Teaching English as a second language

Nature of language Components of Language 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Pragmatics Semantics Syntax Morphology Phonology

Brief History of Language Teaching Sixty percent of the world population is bilingual and multilingual. Bilingualism and multilingualism are the current trends to face the challenge of globalization. Language teaching trend and goal of language study: From reading comprehension to oral proficiency. Growing number of theories in language acquisition.

The Classical Period Latin is the dominant language of education, commerce, religion and government before the 16th Century. French, Italian and English gained importance and popularity as a result of political changes in Europe in the 16th Century displacing Latin as the language of spoken and written communication. From 17th to 19th Century, the study of Latin rhetoric through analysis of its grammar became the model of foreign language study.

The Classical Grammar School Study of grammar through rigid study of rules; rote learning (repeat after me); translation; conjugation, and writing sentences. Grammar as an end in itself. Syntax became indispensable basis of all forms of higher education. In the 18th Century, teaching modern languages was patterned after the teaching of Classical Latin. Textbooks contained abstract grammar rules, vocabulary and sentences for translation.

Speaking was neglected.

Grammar Translation Method Foreign languages were learned through memorizing grammar rules. Reading and writing are the major foci; less on speaking and listening. Vocabulary was taught using dictionary and memorization. Translation of sentences in L1 to L2 and L2 to L1. Native language was the medium of instruction.

The 19th Century Rejection of GTM (Grammar- Translation Method); Proficiency in foreign language as the new focus. New approaches and reforms in teaching modern language. Child language is used as a model in language teaching which focused on meaning and reading. Sequencing Contextual cues were used Non- verbal communication techniques were given importance. Innovations in language teaching were hampered because of insufficient knowledge

The Reform Movement Henry Sweet, Wilhelm Vietor and Paul Passy initiated pedagogical reforms in language teaching. Revitalized linguistic discipline Established the science of phonetics (IPA) Zeroed in on speech not writing as the primary form of language

Principles on Developing a Teaching Method Careful selection of what ought to be taught Imposing limit Organizing what ought to be taught in four skills. (LSRR) Reformists Language Teaching Views Language is primarily spoken and it must be reflected/ taught in an oral- based methodology Phonetics must be included Hearing the language should precede seeing it in written form

Words should be presented in sentences and sentences should be practiced in meaningful contexts, not in isolated, disconnected elements. Grammar should be taught inductively Translation should be avoided, but mother tongue could be used in explaining new words or check comprehension.

The Direct Method Natural language learning principles are the bases of direct method Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language Common words and sentences are taught Oral communication skills are developed through gradual progression using question and answer Grammar is used inductively Concrete words are taught by presenting real objects Abstract words are taught by associating with other ideas Speech and listening comprehension are taught Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized

Guidelines in Teaching Spoken Language Never translate; demonstrate Never explain; act Never make a speech; ask questions Never speak with single word; use sentences Never speak too much; let students speak Never use book; use lesson plan Never jump around, follow your lesson plan Never go too fast; keep the pace of the students Never speak too slowly nor too quickly; speak normally Never speak too loud Never be impatient; take it easy

Drawbacks of the Direct Method Requires native speaker or a teacher who has a native- like fluency in the target language Largely dependent on teachers skills, not on textbook Requires teachers to avoid native tongue Lack thorough methodological basis

The 20th Century Decline of the Direct Method Greater emphasis on reading foreign language and grammatical structure Development of Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching in Britain Development of Audiolingualism in USA

NATURE OF LANGUAGE TEACHING APPROACH Definition of terms Methodology deals with pedagogical practices in general. It includes theoretical underpinnings and related research. Whatever considerations are involved in how to teach are methodological. Approach deals with well- informed positions and beliefs about the nature of language, the nature of language learning, and the applicability of both pedagogical setting. Method deals with a generalized set of classroom specifications for accomplishing linguistic objectives. It concerned primarily with teacher and student roles and behaviors and secondarily with such features as linguistic and sub- matter objectives, sequencing and materials. Technique deals with any of the wide variety of exercises, activities or task used in the language classroom for realizing lesson objectives. LANGUAGE TEACHING THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES A. Language Teaching Theories 1. The Structural Theory. The most traditional. It views that language is a system f structurally related elements for the coding of meaning. Its target is the mastery of the elements of the language system which covers phonology, grammatical units or syntax, grammatical operations, and lexical operations. (Audiolingual Method, Total Physical Response and Silent Way are based on this theory) 2. The Functional Theory. Language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. It is one of the bases of communicative movement in language teaching. It emphasizes the semantic and communicative dimension rather than merely the grammatical characteristics of language, and leads to the

