MISSOURI GEOLOGY:

Resource- source of support o Interdependent use o Geographic distribution often irregular o Renewable vs non-renewable Mariner Energy Oil Platform Fire- Gulf of Mexico Missouri Natural Divisions o Mineral production Elephants Rocks Hughes Mtn. Hughes Mt. ignimbrite Taum Sauk Unconformity Brushy Creek headframe Pb ore, Brushy Creek MineGalena Pb tailings near Deslodge 8/10/96 ph 12-13 Limestone Bluffs- Katy Trail I-55 Limestone quarry Ripple marks, Roubidoux Sandstone St. Peter Sandstone-Pacific Missouri Coal Seam- I-64 and Hanley road St. Charles well field- flood level Cave density map o Springs o Sinkholes o Losing streams Eurycea lucifuga- lizard Maramec Spring Cave Spring, Current River Navigation/Maps o Piloting o Dead reckoning o Celestial o Inertial o Electronic Eratosthenes (~200 BC) o Knew earth was round o Calculated circumference John Hadley- Octant (ca 1730) Sextant Compass o ~3000 BC Chinese- lodestones o ~1187 AD Alexander Neckham o William Clarks Whitney Pocket Compass

Gravitational North vs Magnetic North

LANDSCAPE TRANSFORMATION/MAPS:
True North- earths spin axis; ~polaris o Inclination to polaris from horizon gives latitude o Precession: Vega & Polaris Magnetic North o N & S Magnetic Poles I= 90O o North near Ellef Ringnes Island, Canada (1990) o South near Comonwealth Bay, Antartica o Declination; angle between true and magnetic north at a particular location o Agonic line (0O dec) now passes through St. Louis Co. o Westward drift- 6.7/yr 24 Time Zones- each 15O Longitude John Harrison (~1762)- made accurate chronometer o Started at Portsmith, England (noon) and went to Bridgetown, Barbados (noon): time was 3:55=> ~59.75OW. only few miles off o 3 month voyage to Port Royal, Jamaica was only 5 sec off. GPS- 24 satellites w/ atomic clocks. Receiver measures temporal differences in signal arrival. o +/- 5 m routine o Differential GPS- more accurate, uses land-based radio beacons to transmit corrections to GPS receivers. Anthropogenic Landscape Transformation o Early Settlement Farming, fur trade & market hunting Clearing, draining Prairies & savannas converted to forests Destruction of fur-bearing animal populations o River Channelization Snag Removal, Levees, Wing Dikes Riparian Forest Destruction (fuel) o Deforestation Lumber, RR ties In Ozarks, replacement of Shortleaf Pine forests by OakHickory forest (1880-1920) o Loss of Prairies & Wetlands o Urbanization Leveling, Construction Dry (1876)- Picture of steam boats in St. Louis 1832 Cahokia Courthouse (~1760)- local materials, no gutters, steep roof, eaves Nicolas de Finiels (1798)- map of river confluence River lost since 1879- 98% island surface area, 50% water surface area, 8% length.

Bison skulls (mid 1870s) Carolina Paroquet Janicke & Co- detailed pic of St. Louis Harbour Col. Robert E. Lee- Army Corps of Engineers o Map of St. Louis Harbour Destruction of Big Mound in St. Louis o Now located on corner of Mound St. and Broadway Ohio Street, St. Louis- existing mound that has been built on. Monks Mound- Cahokia, IL Topographical survey of St. Louis by Camille N. Dry and Rich J. Compton.

EARTHS RESOURCES: PLEISTOCENE TO MIDDLE AGES

Mineral Determinism: Mining is the cutting edge for economic and cultural development K-T Boundary: 65.5 Ma o Age of Reptiles => Age of Mammals o Chicxulub impact event, Yucatan Peninsula Cratering- dominant geomorphic process in Solar System. Mostly early process. Chicxulub impact event and repercussions Tertiary Period (<65.5 Ma) o Adaptive radiation of mammals: to sea, air, plains Primitive animals: mostly Australia Monotremes: egg layers, platypus, echidna Marsupials: pouch Placental mammals 1st primates (rodentlike); carnivores, ungulates Global cooling trend o Paleotemperatures: H. C. Urey (1947, 1950) calibration Miocene-Pliocene (23 to 1.6 Ma) o Primates-very diversified o Hominids: Family of Man, 32 teeth, bipedal locomotion Ramapithecus- earliest hominid, ~14 Ma Ardipithecus- 4.4 Ma (new discovery) Australopithecus- 3.8 to .8 Ma Ethiopia (Lucy @ 3.2 Ma) Pebble tools => first Paleolithic cultures Hunting & Gathering Erect Posture Marked sexual differences Organization: tribal units Homo habilis Pleistocene (1.6 Ma to 10 ka) o Quasi-periodic climatic oscillations, advance and retreat of ice caps

