Working Document to be published in 2009, t he European Innovation Scoreboard project was asked to prepare a statistical doc ument aimed at measuring Member States performance in design and creativity based on currently available quantitative indicators, to classify these indicators in to meaningful blocks capturing relevant but distinct aspects of design and creat ivity, to analyse the links between design and creativity and innovation perform ance, and to suggest improvements for measuring creativity and design. Following the EIS, this report adopts a scoreboard approach using a large set of i

ndicators to capture the different dimensions. It should be stressed that there is a general lack of quantitative indicators which directly measure creativity a nd design. Creativity is defined as the generation of new ideas, but the number of ideas is an unobserved statistical phenomenon. For design activities there is more statistical evidence, but the number of indicators directly measuring desi gn activities is limited. We therefore have to rely on so-called proxy indicator s, which only indirectly measure creativity and design, thereby creating possibl e errors in the scoreboard approach where countries performance could be under- o r overvalued based on the respective bias in these proxy indicators towards meas uring true performance. The quality of the educational system, the desire of peopl e to express themselves (artistically) and the openness of a society towards dif ferent countries and cultures determine the Creative climate. A more favourable Creative climate will result in more ideas, more creativity, and more creativity is assumed to increase R&D and design activities, where R&D and design not only further develop these ideas but also shape them into commercially attractive ne w products and processes, thus increasing innovation. The statistical results in this paper confirm that a favourable Creative climate has a positive effect on a countrys creativity, even after controlling for diffe rences in income levels, thus taking into account that wealthier countries are i n a position to spend relatively more resources on their education system. Count ries where people are eager to be involved in artistic and cultural activities a lso appear to be more creative. However, openness to other countries and culture s, e.g. reflected by larger shares of foreign students and employees, does not a ppear to have a positive impact on creativity. Higher levels of creativity result in increased levels of R&D and design activit ies. Apparently more ideas create a larger and more diversified pool of potentia l research projects, tempting firms to increase their R&D and design activities. The statistical results also show strong evidence for a positive link between i ncreased R&D and design activities and overall innovation performance, although innovation is also dependent on a range of other framework conditions.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For the 1970s music group, see Design (UK band). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help im prove this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be chal lenged and removed. (July 2008)

All Saints Chapel in the Cathedral Basilica of St. Louis by Louis Comfort Tiffan y. The building structure and decorations are both examples of design. Poul Henningsen s PH5 lamp, designed in 1958. Design, when applied to fashion, includes considering aesthetics as well as func tion in the final form. Design as a noun informally refers to a plan or convention for the construction of an object or a system (as in architectural blueprints, engineering drawing, b usiness process, circuit diagrams and sewing patterns) while to design (verb) refe rs to making this plan.[1] No generally-accepted definition of design exists,[2] a nd the term has different connotations in different fields (see design disciplin es below). However, one can also design by directly constructing an object (as i n pottery, engineering, management, cowboy coding and graphic design).

More formally, design has been defined as follows. (noun) a specification of an object, manifested by an agent, intended to accompl ish goals, in a particular environment, using a set of primitive components, sat isfying a set of requirements, subject to constraints; (verb, transitive) to create a design, in an environment (where the designer ope rates)[3] Here, a "specification" can be manifested as either a plan or a finished product and "primitives" are the elements from which the design object is composed. With such a broad denotation, there is no universal language or unifying institu tion for designers of all disciplines. This allows for many differing philosophi es and approaches toward the subject (see Philosophies and studies of design, be low). The person designing is called a designer, which is also a term used for people who work professionally in one of the various design areas, usually also specify ing which area is being dealt with (such as a fashion designer, concept designer or web designer). A designers sequence of activities is called a design process. [4] The scientific study of design is called design science.[5] Designing often necessitates considering the aesthetic, functional, economic and sociopolitical dimensions of both the design object and design process. It may involve considerable research, thought, modeling, interactive adjustment, and re -design.[6] Meanwhile, diverse kinds of objects may be designed, including cloth ing, graphical user interfaces, skyscrapers, corporate identities, business proc esses and even methods of designing.[7] Contents [hide] 1 Design as a process o 1.1 The Rational Model 1.1.1 Example sequence of stages 1.1.2 Criticism of The Rational Model o 1.2 The Action-Centric Model 1.2.1 Descriptions of design activities 1.2.2 Criticism of the Action-Centric Perspective 2 Design Disciplines 3 Philosophies and studies of design o 3.1 Philosophies for guiding design o 3.2 Approaches to design o 3.3 Methods of designing o 3.4 Philosophies for the purpose of designs 4 Terminology o 4.1 Design and art o 4.2 Design and engineering o 4.3 Design and production o 4.4 Process design 5 External links 6 Footnotes 7 Bibliography [edit] Design as a process Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, produce designs. Dorst and Dijkhuis argued that there are many ways of describing design processes and discussed two b asic and fundamentally different ways,[8] both of which have several names. The p revailing view has been called The Rational Model,[9] Technical Problem Solving[10] and The Reason-Centric Perspective.[11] The alternative view has been called Reflec tion-in-Action,[10] co-evolution[12] and The Action-Centric Perspective.[11] [edit] The Rational Model The Rational Model was independently developed by Simon[13] and Pahl and Beitz.[ 14] It posits that: 1. designers attempt to optimize a design candidate for known constraints a nd objectives,

