4: Fluids in motion

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING SCIENCES
Module Title: FLUID MECHANICS Module Code: EA104
Level:
PART I
Web Page:
http://www.mech.soton.ac.uk
/rjw/SI102/index.htm
Lecturer: Dr R J K Wood,
Internal Tel: 24881
Bld. 7, Room 4079.
Email:rjw3@soton.ac.uk
Syllabus: 4. Fluids in motion (Bernoulli)
Streamlines, stream tubes. streaklines, particle
paths. Bernoulli equation for steady flow. Pitot
tube, orifice and venturi flow.
Recommended
Reading:
1. 1. J.F. Douglas, J.M. Gasiorek and J.A.
Swaffield, Fluid Mechanics, 3
rd
Ed (1995)
Longman
2. 2. FM White, Fluid Mechanics, 4
th
Ed (1999)
McGraw-Hill
1. 3. B Massey, Mechanics of Fluids,
7
th
Ed (1998) Kluwer
Part 1 Fluids 7
4: Fluids in motion
3. FLUIDS IN MOTION
3.1 Bernoullis Equation - Ideal Fluid in One-Dimensional Flow
see boxer p33
Consider the steady flow of an ideal fluid along a streamtube of elemental area A. The
velocity at any cross-section will be uniform over the section and, because the fluid is ideal,
there will be no viscous shear forces acting over the surface. Utilising Newtons 2nd law (i.e.
force = mass . acceleration), and resolving along the streamtube, the following is obtained:
p A p
dp
ds
s A g A A sa
s
+

_
,

cos
where a
s
is the material or total derivative and is given as:
a
du
dt
du
ds
ds
dt
u
du
ds
s
.
Substituting for a
s
and noting that cos = dz/ds, the following is obtained:

dp
ds
s A g s A
dz
ds
s Au
du
ds

Dividing throughout by .s.A and re-arranging, we obtain the Euler equation along a
streamline:
u
du
ds
dp
ds
g
dz
ds
+ +
1
0

( 1 )
Integration of the Euler equation along a streamline leads to:
u dp
gz H
2
2
+ +

( 2 )
If the fluid is incompressible (i.e. is a constant), then we have:
u p
gz H
2
2
+ +

( 3 )
An alternative form, achieved by dividing throughout by g, is also useful sometimes:
Part 1 Fluids 8
4: Fluids in motion
u
g
p
g
z
H
g
2
2
+ +

(4)
Equations (2), (3) and (4) are different forms of Bernoullis equation. H represents the total
head or total energy and (under conditions of steady, inviscid flow of a fluid on constant
density) is constant for any one fluid particle throughout its motion and hence is constant
along any one streamline.
In equation (4), the term u
2
/2g represents the velocity head (or kinetic energy), p/g
represents the static pressure head and z represents the position or potential head ( energy)
due to gravity. Application of the equation between two points 1 and 2 on a streamline leads
to:
u
g
p
g
z
u
g
p
g
z
1
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
2 2
+ + + +

Alternatively, multiplying throughout by g, we have:
1
2 1
2
1 1
1
2 2
2
2 2
u p g z u p g z + + + +
If air is considered, its density is small relative to the other quantities. The term gz
becomes small and is often neglected. Then we have:
1
2 1
2
1
1
2 2
2
2
u p u p + +
If an energy loss, E, is present between positions 1 and 2, the equation (4) is modified to be:
u
g
p
g
z
u
g
p
g
z E
1
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
2 2
+ + + + +

The equation may also be used for real fluids (i.e. viscous ones) so long as the flow is steady.
The application does not lead to significant error because the influence of viscosity is usually
confined to the immediate vicinity of solid walls and wakes behind bodies. The remainder of
the flow effectively behaves as ideal, even if it is not so exactly.
Part 1 Fluids 9
4: Fluids in motion
3.2 Applications of Bernoullis Principle
3.2.1 Pipe Flow
Case A : Flow in a Converging Pipe

The above may refer to a typical flow in pipes where there is a possibility of changing
pipe sizes, say, from Section 1 to Section 2. The potential heads, z
1
and z
2
, are
functions of topology and can be known from the pipe layout scheme. Pressures at the
two sections can be measured using techniques such as those outlined in section 3.4
below. The remaining unknowns are the velocities, u
1
and u
2
. There are thus 2
unknowns and we need 2 equations to solve them. One is Bernoullis equation and the
other is the continuity equation.
Bernoullis equation in this case can be written as:
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2 2
z
g
p
g
u
z
g
p
g
u
+ + + +


The continuity equations is:
A u A u
1 1 2 2

Case B : General Flow in Pipes

Part 1 Fluids 10
u2
p2
Z1
Z2
A2
A1
p1
u1
0
P0
0
1
2
3
P0 P0
Z1 Z3
Z2
4: Fluids in motion