o Homo erectus: 1.75 to .3 Ma chopping tools, probably fire o Homo sapiens: .5 Ma on Homo sapiens neanderthalis 110-28 ka fire; advanced tools, burials Homo sapiens sapiens: Cro Magnon (~70 to 10 ka) Magdalenian culture- 28 to 10 ka cave art o Niaux & Lascaux, France; Altamira, Spain, etc. o Depicted wooly mammoths, bison, horse,bows and arrows later on o Fe, Mn oxides & charcoals as pigments, no blue/green o Cold times- cave association, also low sea level stand Wisconsin Glaciation- land bridges @ Bering strait; Australia ~30 ka o Mastodon SHP- remains & projectile point Mastodon remains- Kimmswick, MO Holocene (10ka to present)- warmer climatic conditions immediately after Younger Dryas Coincides with development of Neolithic cultures. Neolithic o 1st agricultural @ 10 ka (=8000 BC) o organization: 1st permanent constructed habitations o salt becomes essential in diets- preservative & antiseptic o wheel o >9000 BC pottery (clays); domestication of sheep, dogs o >9000 BC use of native metals, esp Cu & Au, also some Ag Fe (nuggets, meteorites) Copper Age (4000BC to 3000 BC) (6 to 5 ka) o Beginning defined by first smelting of ores with charcoal (fuel & reductant) to make Cu metal. o First phonetic writing ~3500 BC o Brick making, glazing (clays) o Bitumen o Organization: kingdoms, first city states o Mesopotamia: Ur, Babylon. Also Nile, Indus & Yellow River Valleys Bronze Age (3000 BC to 1100 BC) o Defined by bronze alloys (90% Cu & 10% Sn) Smelting of Sn ores o Glass o Compass (Chinese ~3000 BC) o Incredible stone working, quarrying o Egyptian culture (ca 2850 BC 715 BC) Pyramid of Cheops 2800 BC 755 length. Original height est 482. 2,300,000 stone blocks with avg. weight of 2.5 tons

o King Tutankhamun (1325 BC) Iron Age (1100 BC to 410 AD) o Classical Greece: Art, Science, Architecture, Medicine, democracy, Olympic games, then Romans Alchemy Coins- electrum, then bronze, then true brass Rome- giant metropolis @ 320 AD, 1 mil pop. Organization- empires

EARTHS RESOURCES THROUGH HISTORY: MIDDLE AGES TO WWII

Middle Ages (410 A.D. to ~1450 AD)- not Dark Ages everywhere o 1348 A.D. Black Death o invention of acid, mechanical clock, windmill o 1187 AD compass in Europe o Gunpowder in Europe o Pb, Hg, coal burning health hazard o Blast furnace 1340 AD can melt iron o Gothic architecture inspiring high arches, vaults, spires Ulm Cathedral, 1377 AD, 161 m Renaissance: ~1450-1700 AD- scientific and cultural revolution Printing Press: movable type. Gutenberg 1455 AD @ Mainz Leonardo (1452)- Michelangelo. Copernicus-Galileo-1642-Newton Great Explorations (@1st looking for trade routes to Far East) o 1492 Columbus- Caribbean islands for Spain o Conquest of Mexico (1519-1522) and Peru (1533) o 1500-1660 Spanish galleons ~181 metric tons Au and 16,887 tons Ag to Europe Quantitative assaying- beginning of real chemistry and end of age of alchemy) 1556 De Re Metallica Georgius Agricola Great Explorations o English- John Cabot o Line of Demarcation (1494)- Pope Alexander VI: implicit colonialism o 1513 Balboa- Pacific Ocean o Ponce de Leon Florida o 1519-1522 Magellan circumnavigated globe, Cortez conquered Mexico o 1532-1533 Pizarro marched S from Panama & conquered Peru o 1540-1542 Coronado explores SW USA o 1588 defeat of Spanish Armada by English o 1673 Marquette & Joliet went S down Mississippi R o 1817-1821 Simon Bolivar (liberated Venezuela, then Columbia). Spanish lost control of South American colonies and then Mexico Spanish Piece of Eight silver

