BUDDHISM AND ITS SPREAD ALONG THE SILK ROAD
“There one sees a structure of an elevation prodigious in height; it
is supported by gigantic pillars and covered with paintings of all
the birds created by God. In the interior are two immense idols
carved in the rock and rising from the foot of the mountains to the
summit... One cannot see anything comparable to these statues in
the whole world.”
–Yakut describing Bamiyan in his geographical dictionary in 1218
Besides silk, paper and other goods, the Silk Road carried another
commodity which was equally significant in world history. Along
with trade and migration, the world’s oldest international highway
was the vehicle which spread Buddhism through Central Asia. The
transmission was launched from northwestern India to modern
Pakistan, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Xinjiang (Chinese Turkistan),
China, Korea and Japan. Buddhism not only affected the lives and
cultures on those regions but also left us with a world of wonders
in arts and literature.
The Buddhism that first became popular in China during the Han
dynasty was deeply colored with magical practices, making it
compatible with popular Chinese Taoism (a combination of folk
beliefs and practices and philosophy). Instead of the doctrine of
no-self, early Chinese Buddhist taught the indestructibility of the
soul. Nirvana became a kind of immorality. They also taught the
theory of karma, the values of charity and compassion, and the
need to suppress passions. Until the end of the Han dynasty there
was a virtual symbiosis between Taoism and Buddhism and a
common propagation of the means for attaining immortality
through various ascetic practices. It was widely believed that Lao-
tzu, the founder of Taoism, had been reborn in India as Buddha.
Many Chinese emperors worshiped Lao-tzu and the Buddha on the
same alter. The first transplantations of Buddhist sutras into
Chinese – namely those dealing with such topics as breath control
and mystical concentration – utilized a Taoist vocabulary to make
Buddhist faith intelligible to the Chinese.
CONFUCIANISM
Confucius, the Latinized form of the name of Kung Fu-tzu, was
bom in 551 B.C. and died in 479 B.C. The philosophy that is
known as Confucianism comes mainly from the speeches and
writings of Confucius. Disciples (followers) of Confucius, such as
Mencius, made important contributions to Confucianism as well.
The ideas of Confucianism are found in nine works: the "Four
Books" and the "Five Classics."
Confucianism is an ethical system rather than a religion. (Ethics
deals with human behavior and conduct.) Confucius was mainly
concerned with how human beings behaved toward each other and
paid little attention to such matters as sin, salvation, and the soul.
He developed a system of government, society, and justice which
we call Confucianism.
Confucius believed that people, because of their nature, desire to
live in the company of other people, that is, in society. It is only in
society that people reach their fullest development. Therefore, it is
important for people to know how to behave in society, that is, in
their relations with other people.
The Five Basic Relationships
According to Confucius, each person had a specific place in
society and certain duties to fulfill. Confucius hoped that if people
knew what was expected of them they would behave correctly.
Therefore, he set up five principal relationships in which most
people are involved. These relationships were (1) ruler and
subject; (2) father and son; (3) elder brother and younger brother;
(4) husband and wife; and (5) friend and friend. All, except the
last, involve the authority of one person over another. Power and
the right to rule belong to superiors over subordinates; that is, to
older people over younger people, to men over women. Each
person has to give obedience and respect to "superiors"; the
subject to his ruler, the wife to her husband, the son to his parents,
and the younger brother to the older brother. The "superior,"
however, owes loving responsibility to the inferior.
The Family and the State
Confucius placed great importance on the family. Family fife was
seen as a training ground for life in society. It is at home in the
family that the child learns to deal with problems that he or she
will face later in the world. The family is responsible for educating
the child to be a good member of society. Confucius emphasized
the importance of education, the aim of which is to turn people
into good family members, responsible members of society, and
good subjects of the emperor.
The state (government) was regarded as an extension of the family
in many ways. The emperor and his officials were referred to as
the parents of the people. Subjects owed the same loyalty to their
rulers that they owed to the senior members of their family.
However, the emperor had duties to fulfill as well. Confucius
believed that for society to be well ordered and for people to live
in peace and prosper, it was necessary to have a good government
and a virtuous ruler. It was the duty of the emperor and his
officials to set a good example for the people. The good example
of the ruler would transform the people, and make them better.
Confucius believed that only the wisest and most humane men
should rule. He further believed that if the emperor was not
morally perfect, heaven would cause the world to suffer.
The emperor also had to maintain the proper relationship between
himself and heaven. Heaven was regarded as the governing
authority of the universe and the final judge of right and wrong.
The Chinese believed that a dynasty ruled as long as it held the
"Mandate of Heaven," that is, the right to rule. The people felt they
had the right to say whether or not the ruler had the Mandate.