specification and organization of language teaching content by categories of meaning and function rather than by elements of structure and grammar. 3. The Interaction Theory. It sees language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals. Language is seen as a tool or the creation and maintenance of social relations. Areas of inquiry being drawn on in the development of interactional approaches to language teaching include interaction analysis, conversational analysis, and ethonomethodology. Interactional theories focus on the patterns of moves, acts, negotiation, and interaction found in conversational exchanges. Language teaching content, according to this view, may be specified and organized by patterns of exchanges in interaction or may be left unspecified, to be shaped by the inclinations of learners as interactors. Theories of Second Language Acquisition can be Broadly Classified into: 1. Behaviorist theory forms the basis of positive and negative feedback, body language, repetition and direct teaching. The major proponent of the basis of positive and negative feedback was B.F. Skinner who stated that Actions followed by an immediate positive effect tend to be repeated and actions followed by an immediate negative effect tend to be discontinued reward and punishment Body languages emphasis on association of body movement and language and also focuses on the non verbal signals that are communicated during speech. This is especially useful during the non-verbal stage of language acquisition. Repetition uses continuous training/repetition to enforce language behavior and syntax, often through use of recordings (audio and video). Direct teaching method is used to give out explicit instructions to students, often with a given objective and emphasis is placed on rules, sequences and facts. 2. Cognitive theory uses various techniques for language learning. Among them are Chomskys generative grammar, Krashens monitor model and Information processing theories. Chomskys generative grammar tries to define a set of rules that can predict the construction of a sentence, using a combination of words in a language. The rules will also predict the morphology of the sentence. Krashens monitor model states that adults have two independent systems for developing a second language. One is subconscious acquisition and conscious learning. Monitor theory claims that subconscious learning is more important than conscious learning and conscious learning is used only as a monitor. Example of this is that, we may have fluency in a particular language

based on our interactions and what we have picked up and will use the conscious learning to alter our output before or after speaking. Information processing theory theorizes that there are three kinds of memory: Short term memory (STM), sensory registers and long term memory (LTM). For language to be learned successfully the information may also be broken into manageable chunks of information. The language is then taught by receiving patterns, images and sounds. The STM is enhanced through memory games. LTM is enforced based on structures and concepts. 3. Humanistic approach takes into consideration the feelings, motivation levels and confidence of a person. It tries to instill positive emotions that help language acquisition such as self-esteem, motivation, empathy and risk taking. It also tries to dampen negative emotions such as low self confidence, anxiety and nervousness and mental inhibition. 4. Post modern (Constructive) takes into consideration the nature of the learner, his cultural background is considered very important. The responsibility to learn fully rests with the learner. Also the teacher is seen as a facilitator and not as an instructor. The emphasis is more on the content and the learners own understanding of the content. There is a dynamic interplay between the facilitator and learner and both are equally involved in learning from each other. It also encourages the learners to collaborate with each other to arrive at a shared understanding. This is directly opposite of traditional competitive environment. The context in which the learning is done is also considered very important. The learning is done in the form of a complex array of facts, problems and perceptions. That is why the selection, scope and sequencing of the learning matter are very important. Students need to be continuously challenged just beyond their current ability. B. Language Teaching Principles There are twelve principles of second language learning that interact with sound practice and on which ones teaching can be based. These principles form the core of an approach to language teaching. These twelve principles are divided into three categories namely: 1) cognitive principles; affective principles; and language principles. 1. Cognitive Principles. These relate mainly to mental and intellectual functions. Principle 1: Automaticity