California Indians ~300,000 orig. Patwin, Miwok, Nisenan, Yokuts o Mission Period 1769-1833 o Mexican Independence 1821 ( MO statehood) 1837 mission lands expropriated and given out as ranches 1846-1848 Mexican War, cedes CA, TX, AZ, NM, UT, NV o Gold Rush- John Marshall @ Sutters Mill. CA statehood. o Comstock Lode discovered 1859; NV statehood 1864 Battle Born o CA Indian populations decimated- epidemics Industrial Revolution (1700-1945 AD) o Agrarian => urban, industrial transition o Steam engine (1st 1698) Coal, Iron o Coke ~1700 save hardwood forests for ships o Steel ~1740 o Transportation systems- steamboats, RR, thermodynamics o Portland Cement 1824 o Vulcanized rubber 1839 (Chas. Goodyear) o Dynamite (1867) Alfred Nobel o Al Electrolysis- 1886- Chas. Hall o Eiffel Tower 1889 (puddle/wrought iron) Eads Bridge- steel 1874 Development of Modern Chemistry o 1800 AD, compounds & elements (39) o John Dalton: Atomic theory~1800; compounds & elements o Mendeleev (1870) Periodic Table Relationships b/t properties & atomic weights Nuclear Age (1945 present) Modern Physics o 1896 discovery of spontaneous radiation by Becquerel o early 1900s: new Atomic theory subatomic particles: protons, electrons, neutrons Nuclear reactions possible, by bombardment o Trans-Uranium elements Np (#93) McMillan & Abelson (1940) bombarding U Pu (#94) Seaborg (1940) Now up to ~110 elements o First reactor (CP-1) @ U. Chicago, 12/2/1942, E. Fermi o 1945 trinity test, Alamogordo, NM (7/16/45 Pu) Hiroshima (8/6/45 235U), Nagasaki (5 kg Pu; 8/9/45) Resource Wars- Gulf War 1991, Iraq 2004 Organization- Continental power blocks

EARTHS RESOURCES THROUGH HISTORY #3

Trends in Material Use- increasing sophistication Trends in Human Organization- increasing size/sophistication Trends in warfare- increasing impact/sophistication Themes- use of materials linked to cranial development/speech

o Cultural periods named after resource/material o rates of development differ for diff. groups/regions Modern trends: o USA- prodigious use of material, diminishing share of material production, increasing reliance on imports USA water use USA vs Japan % imported Population/Age Bar chart USA share of world production World- increasing population, environmental degradation, conflicts (resource wars) Reserves of minerals are irregularly distributed o Brazil-Ti and China-W (tungsten) Fossil fuels: Middle East (>50% oil); USA (29% coal, 34% bituminous/anthracite) Japan import almost everything Reserves of minerals are often irregularly controlled o Large corporations o Petroleum (PEMEX): 1938 Nationalization (acquire >50% interest) o Copper (1973, Chile): Expropriation (euphemism for stealing) o Cartels & Syndicates: Aim to control availability & increase profits OPEC (1959, 13 nations w/ 69% oil reserves); 42% prod. Ramped up price in 1973- anger over 1967 war & USA support of Israel USA embargo o DeBeers Syndicate (1888; Cecil Rhodes, founder of Rhodesia) Controls availability of diamonds (alluvial & pipe occurrences) 1870- great production led to price collapse, to <$1/carat/.2 g real value probably low- maybe like glass % of known world reserves Wars o 2003- Iraq War- USA invasion o 1991: Gulf War- Iraqi invasion of Kuwait o 1967: Egyptian-Israeli conflictOPEC price retaliation in 1973 o WWII: Germany occupied territories o 1941: Pearl Harbour Venezuela article about naval exercises with Russia Strategic Stockpiling- for defense/energy purposes o Strategic Materials Act (1939)- US feared war; stockpiled Sn, chromite & chartz crystals o WWII Germany- synthetic oil and rubber o USA steel pennies o Strategic and Critical Material Stockpiling Act (1946)-transfer war surplus to stockpile. o Strategic oil reserves- salt domes in TX and LA- only 30 day supply

o Naval Oil reserve (north slope) o Bakersfield? Value of Materials depends on Cultural Development o Before Fe Age: Fe highly valued King Tuts knife Annitas (Hittite King) throne & scepter o Middle Ages: Vermillian & Ultramarine were worth more than Au o Industrial Revolution: Napolean III- Al Silverware- Au for lesser guests Localization of industrial revolution in western Europe: coal & iron Diamonds (~worthless?!)