2. the design process is plan-driven, 3. the design process is understood in terms of a discrete sequence of stag es. The Rational Model is based on a rationalist philosophy[15] and underlies the Wa terfall Model,[16] Systems Development Life Cycle[17] and much of the engineerin g design literature.[18] According to the rationalist philosophy, design is info rmed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner. Technical rationality is at the center of the process.[6] [edit] Example sequence of stages Typical stages consistent with The Rational Model include the following. Pre-production design o Design brief or Parti an early (often the beginning) statement of design goals o Analysis analysis of current design goals o Research investigating similar design solutions in the field or related topics o Specification specifying requirements of a design solution for a product (product design specification[19]) or service. o Problem solving conceptualizing and documenting design solutions o Presentation presenting design solutions Design during production o Development continuation and improvement of a designed solution o Testing in situ testing a designed solution Post-production design feedback for future designs o Implementation introducing the designed solution into the environment o Evaluation and conclusion summary of process and results, including cons tructive criticism and suggestions for future improvements Redesign any or all stages in the design process repeated (with corrections made ) at any time before, during, or after production. Each stage has many associated best practices.[20] [edit] Criticism of The Rational Model The Rational Model has been widely criticized on two primary grounds 1. Designers do not work this way extensive empirical evidence has demonstr ated that designers do not act as the rational model suggests.[21] 2. Unrealistic assumptions goals are often unknown when a design project be gins, and the requirements and constraints continue to change.[22] [edit] The Action-Centric Model The Action-Centric Perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to The Rational Model.[11] It posits that: 1. designers use creativity and emotion to generate design candidates, 2. the design process is improvised, 3. no universal sequence of stages is apparent analysis, design and impleme ntation are contemporary and inextricably linked[11] The Action-Centric Perspective is a based on an empiricist philosophy and broadl y consistent with the Agile approach[23] and amethodical development.[24] Substa ntial empirical evidence supports the veracity of this perspective in describing the actions of real designers.[21] Like the Rational Model, the Action-Centric model sees design as informed by research and knowledge. However, research and k nowledge are brought into the design process through the judgment and common sen se of designers by designers "thinking on their feet" more than through the pred ictable and controlled process stipulated by the Rational Model. Designers cont ext-dependent experience and professional judgment take center stage more than t echnical rationality.[6] [edit] Descriptions of design activities At least two views of design activity are consistent with the Action-Centric Per spective. Both involve three basic activities. In the Reflection-in-Action paradigm, designers alternate between framing, making m oves, and evaluate moves. Framing refers to conceptualizing the problem, i.e., defini ng goals and objectives. A move is a (tentative) design decision.[10] In the Sensemaking-Coevolution-Implementation Framework, designers alternate bet