Consider a tank of fluid open to the atmosphere connected to a pipe which in turn
branches out into two more pipes, each of which is open to the atmosphere. The
problem is to characterise the flow, i.e. know the pressures and velocities at various
locations. Again we can apply Bernoullis and the continuity equations. From
Bernoulli:
0 3 2 1
K K K K
where, the total heads K
0-3
at the various locations are as below:
K
u
g
p
g
z
K
u
g
p
g
z
K
u
g
p
g
z
K
u
g
p
g
z
0
0
2
0
0
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
+ +
+
+
+

It can be noted that p

0
, p
2
and p
3
are atmospheric pressures and that, if the tank is
assumed to be very large then, u
0
= 0. Continuity conditions will yield:
A u A u A u
1 1 2 2 3 3
+
3.2.2 Flow around Bodies
Bernoullis principle is equally applicable to fluid flow around bodies. Consider the
foil shape in the figure below. Section O is upstream and can be considered as a
datum, Section L is local to the foil and Section R is at another arbitrary location near
the trailing edge, say.
Part 1 Fluids 11
PR
uR
P0
S
4: Fluids in motion
Bernoullis equation can then be written as:
u
g
p
g
z
u
g
p
g
z
u
g
p
g
z
O O
O
L L
L
R R
R
2 2 2
2 2 2
+ + + + + +


If the foil is horizontal or if the fluid is air, then we can ignore the potential (or
gravity) heads, z
O,L,R
, and they can be set to zero.
Now consider a horizontal streamline A-S, from Section O terminating at the foil at
location S. At S, the fluid is brought to rest relative to the body. The fluid is stagnant.
Hence, S is termed as the Stagnation Point. Applying Bernoullis equation along A-S,
we have:
g
p
g
u
g
p
g
u
S S O O

+ +
2 2
2 2
Noting that u
S
= 0, we have:
p p u
S O O
+
1
2
2

( 5 )
Assuming that point A is far removed from the body in undisturbed flow, then p
O
, the
background (or datum) pressure, is referred to as the Static pressure. The term p
S
is
referred to as the Stagnation pressure, one which is generated in bringing the fluid to
rest. The term containing the velocity is referred to as the dynamic pressure.
The dynamic pressure coefficient at any point in the flow is defined as:
C
p p
u
P
O
O

1
2
2

( 6 )
where p is the pressure in the flow (not equal to the datum pressure). The pressure
coefficient at S is given by:
C
p p
u
P
S O
O

1
2
2
10

.
( 7 )
Part 1 Fluids 12
PL
uL
u0
A
4: Fluids in motion
Note that C
P
= 1.0 only at the Stagnation Point. Elsewhere C
P
< 1.0, noting that local
velocity u
L
can exceed u
O
, giving negative C
P
. This is explained in the equation
format below.
C
p p
u
u u
u
u
u
P
L O
O
O L
O
L
O

_
,

1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
1

3.3 Simple Flow Characteristics Measurement

3.3.1 Pressure Measurement - Manometers
Manometers are devices in which columns of a suitable liquid are used to measure the
difference in pressure between a certain point and the atmosphere, or between two
points neither of which is necessarily at atmospheric pressure.

A common type of manometer is that employing a transparent U tube as shown in
the figure above. This is connected to a pipe or other container in which is the fluid
(A) whose pressure is to be measured. The lower part of the tube contains a liquid (B)
immiscible with A and of greater density. Noting that within a continuous expanse of
the same fluid, the pressure is the same at any two horizontal points within it, it
follows that the pressures at points P and Q are equal when the system is in
equilibrium. In general:
p p p gy p gx
P Q A A atm B
+ +
.
where the subscripts A and B refer to the fluids in the pipe and U-tube respectively.
From the above, we can calculate p
A
from the last pair of equations if the other
entities (e.g. fluid densities and fluid levels in the tube) are known.
3.3.2 Velocity Measurement Using Manometers
Case A : Simple Open System (Pitot Tube)
Part 1 Fluids 13
y
x
A
P Q
B
4: Fluids in motion
This requires two manometers, one of which is connected to the flow boundary and
the other is inserted into the flow stream - see figure below.

Both manometer tubes are open to the atmosphere at the top, i.e. pressure there is
atmospheric. Tube A connected at the flow boundary will be measuring the static,
pressure head, p
S
. This is obtained from:
p p gh
S atm S

.

Tube B reacts to the stagnation (or total) pressure:
p p gh
T atm T

.