EFFECTS OF RESOURCE USE

Activities: all have direct impact on environment o Primary: mining, quarrying, dredging, etc o Secondary: processing, smelting, refining o Tertiary: power generation, manufacturing o Final: water treatment & disposal Underground Mining o Environmental problems: Heat, water pollution, subsidence o Hazardous Cave ins, fires, explosions Comstock Lode, NV, 1868 Carson & Tahoe Lumber & Fluming Co.- V&T RR Sunshine Mine, ID Surface Mining o Used for 2/3 solid mineral production o Overburden: product ratio crucial o Enviro problems: much land degraded, lots of dust, S. Water and GW problems Placer Mining o Panning, Sluicing, Hydraulic Mining Hydraulic- enviro problems: mud! Used for: Au, Sn, diamonds William McIlvaine (1813-1867), Panning Gold, California, 1849. Chilkoot Pass, AK: Klondike Gold Rush 1897-99 Malakoff Diggings ca. 1871 o water guns Lorenzo Sawyer Decision 1884 Dredging: Used in unconsolidated material: Au, diamonds, phosphate, sand/gravel. Can dig to 45 m below water surface o Gold dredge, CA o Gravel Pit, Cache Creek, CA

o Livermore, CA Strip Mining: used for thin, near surface bed, e.g. coal, phosphates, clays. Sometimes leave high wall. Pilesavalanches. Acid mine drainage. o Strip Mine, Falkirk ND o Acid Mine Drainage, Tebo Ck, MO FeS2 + 3O2 + 2H2O = Fe++ + 2HSO4- + 2H+ o Syncrude Quarrying- name for open pit mining of stone/gravel Open Pit: Bingham Canyon (inverted topography); conical pit; engineers DC Jackling & RC Gemmell o Morenci Mine, AZ o McLaughlin Mine/Mill, CA Processing & Smelting o Much waste (>30% Fe/Al to <.0001% Au) o Crushing- Milling- Separating Concentrate (froth flotation) Smelting (reduction) and/or roasting (oxidation) Air pollution o Fe, Sn, Cu, Au o Clifton, AZ o Ball and Rod Mills o Flotation cells o Glover Smelter, MO Reclamation techniques o Backfilling, leveling o Hydroseeding o Strip Mine & High Wall, WVA vs. Reclamation o Kansas City limestone mineStorage Solution Mining o Water pollution o Dissolution: NaCl, KCl, S (Frasch Process) o Good for low grade In Situ Leaching: Cu, Au, low grade U Heap leaching of tailings o Sketches of Techniques Drilling o Water pollution and blowouts o Huntington Beach, CA 1925 o Lakeview Gusher, CA 1910 (544 days) o Hercules, CA oil refinery o Old Blowout Rumsey Hills, CA

WORLD POPULATION #1
Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) English Economist: Essay on the Principle of Population (1798)

o Population increases faster than food supply o Poverty is inevitable Great influence on Charles Darwin Origin of Species (1859) o Survival of the fittest o Led to social Darwinism- justification for social/economic stratification; racial supremacy. Objections: o New regions exist o Science & technological progress Forces Driving Population Upward o Food availability o Death rates decline- improved public health, sanitation, medical advance, declining infant mortality o Birth rate & death rate declining, but birth rate > death rate. o Exponential growth o Doubling time = ln(2) / k (k~.03) o Carrying Capacity Arable land3.2 billion Catholic Church40 billion o Possibilities: 1. Exponential Model 2. Doomsday 3. Logistic (Variable Growth Rate) 4. Overshoot & Collapse

WORLD POPULATION #2
Replacement level: 2 kids/female = 1 for 1 replacement rate* (actual= 2.1) Social impact of low fertility o Population decline o High median age: elderly burden o Barrel-shaped Age-sex Pyramid Societal impact of high fertility o Rapid growth o High IMR o Low life expectancy o Disease/lack of sanitation o Low contraceptive use o Low literacy o Low per capita GNP o Low median age o Broad age-sex pyramid Youngest countries Societal Consequences, from individual to Global Scale o Lower quality of life o Crowding/STRESS

o Changing distribution of population Progressive urbanization/industrialization India, China, Nigeria, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia o Faster pace- govts cant respond quickly enough- inertia o Increasing wealth inequality o Increased likelihood of overshoot & collapse (delayed response) Replacement Level: o Population will still grow b/c momentum in system. Momentum reduced if increase mothers age (more education) Age-Sex Pyramid: o Developed nations: columnar or barrel shape o Increased life expectancy in USA social security problem o Developing nations: pyramid shape: population will great increasing even at replacement level. Demographic Transition o Hi B&D rates Hi B, Low D rate low B&D rates o Low growth rt hi growth rate low growth rate o Transition can take >100 yr