ween its three titular activities. Sensemaking includes both framing and evaluat ing moves. Implementation is the process of constructing the design object. Coev olution is the process where the design agent simultaneously refines its mental p icture of the design object based on its mental picture of the context, and vice versa.[25] [edit] Criticism of the Action-Centric Perspective As this perspective is relatively new, it has not yet encountered much criticism . One possible criticism is that it is less intuitive than The Rational Model. [edit] Design Disciplines Applied arts Architecture Fashion Design Game Design Graphic Design Industrial Design Engineering Interaction Design Interior Design Product Design Process Design Engineering Design Instructional Design Web Design Service design [edit] Philosophies and studies of design There are countless philosophies for guiding design as the design values and its accompanying aspects within modern design vary, both between different schools of thought and among practicing designers.[26] Design philosophies are usually f or determining design goals. A design goal may range from solving the least sign ificant individual problem of the smallest element, to the most holistic influen tial utopian goals. Design goals are usually for guiding design. However, confli cts over immediate and minor goals may lead to questioning the purpose of design , perhaps to set better long term or ultimate goals. A 1938 Bugatti Type 57SC Atlantic from the Ralph Lauren collection. "Form follow s function" can be an aesthetic point of view that a design can heighten, as oft en seen in the work of the Bugattis, Ettore, Rembrandt, and Jean. [edit] Philosophies for guiding design Design philosophies are fundamental guiding principles that dictate how a design er approaches his/her practice. Reflections on material culture and environmenta l concerns (Sustainable design) can guide a design philosophy. One example is th e First Things First manifesto which was launched within the graphic design comm unity and states "We propose a reversal of priorities in favor of more useful, l asting and democratic forms of communication - a mindshift away from product mar keting and toward the exploration and production of a new kind of meaning. The s cope of debate is shrinking; it must expand. Consumerism is running uncontested; it must be challenged by other perspectives expressed, in part, through the vis ual languages and resources of design."[27] In The Sciences of the Artificial by polymath Herbert Simon the author asserts d esign to be a meta-discipline of all professions. "Engineers are not the only pr ofessional designers. Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at ch anging existing situations into preferred ones. The intellectual activity that p roduces material artifacts is no different fundamentally from the one that presc ribes remedies for a sick patient or the one that devises a new sales plan for a company or a social welfare policy for a state. Design, so construed, is the co re of all professional training; it is the principal mark that distinguishes the professions from the sciences. Schools of engineering, as well as schools of ar chitecture, business, education, law, and medicine, are all centrally concerned with the process of design."[28]

[edit] Approaches to design A design approach is a general philosophy that may or may not include a guide fo r specific methods. Some are to guide the overall goal of the design. Other appr oaches are to guide the tendencies of the designer. A combination of approaches may be used if they don t conflict. Some popular approaches include: KISS principle, (Keep it Simple Stupid, etc.), which strives to eliminate unnece ssary complications. There is more than one way to do it (TIMTOWTDI), a philosophy to allow multiple methods of doing the same thing. Use-centered design, which focuses on the goals and tasks associated with the us e of the artifact, rather than focusing on the end user. User-centered design, which focuses on the needs, wants, and limitations of the end user of the designed artifact. Critical design uses designed artifacts as an embodied critique or commentary on existing values, mores, and practices in a culture. [edit] Methods of designing Main article: Design methods Design Methods is a broad area that focuses on: Exploring possibilities and constraints by focusing critical thinking skills to research and define problem spaces for existing products or servicesor the creati on of new categories; (see also Brainstorming) Redefining the specifications of design solutions which can lead to better guide lines for traditional design activities (graphic, industrial, architectural, etc .); Managing the process of exploring, defining, creating artifacts continually over time Prototyping possible scenarios, or solutions that incrementally or significantly improve the inherited situation Trendspotting; understanding the trend process. [edit] Philosophies for the purpose of designs In philosophy, the abstract noun "design" refers to a pattern with a purpose. De sign is thus contrasted with purposelessness, randomness, or lack of complexity. To study the purpose of designs, beyond individual goals (e.g. marketing, techno logy, education, entertainment, hobbies), is to question the controversial polit ics, morals, ethics and needs such as Maslow s hierarchy of needs. "Purpose" may also lead to existential questions such as religious morals and teleology. Thes e philosophies for the "purpose of" designs are in contrast to philosophies for guiding design or methodology. Often a designer (especially in commercial situations) is not in a position to d efine purpose. Whether a designer is, is not, or should be concerned with purpos e or intended use beyond what they are expressly hired to influence, is debatabl e, depending on the situation. In society, not understanding or disinterest in t he wider role of design might also be attributed to the commissioning agent or c lient, rather than the designer. Some newer fields of design have built-in purpo ses and values, such as user-centered design, slow design, and sustainable desig n. In structuration theory, achieving consensus and fulfillment of purpose is as co ntinuous as society. Raised levels of achievement often lead to raised expectati ons. Design is both medium and outcome, generating a Janus-like face, with every ending marking a new beginning. [edit] Terminology The word "design" is often considered ambiguous, as it is applied differently in a varying contexts. The new terminal at Barajas airport in Madrid, Spain [edit] Design and art Today the term design is widely associated with the Applied arts as initiated by Raymond Loewy and teachings at the Bauhaus and Ulm School of Design (HfG Ulm) i