When the Emperor did not see to it that there was water for
irrigation, that canal barges could transport rice, that rivers did not
flood, and that roads were safe for traveling, the people suffered.
When the people suffered, they were sure that Heaven had taken
away its protection of the Emperor, so they rebelled. When the
rebellion was successful, the Mandate of Heaven was given to the
leader of the rebellion. He became the emperor of a new dynasty.
The Importance of Confucianism
For 2,000 years Confucianism was the official philosophy of
China. The only way a person could achieve an important position
in the government or in society was by having a good knowledge
of Confucianism. To become a government official it was
necessary to pass a difficult civil service examination based on the
ideas of Confucius. Since it was Confucianism that kept the
leaders in power, they were opposed to any changes. The
Confucianists believed that they were the only civilized
community in the world and they looked down on the beliefs and
cultures of other people. This attitude made the Chinese unwilling
to change their way of life when they were first exposed to
Western culture. This unwillingness to adopt Western ideas and
techniques in the late 19th and early 20th centuries proved to be
disastrous for the Chinese.
Confucius himself was not very interested in the ideas of a God, an
after life, heaven, and other ideas that we associate with religion.
However, when Confucianism became the official philosophy of
China, religious functions were incorporated into it. Confucius,
together with his ancestors and famous followers, became objects
of worship. Confucian temples were built all over China and
sacrifices and rituals were performed.
CONFUCIAN QUOTES ON THE FIVE PRINCIPAL
RELATIONSHIPS
Ruler and subject:
• “Let the ruler be a ruler, the subject a subject, the father a
father, the son a son.” "Truly if the ruler be not a ruler, the
suject not a subject, the father not a father, the son not a
son, then even if there be grain, would I get to eat it?”
12:11
• “To govern is to correct. If you set an example be being
correct, who would dare to remain incorrect?”
• The Master said about government, “Encourage the
people to work hard by setting an example yourself. Do
not allow your efforts to slacken.” 13:1
• “In serving one’s lord, one should approach one’s duties
with reverence (respect) and consider one’s pay as of
secondary importance.” 15:38
Father and Son:
• “…Being good as a son and obedient as a young man is,
perhaps, the root of a man’s character.” 1:2
• “Simply by being a good son and friendly to his brothers
a man can exert an influence upon government.” 2:21
• “Honor your parents and make your brothers friends –
this too is good government”
• “…Fathers cover up for their sons, and sons cover up for
their fathers. Straightness is to be found in such
behavior.” 13:18
• “If, for three years, a man makes no changes to his
father’s ways, he can be said to be a good son.” 4:20
• “Everyone speaks up for his own son whether he is
talented or not…” 11:8
• “In serving your father and mother you ought to dissuade
them from doing wrong in the gentlest way. If you see
your advice being ignored, you should not become
disobedient but remain reverent. You should not complain
even if in so doing you wear yourself out.” 4:18
• “When your parents are alive, you should not go too far
afield in your travels. If you do, your whereabouts should
always be known.” 4:19
• “A man should not be ignorant of the age of his father
and mother. It is a matter, on the one hand, for rejoicing
and, on the other, for anxiety.” 4:21
• “Nowadays for a man to be filial means no more than that
he is able to provide his parents with food. Even hounds
and horses are, in some way, provided with food. If a man
shows no reverence (respect), where is the difference?”
2:7
Elder Brother and Younger Brother:
• “What a good son Min Tzu-ch’ien is! No one can find
fault with what his parents and brothers have to say about
him.” 11:5
• Ju Yu asked the Master, “Should one immediately put into
practice what one has heard?” “As your father and elder
brothers are still alive, you are hardly in a position
immediately to put into practice what you have heard.”
11:22
Husband and Wife:
• “In one’s household, it is the women and the small men
that are difficult to deal with. If you let them get too
close, they become insolent (disrespectful). If you keep
them at a distance, they complain.” 17:25
Friend and Friend:
• “Make it your guiding principle to do your best for others
and to be trustworthy in what you say. Do not accept as
friend anyone who is not as good as you. When you make
a mistake do not be afraid of mending your ways.” 9:25
• “Is it not a joy to have friends come from afar?” 1:1
• “To be importunate with one’s lord will mean
humiliation. To be importunate (demanding) with one’s
friends will mean estrangement (distancing).” 4:26
• “He stands to benefit who makes friends with three kinds
of people. Equally he stands to lose who makes friends
with three other kinds of people. To make friends with the
straight, the trustworthy in word and the well informed is
to benefit. To make friends with the ingratiating
(flattering in order to gain favor) in action, the pleasant in
appearance and the plausible (possible) in speech is to
lose.” 16:4
• “A gentleman makes friends through being cultivated, but
looks to friends for sup