WORLD POPULATION #3
Homestead Act (1862)- 160 acres = sec. = 0.5 mi x 0.5 mi o Set up small utopian farms- excluded plantations/slaves o Favored by abolitionists John Wesley Powell (1876) argued: o 2/5 of US area cant support farming o only 1-3% of western land can be reclaimed by irrigation w/ surface water o Dryland ranching requires 4 sections (2560 acres) Bill Hatch: 100 acres/cow in NV Land Character o Arid/hyperarid land + glaciated + permafrost = >39% Agricultural Basis: Food Supply / individual dietary requirement o Based on arable land: 3.5 -12 billion World/USA production of fossil fuels Cant stay on exponential growth trend Land Transformation o Need more arable land o Progressive desertification o Biodiversity mining Pollution: Anthropogenic: Natural Ratios Conclusions: o Living on Capital (soil, GW, fish, tress; biodiversity) o Quality of life must go down o Rates of increase must go down o Doomsday false

Methuselahs choice: o For a stationary population w/ birth rate B and death rate D; B must equal D. o So B=D and average lifespan = 1/B

MUNICIPAL/INDUSTRIAL WASTE
Rock City, Valmeyer, IL Labadie Power Plant- 2400 MW Kingston Fossil Plant (TVA) Harriman TN, Dec 22, 2008 o 300 Mgal sludge (Pb, As, Se, Ni, Cr, Tl, Hg) LA smog Davis, CA Evaporation Ponds, Lost Hills, CA Howard Bend Waterworks, MO Municipal & Industrial Waste o 5000 million tons solid waste/yr = 20 tons/person/yr USA o Domestic= ~1 ton/pers/yr = 5lbs/day o Big Business- $9 B/y in USA o Waste mostly paper/paperboard Disposal Methods o Open Dumping- primary method in World problems- much land, air/water contamination, vermin/insects, eyesores o Dumped at sea- NYC Kamilo Beach- Great Pacific Garbage Path North Pacific Gyre- Cpt. Charles Moore o Sanitary Landfill- packaged in layers Later used as park/golf course Methane generation- electricity production Peerless Park C&D Landfill Milam Landfill- Sinclair Co., IL Layering description Yolo Co Landfill- Sacramento, CA Wood recycling, methane generator Fred Weber Quarry o Incineration: controlled burning @ hi T Reduces weight/volume Destroys hazardous material (Times Beach- dioxin) Space heat/electricity Requires little space (Europe) More expensive than landfill (almost double) Baltimore Incinerator Recycling- reduces use of raw materials/energy. Less environmental damage. Hazardous Waste

o Industrial Love Canal Waste Landfill, Niagra Falls, NY Used by Hooker Chemical- PCBs got into sewers/basements Low birth weight babies Congress passed Superfund ($9.2 billion) to clean up ~800 sites. o Radwaste o HHW (household) Reduction- dont generate o California Reduction > recycling > incineration > sanitary landfilling o Reuse trash and dont waste so much

ATMOSPHERIC
Earth, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Biosphere Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases o Main source: combustion products Consequences: o SMOG London Donora, PA CAUSE: UV reaction of HCs and NOx Bad in LA Worst during inversions o Greenhouse Warming Blackbody radiation- Max Planck Comparative Planetology Venus- CO2 rich, high P, high T Mars- CO2 rich, low P, similar T to earth o Acid Rain pH < 4.6, to 2.1 Caused by emission of SO2 H2SO4 (coal burning); and NOx HNO3 (auto emissions, NO/NOx) Effects: Regional problem Lake acidification Forest decline Dissolution of buildings/sculptures Metal leaching International disputes o Ozone Depletion Destroyed by CFCs (Freon) Ozone hole- Antartica

Without: sunburns, DNA damage, increased cataract & skin cancer, reduced crop yields Earths Atmosphere: Surface P= 1 bar, Surface T= 288K o 78% N2, 21% O2, 1% Ar, .038% CO2 Solutions: o Indoor plants, natural gas busses, Clean Air acts (1963, 1970, 1990), 1997 UN Kyoto Accord, low sulfur coals, fuel cells, ethanol gas?, alternative energy sources.