n Germany during the 20th Century. The boundaries between art and design are blurred, largely due to a range of app lications both for the term art and the term design . Applied arts has been u sed as an umbrella term to define fields of industrial design, graphic design, f ashion design, etc. The term decorative arts is a traditional term used in his torical discourses to describe craft objects, and also sits within the umbrella of Applied arts. In graphic arts (2D image making that ranges from photography t o illustration) the distinction is often made between fine art and commercial ar t, based on the context within which the work is produced and how it is traded. To a degree, some methods for creating work, such as employing intuition, are sh ared across the disciplines within the Applied arts and Fine art. Mark Getlein s uggests the principles of design are "almost instinctive", "built-in", "natural" , and part of "our sense of rightness ."[29] However, the intended application and context of the resulting works will vary greatly. A drawing for a booster engine for steam locomotives. Engineering is applied to design, with emphasis on function and the utilization of mathematics and science . [edit] Design and engineering In engineering, design is a component of the engineering process. Many overlappi ng methods and processes can be seen when comparing Product design, Industrial d esign and Engineering. The American Heritage Dictionary defines design as: "To c onceive or fashion in the mind; invent," and "To formulate a plan", and defines engineering as: "The application of scientific and mathematical principles to pr actical ends such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and eco nomical structures, machines, processes, and systems.".[30][31] Both are forms o f problem-solving with a defined distinction being the application of "scientifi c and mathematical principles". The increasingly scientific focus of engineering in practice, however, has raised the importance of new more "human-centered" fi elds of design.[32] How much science is applied in a design is a question of wha t is considered "science". Along with the question of what is considered science , there is social science versus natural science. Scientists at Xerox PARC made the distinction of design versus engineering at "moving minds" versus "moving at oms". Jonathan Ive has received several awards for his design of Apple Inc. products l ike this MacBook. In some design fields, personal computers are also used for bo th design and production [edit] Design and production The relationship between design and production is one of planning and executing. In theory, the plan should anticipate and compensate for potential problems in the execution process. Design involves problem-solving and creativity. In contra st, production involves a routine or pre-planned process. A design may also be a mere plan that does not include a production or engineering process, although a working knowledge of such processes is usually expected of designers. In some c ases, it may be unnecessary and/or impractical to expect a designer with a broad multidisciplinary knowledge required for such designs to also have a detailed s pecialized knowledge of how to produce the product. Design and production are intertwined in many creative professional careers, mea ning problem-solving is part of execution and the reverse. As the cost of rearra ngement increases, the need for separating design from production increases as w ell. For example, a high-budget project, such as a skyscraper, requires separati ng (design) architecture from (production) construction. A Low-budget project, s uch as a locally printed office party invitation flyer, can be rearranged and pr inted dozens of times at the low cost of a few sheets of paper, a few drops of i nk, and less than one hour s pay of a desktop publisher. This is not to say that production never involves problem-solving or creativity, nor that design always involves creativity. Designs are rarely perfect and are

sometimes repetitive. The imperfection of a design may task a production positio n (e.g. production artist, construction worker) with utilizing creativity or pro blem-solving skills to compensate for what was overlooked in the design process. Likewise, a design may be a simple repetition (copy) of a known preexisting sol ution, requiring minimal, if any, creativity or problem-solving skills from the designer. An example of a business workflow process using Business Process Modeling Notati on. [edit] Process design "Process design" (in contrast to "design process" mentioned above) refers to the planning of routine steps of a process aside from the expected result. Processe s (in general) are treated as a product of design, not the method of design. The term originated with the industrial designing of chemical processes. With the i ncreasing complexities of the information age, consultants and executives have f ound the term useful to describe the design of business processes as well as man ufacturing processes. [edit] External links Look up design in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Design Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Design [edit] Footnotes 1. ^ See dictionary meanings in the Cambridge Dictionary of American Englis h, at Dictionary.com (esp. meanings 1-5 and 7-8) and at AskOxford (esp. verbs). 2. ^ Ralph, P. and Wand, Y. (2009). A proposal for a formal definition of t he design concept. In Lyytinen, K., Loucopoulos, P., Mylopoulos, J., and Robinso n, W., editors, Design Requirements Workshop (LNBIP 14), pp. 103-136. Springer-V erlag. 3. ^ Ralph, P. and Wand, Y. (2009). A proposal for a formal definition of t he design concept. In Lyytinen, K., Loucopoulos, P., Mylopoulos, J., and Robinso n, W., editors, Design Requirements Workshop (LNBIP 14), pp. 103-136. Springer-V erlag, p. 109. 4. ^ see Simon, H. (1996) The Sciences of the Artificial, 3rd ed., MIT Pres s, Cambridge, USA; Alexander, C. (1964) Notes on the Synthesis of Form, Harvard University Press. 5. ^ see Simon, H. (1996) The Sciences of the Artificial, 3rd ed., MIT Pres s, Cambridge, USA; Eekels, J. (2000) On the Fundamentals of Engineering Design S cience: The Geography of Engineering Design Science, Part 1, Journal of Engineer ing Design (11), pp. 377-397 6. ^ a b c Inge Mette Kirkeby, 2011, "Transferable Knowledge," Architectura l Research Quarterly, vol. 15, no.1, pp. 9-14. 7. ^ Brinkkemper, S. (1996) Method engineering: engineering of information systems development methods and tools, Information and Software Technology (38:4 ), p. 275-280. 8. ^ (Dorst and Dijkhuis 1995, p. 261) 9. ^ Brooks 2010 10. ^ a b c (Schn 1983) 11. ^ a b c d (Ralph 2010) 12. ^ (Dorst and Cross 2001) 13. ^ (Newell and Simon 1972; Simon 1969) 14. ^ (Pahl and Beitz 1996) 15. ^ (Brooks 2010) 16. ^ (Royce 1970) 17. ^ (Bourque and Dupuis 2004) 18. ^ (Pahl et al. 2007) 19. ^ Cross, N., 2006. T211 Design and Designing: Block 2, page 99. Milton K