Efficient second language learning involves a timely movement of the control of a few language forms into the automatic processing to a relatively unlimited number of language forms. Overanalyzing language, thinking too much about its forms, and consciously lingering on rules of language tend to impede this graduation to automaticity. Pedagogical implications: 1. Because classroom learning normally begins with controlled, focal processing, there is no mandate to entirely avoid overt attention to language systems (grammar, phonology, discourse, etc.). That attention, however, should stop blocking the students from achieving a more automatic, fluent grasp of the language. Therefore grammatical explanations or exercises dealing with what is sometimes called usage have a place in the adult classroom, but the teacher could overwhelm his students with grammar. If they become too heavily centered on the formal aspects of language, such processes can block pathways to fluency. 2. The teacher must see to it that a large proportion of the lessons are focused on the use of language for purposes that are as genuine as a classroom context will permit. Students will gain more language competence in a long run if the functional purposes of language are the focal point. 3. Automaticity isnt gained overnight. Therefore the teacher needs to be patient in dealing with students gradually as he helps them achieve fluency. Principle 2: Meaningful Learning Meaningful learning subsumes new information into existing structures and memory systems, and the resulting associative links create stronger retention. Rote learning- taking in isolated bits and pieces of information that are not connected with ones existing cognitive structures- has little chance of creating long retention. Therefore, meaningful learning leads toward better ling- term retention than rote learning. Pedagogical implications: 1. Capitalize on the power of meaningful learning by appealing to students interest, academic goals, and career goals. 2. Whenever a new topic or concept is introduced, attempt to anchor it in students existing knowledge and background so that it becomes associated with something they already know. 3. Avoid the pitfalls of rote learning a. Too much grammar explanation b. Too many abstract principles and theories

c. Too much drilling and or memorization d. Activities which purposes are not clear e. Activities which do not contribute in accomplishing the goals of a lesson, a unit, or a course. f. Techniques which are so mechanical or tricky that students focus on the mechanics instead of focusing on the language meanings. Principle 3: The Anticipation of Reward Human beings are universally driven to act, or behave, by the anticipation of some sort of reward- tangible or intangible, short or long term, that will ensure as a result of the behavior. Pedagogical implications: 1. Provide an optimal degree of immediate verbal praise and encouragement to the learners as a form of short term reward (just enough to keep them confident but not so much). 2. Encourage the students to reward each other with compliments and supportive actions. 3. In classes with very low motivation, short- term reminders of progress may help students to perceive their development. (gold stars and stickers for the young learners may motivate them a lot) 4. Display enthusiasm and excitement yourself in the classroom. Negative behavior is contagious. 5. Try to get the learners figure out the long- term rewards in learning English by pointing out what they can do with English where they live and around the world, the prestige in being able to use English, the academic benefits of knowing English, job that require English and so on. Principle 4: Intrinsic Motivation The most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically motivated within the learner. Because the behavior stems from needs, wants, or desires, with in oneself, the behavior itself is self- rewarding; therefore, no externally administered reward is necessary. You can perform a great service to learners and to the overall learning process by first considering carefully the intrinsic motives of your students and then designing a classroom tasks that feed into those intrinsic drives.

Classroom techniques have a much greater chance for success if they are selfrewarding in the perception of the learner. The learners perform the tasks because it is fun, interesting, useful, and challenging, and not because they anticipate some cognitive or affective rewards from the teacher. Principle 5: Strategic Investment Successful mastery of the second language will be due to a large extent to the learners own personal investment of time, effort and attention to the second language in the form of an individualized battery of strategies for comprehending and producing the language. Pedagogical implications: 1. It is important to recognize and deal with the wide variety of styles and strategies that learners successfully bring to the learning process. 2. There is a need for attention to each separate individual in the classroom. 2. Affective Principles. These principles are characterized by a large proportion of emotional involvement. They deal with feelings about self, about relationships in a community of learners, and about the emotional ties between language and culture. Principle 6: Language Ego As human beings learn to use a second language, they also develop a new mode of thinking, feeling, and acting (a second identity). The new language ego intertwine with the second language; can easily create within the learner a sense of fragility, defensiveness and a raising inhibitions. Pedagogical implications: 1. Display a very supportive attitude to your students. While some learners may feel quite stupid in this new language, remember that they are capable adults struggling with the acquisition of the most complex set of skills that any classroom has ever attempted to teach. Your warm empathy need to be openly and clearly communicated, for fragile language egos have a way of misinterpreting intended input.