Bernoullis equation in the case of the flow stream is:
p u p
S T

+
2
2
This can be re-arranged as follows:
p p u p p
S a t m T a t m
+
. .
1
2
2

Using the manometer heads to represent the pressure differences p

S,T
- p
atm
, we have:
g h u g h
S T
+
1
2
2
This can be written in terms of velocity as:
Part 1 Fluids 14
hS hT
A B
PS PT
Patmos Patmos
u
4: Fluids in motion
( ) u g h h
T S
2
2
( 8 )
or, again as:
( ) u g h h
T S
2
( 9 )
Thus the flow velocity can be measured from two manometer readings.
It is also possible to combine the two static and stagnation pressure measurements in
one apparatus; this is known as the Pitot-static tube.
Case B : Closed Manometer Systems
A closed system can be used to raise the liquid levels to a convenient level in a U-
tube by evacuating air from the top of the U, to leave an air pressure. Alternatively,
the manometer can be primed to contain a lighter liquid (of density
2
), immiscible
with the liquid whose flow is being measured (-the latter having a density
1
). This is
illustrated in the figure below.
As in the open manometer system, the static and stagnation pressures can be obtained
as:
( )
p p gh gh
p p gh p g h h
S O S
T O T O S
+ +
+ + +


1 2
1 1
Subtracting the first of the above equations from the second:
( ) p p gh
T S

1 2
But we know the link between stagnation pressure and field flow characteristics as:
Part 1 Fluids 15
Po
h
hS hT
PS
PT
Patmos
u
1
2
4: Fluids in motion
p p u
T S

1
2 1
2

Combining the preceding equations, we have:

( )
u
gh

2
1 2
1

(10 )
Again, flow velocity can be measured just from manometer readings.
3.3.3 Velocity Measurement Using a Venturi-Meter
The device consists essentially of a convergence in a pipeline, followed by a short
parallel-sided throat, and then a divergence, see figure below. Continuity requires
there is a greater velocity in the throat than at the inlet. Consequently there is a
pressure differential, which can be measured to yield the flow velocity.
From flow continuity considerations, we have:
u A u A
1 1 2 2

where A
1,2
are the cross-sectional areas in the pipe and throat respectively. This leads
to:
u u
A
A
2 1
1
2

Bernoullis equation, assuming the pipe and throat are horizontal, in this case is:
Part 1 Fluids 16
h
u
1
, A
1
, p
1
u
2
, A
2
, p
2
4: Fluids in motion
p u p u
1 1
2
2 2
2
2 2
+ +
This could be re-written in terms of pressure differential as:
( ) p p
u u
u
A
A
1 2
2
2
1
2
1
2 1
2
2
2
1
2
1

_
,

1
]
1
1

( 11 )
But, hydrostatically the manometer tube gives the following relationship:
p p gh
1 2

Substituting from this into equation (11), we have:
gh u
A
A

_
,

1
]
1
1
1
2
1
1
2 1
2
2
This can be re-arranged to give the fluid velocity as:
u
gh
A
A
1
1
2
2
2
1

_
,

(12 )
It should be noted that because of fairly significant viscous losses between 1 and 2 in
the standard Venturi tubes, the actual velocity lies between 95%-99% of the
theoretical estimate, and this actual factor varies with the flow rate.
Part 1 Fluids 17
4: Fluids in motion
3.3.4 Orifice Flows
A flow through an orifice cannot sustain an abrupt change in direction at a point. As a
result it contracts on leaving the hole and after a short steadying length achieves a
cross-sectional area a, at the vena contracta, which is less than the cross-sectional
area of the orifice A. This leads to a definition of the coefficient of contraction, C
C
as:
C
a
A
C
(13 )
where C
C
depends on the geometry of the hole.
Applying Bernoullis equation to the fluid flow, comparing the situations at the top of
the tank and in the vena contracta:
p
g
u
g
z
p
g
u
g
z
atm atm
L
. .

+ + + +
0
2
0
2
2
2 2
In a large tank, u
0
is small and u
0
2
0. Thus we have:
u
g
z z h
L
2
2
0
2

or, the theoretical velocity in the vena contracta can be written as:
u gh
2
2
( 14 )
Part 1 Fluids 18
Z
0
u
0
h
Z
L
P
atmos
P
atmos,
u
2
Vena
contracta
4: Fluids in motion
Because of friction effects at the orifice, the actual velocity attained in the vena
contracta, u, is less than the ideal. Then the coefficient of velocity is defined as:
C
u
u
V

2
(15)
where u
2
is given from equation (14). Further, and again due to friction effects and
contraction, discharge from the orifice is less than the ideal. Noting that, in general,
volumetric discharge rate is the product of area and velocity, we can define a
coefficient of discharge, C
D
, as:
C C C
D V C
.
( 16 )
C
D
is the ratio of the actual to ideal discharge rates and is determined from
experiments. The actual discharge rate, Q, can then be evaluated from:
Q C A gh
D
. . 2
( 17 )
Typical values of the three coefficients are as follows:
C
C
C
V
C
D



0 97 0 99
0 61 0 66
0 60 0 65
. .
. .
. .
Part 1 Fluids 19