eynes: The Open University. 20. ^ Ullman, David G. (2009) The Mechanical Design Process, Mc Graw Hill, 4 th edition 21. ^ a b (Cross et al. 1992; Ralph 2010; Schn 1983) 22. ^ (Brooks 2010; McCracken and Jackson 1982) 23. ^ (Beck et al. 2001) 24. ^ (Truex et al. 2000) 25. ^ (Ralph 2010, p. 67) 26. ^ Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial de sign: How attitudes, orientations and underlying assumptions shape the built env ironment. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 82-547-0174-1. 27. ^ http://maxbruinsma.nl/index1.html?ftf2000.htm 28. ^ Herbert A. Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial, 3rd ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996), 111. 29. ^ Mark Getlein, Living With Art, 8th ed. (New York: 2008) 121. 30. ^ American Psychological Association (APA): design. (n.d.). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved January 10, 2007, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/de sign 31. ^ American Psychological Association (APA): engineering. (n.d.). The Ame rican Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved Jan uary 10, 2007, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/brow se/engineering 32. ^ (Faste 2001) [edit] Bibliography Beck, K., Beedle, M., van Bennekum, A., Cockburn, A., Cunningham, W., Fowler, M. , Grenning, J., Highsmith, J., Hunt, A., Jeffries, R., Kern, J., Marick, B., Mar tin, R.C., Mellor, S., Schwaber, K., Sutherland, J., and Thomas, D. "Manifesto f or agile software development," 2001. Available: http://www.agilemanifesto.org/. Accessed: June 22, 2010 Bourque, P., and Dupuis, R. (eds.) Guide to the software engineering body of kno wledge (SWEBOK). IEEE Computer Society Press, 2004. Brooks, F.P. The design of design: Essays from a computer scientist, Addison-Wes ley Professional, 2010, 448 pages. Cross, N., Dorst, K., and Roozenburg, N. Research in design thinking, Delft Univ ersity Press, Delft, 1992. Dorst, K., and Cross, N. "Creativity in the design process: Co-evolution of prob lem-solution," Design Studies (22), September 2001, pp 425437. Dorst, K., and Dijkhuis, J. "Comparing paradigms for describing design activity, " Design Studies (16:2) 1995, pp 261274. Faste, R., "The Human Challenge in Engineering Design," International Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 17, 2001 McCracken, D.D., and Jackson, M.A. "Life cycle concept considered harmful," SIGS OFT Software Engineering Notes (7:2) 1982, pp 2932. Newell, A., and Simon, H. Human problem solving, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1972, 920 pages. Pahl, G., and Beitz, W. Engineering design: A systematic approach, Springer-Verl ag, London, 1996. Pahl, G., Beitz, W., Feldhusen, J., and Grote, K.-H. Engineering design: A syste matic approach, (3rd ed.), Springer-Verlag, 2007. Ralph, P. "Comparing two software design process theories," International Confer ence on Design Science Research in Information Systems and Technology (DESRIST 2 010), Springer, St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2010, pp. 139153. Royce, W.W. "Managing the development of large software systems: Concepts and te chniques," Proceedings of Wescon, 1970. Schn, D.A. The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action, Basic Books, USA, 1983. Simon, H.A. The sciences of the artificial, (1st ed.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, 1969. Truex, D., Baskerville, R., and Travis, J. "Amethodical systems development: The

deferred meaning of systems development methods," Accounting, Management and In formation Technologies (10:1) 2000, pp 5379. [hide]v d eDesign Portal Designer Design disciplines Product and industrial design Product design Automotive design Service Design Industrial Design Furniture desi gn Communication design Book design Editorial design Corporate design Photography Graphic design Illustr ation Information design Typography Packaging design Advertisement Communication design Fashion Design Fashion Design