2. On a more mechanical planning level, your choice of techniques and sequences of techniques needed to be cognitively challenging but not overwhelming at an affective level. 3. Considering learners language ego states will probably help you to determine the following, to wit: a. Who to call on b. Who to ask volunteer information c. When to correct a students speech error (slips or lapses in pronunciation and grammar) d. How much to explain something e. How structures and planned an activity should be f. Who to place in which small groups or pairs g. How tough you can be with a student 4. If your students are learning English as a second language, they are likely to experience a moderate identity crisis as they develop a second self. Help such students to understand that the confusion of developing that self in the second culture is a normal and natural process. Patience and understanding on your part will also ease the process. Principle 7: Self- Confidence Learners belief that they indeed are fully capable of accomplishing task is at least partially a factor in their eventual success in attaining the task. Pedagogical implications: 1. Give ample verbal and non- verbal assurances to students. It helps a student to hear a teacher affirm a belief in the students ability. Energy that the learner would otherwise direct at avoidance or at building negative emotional walls of defense is thereby released to tackle a problem at hand. 2. Sequence techniques from easier to more difficult. As a teacher you are called on to sustain self- confidence where it already exists and to build it where it doesnt. Principle 8: Risk- Taking Successful language learners, in their realistic appraisal of themselves as vulnerable beings yet capable of accomplishing task, must be willing to become gamblers in the game of language, to attempt to produce and to interpret language that is a bit beyond their absolute certainty.

Pedagogical implications: 1. Create an atmosphere in the classroom that encourages students to try out language, to venture a response, and not to wait for someone else to volunteer. 2. Provide reasonable challenges in your techniques- make them neither too easy of too hard. 3. Help your students to understand what calculated risk- taking is, lest some feel that they must blurt out any old response. 4. Respond to the students risk attempts with positive affirmation praising them for trying while at the same time warmly but firm attending to their language. Principle 9: The Language- Culture Connection Whenever you teach a language, you also teach a complex system of cultural customs, values, and ways of thinking, feeling and acting. Especially in second language learning contexts, the success with which learners adapt to a new culture milieu will affect their language acquisition success, and vice versa, in some possibly significant ways. Pedagogical implications 1. Discuss cross cultural differences with your students, emphasizing that no culture is better than another, but that cross cultural understanding is an important facet of learning a language. 2. Include among you techniques certain activities and materials that illustrate the connection between language and culture. 3. Teach your students the cultural connotations, especially the sociolinguistic aspects of language. 4. Screen your techniques for materials that may be culturally offensive. 5. Make explicit to your students what you may take for granted in your own culture. 3. Linguistic Principles Principle 10: The Native Language Effect The native language of learners exerts a strong influence on the acquisition of the target language system. While the native system will exercise both facilitating and interfering effects on the production and comprehension of the new language, the interfering effects are likely to be silent.

1. Regard learners error as important to their underlying system and provide appropriate feedback on them. Errors of native language interference may be repaired by acquainting the learners with the native language cause of the error. 2. Ideally, every successful learner will hold on to the facilitating effects of the native language and discard the interference. Help your students to understand that not everything about their native language system will cause error. 3. Thinking directly in the native language usually helps to minimize interference errors. Try to coax (persuade gently) the students into thinking in the second language instead of resorting to translation as they comprehend and produce language. An occasional translation of a word or phrase can actually be helpful, especially for adults, but direct use of the second language will help to avoid the first language crutch (support) syndrome. Principle 11: Interlanguage Second language learners tend to go through a systematic or quasi- systematic developmental process as they progress to full competence in the target language. Successful interlanguage development is partially a result of utilizing feedback from others. Pedagogical implications 1. Try to distinguish between a students systematic interlanguage errors (stemming from the native language or target language) and other errors; the former will probably have a logical source that the student can become aware of. 2. Teachers need to exercise some tolerance for certain interlanguage froms that may arise out of a students logical development process. 3. Dont make a student feel stupid because of an interlanguage error; quietly point out the logic of the erroneous form (I understand why you said I buy cookies yesterday, but try to recall in English we have to use past form of the verb to denote an action in the past. Okay? 4. Your classroom feedback to the students should give them the message that mistakes are not bad but that most mistakes are good indicators that innate language acquisition abilities are alive and well. Mistakes are often indicators or aspects of the new language that are still developing. 5. Try to get students to self- correct selected errors. The ability to self- correct may indicate readiness to use that form correctly and regularly. 6. In your feedback on students linguistic output, make sure that you provide ample effective feedback- verbal or non- verbal- to encourage them to speak.

7. As you make (judicious) careful selection of which errors to treat, do so with kindness and empathy so that the students will not feel thwarted (upset) in future attempts to speak. Principle 12: Communicative Competence Given that communicative competence is the goal of the language classroom, instruction needs to point toward all its language components: organization, pragmatic, strategic, and psychomotor. Communicative goals are best achieved by giving due attention to language use and not just usage, to fluency and just students eventual need to apply classroom learning to previous unrehearsed contexts in giving the real world. Pedagogical implications 1. Remember that grammatical explanations or drills are only part of a lesson or curriculum; give grammar some attention, but do not neglect the other important components (e.g. functional, sociolinguistic, psychomotor, and strategic) of communicative competence. 2. Some of the pragmatic (functional and sociolinguistic) aspects of language are very subtle (critical) and therefore very difficult. Make sure that your lessons aim to teach such subtlety (fine distinction). 3. In your enthusiasm for teaching functional and sociolinguistic aspects of language, dont forget that the psychomotor skills (pronunciation, intonation, stress) are important components of both. 4. Make sure that your students have opportunity to gain some fluency in English without having to be constantly of little mistakes. They can work on errors some other time. 5. Try to keep every technique that you use as authentic as possible. Use language that students will actually encounter in the real world and provide genuine, not rote, techniques for actual conveyance of information of interest. 6. Someday your students will no longer be in your classroom. Make sure you are preparing them to be independent learners and manipulators of language in the real world.

THE LANGUAGE INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEM A. Approach

Approach refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching. It includes both language theories and learning theories. Language theory concerns with a language competence and an account of the basic features of linguistics organization and language use. With respect to learning theory, it concerns with an account of the central processes of learning and an account of conditions believed to promote successful language learning.

B. Design Design links theory with practice (or approach with procedure). It covers the planning on how to carry out the task of teaching. It considers the following: 1. The objectives 2. How language content is selected and organized with a method, that is, the syllabus model the method incorporates 3. The type of learning task and teaching activities the method advocates 4. The roles of the learners 5. The role of the teacher 6. The role of the instructional materials C. Objectives It is the target outcomes (results) of the teaching- learning process. It is deals with the expected behavior to be possessed or to be displayed by the learners after the lesson has been taught to them. The specification of particular learning objectives is a product of design. Some methods focused on oral skills and that reading and writing skills are secondary. Some methods are set out to teach general communication skills and give priority to the ability to express oneself meaningfully and to make oneself understood than to grammatical accuracy or perfect pronunciation. Others place greater emphasis on accurate grammar and pronunciation from the very beginning. Some methods set out to teach the basic grammar and vocabulary of a language. Others may define their objectives less in linguistic terms than in terms of learning behavior, that is, in terms of processes or abilities the learner is expected to acquire as a result of instruction. D. Content Choice and Organization: the Syllabus

Decisions about the choice of language content relate both to subject matter and linguistic matter. It means that one makes decisions about what to talk about (subject matter/ topic) and how to talk about it (linguistic matter). Content issues involve the principles of selection that ultimately shape the syllabus adopted in a course as well as the materials that are used, together with the principles of gradation (series of degree/ progression) the method adopts. In grammar- based courses matters of sequencing and gradation are determined according to the difficulty of items or their frequency. In communicative of functionally oriented courses like ESP (English for Specific Purposes) programs sequencing may be according to the learners communicative needs.

Traditionally, syllabus refers to the form in which the linguistic content is specified in a course or method. It is closely associated with methods that are product centered rather than process centered. The syllabus underlying the Situational and Audiolingual methods consist of a list of grammatical items and constructions, often together with an associated list of vocabulary items. Notional- functional syllabi specify the communicative content of the course in terms of functions, notions, topics, grammar, and vocabulary; such syllabi are determined in advance and for this reason have been referred to as a priori syllabi. Counseling- Learning theory, for example, has no language syllabus. Neither linguistic matter nor subject matter is specified in advance. Learners select content for themselves by choosing topics they want to talk about. These are translated into the target language and used as the basis for interaction and language practice. To find out what linguistic content had in fact been generated and practiced during a course organized according to Counseling- Learning principles, it would be necessary to record the lessons and later determine what items of language had been covered. This would be an a posteriori approach to syllabus specification; that is, the syllabus would be determined from examining protocols with such method as the Silent Way and the Total Physical Response. E. Types of Learning and Teaching Activities The objectives of a method in terms of product or processes are attained through the organized and directed interaction of the teacher, learners, and materials in the

classroom. Differences among methods at the level of approach manifest themselves in the choice of different kinds of learning and teaching activities in the classroom. Teaching activities that focus on grammatical accuracy may be different from those that focus on communicative skills. Activities designed to focus on the development of specific psycholinguistic processes in language acquisition will differ from those directed toward mastery of particular features of grammar. The activity that a method advocates often serves to distinguish methods. Audiolingualism, for example, uses dialogue and patter practice extensively. The Silent way employs problem- solving activities that involve the use of special charts and colored rods. Different philosophies at the level of approach may be reflected both in the use of different kinds of activities and in different uses of different activity types. Fro example, interactive games are often used on Audiolingual courses for motivation and to provide a change of pace form pattern- practice drills. In Communicative Language Teaching, the same games may be used to introduce or provide practice for particular types of interactive exchanges. Differences in activity types in methods involve different arrangements and groupings of learners. F. Learner Roles Johnson and Paulston defined the learner roles in an individualized approach to language learning in the following terms: 1. Learners plan their own learning program and ultimately assume responsibility for what they do in the classroom. 2. Learners monitor and evaluate their own progress. 3. Learners are members of a group and learn by interacting with others. 4. Learners tutor other learners. 5. Learners learn from the teachers, from other students and from other teaching sources. Factors to be Considered in Dealing With Learners 1. 2. 3. 4. Type of learning task set for the learners Degree of control learners have over the content of learning Patterns of learner groupings that are recommended or implied Degree to which the learners influence the learning of others

5. The view of the learner as a processor, performer, initiator, problem solver, etc. G. Teacher Roles Some methods are totally dependent on the teacher as a source of knowledge and direction. Others see the teachers role as a catalyst, consultant, guide, and model for learning. Still others try to teach proof the instructional system by limiting teacher initiative and direction into texts or lesson plans. Teacher Roles in Methods are Related to the following Issues: 1. The type of functions teachers are expected to fulfill, whether that of practice director, counselor, or model 2. The degree of control the teacher has over how leaning takes place 3. The degree to which the teacher is responsible for determining the content of what is taught. 4. The interactional patterns that develop between learners and the teacher. H. The Role of Instructional Materials ` The role of instructional materials with in a functional/ communicative methodology is specified in the following: 1. Materials will focus on the communicative abilities of interpretation and negotiation. 2. Materials will focus on understandable, relevant and interesting exchanges of information, instead of the presentation of grammatical forms. 3. Materials will involve different kinds of texts and media, which the learners can use to develop their competence through a variety of different activities and tasks. I. Procedure Procedure encompasses the actual moment to moment techniques, practices and behaviors that operate in teaching a language according to a particular method. It is the level at which we describe how a method realizes its approach and design in the classroom behavior. Procedure focuses on the way a method handles the presentation, practice, and feedback phases of teaching. J. Classroom Techniques

Technique deals with any of the wide variety of exercises, activities or task used in the language classroom for realizing lesson objectives. 1. Using music in the classroom. It promotes conversation because listeners may interpret the same piece of music differently. 2. Using pictures for picture talk 3. Speak up activities 4. Dialogue 5.

References: Brown, Douglas. (2001). Teaching by Principles: an Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. Richards, Jack C. and Rodgers, Theodore S. (1996). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching: a Description and Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (2000). Principles of Language Teaching and Learning. 4th Ed. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.