Handouts #1

Course Outline:
1. Limits and Continuity

1.1. Limits
1.2. Directional Limits
1.3. Limit Theorem of Trigonometric Functions
1.4. Continuity
1.5. Limit of Sequences

2. Derivative, Slope, and Rate of Change
2.1. The Derivative
2.2. Slope of a Curve

3. Differentiation Formulas
3.1. Derivative Formulas
3.2. The Chain Rule
3.3. The General Power Formula
3.4. Higher Derivatives
3.5. Implicit Differentiation

4. Applications of Derivative
4.1. Application of Maxima and Minima
4.2. Time Rates
4.3. Velocity and Acceleration
4.4. The Derivative in Economics

5. Differentiation of Trigonometric Functions
5.1. Derivative of Trigonometric Functions
5.2. Definition of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
5.3. Derivative of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

6. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
6.1. Definition of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
6.2. Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
6.3. Derivative of Logarithm
6.4. Derivative of Exponential Functions
1.1. Limits
The concept of the limit of a function is essential to the study of calculus. It is used in
defining some of the most important concepts in calculuscontinuity, the derivative of a
function, and the definite integral of a function.
MATH 205: Advanced Calculus
Handout # 1: Limits and Continuity Page 2
This section aims to:
1. discuss the definition of limit; and
2. evaluate the limit of functions
The limit of a function f(x) describes the behavior of the function close to a
particular x value. It does not necessarily give the value of the function at x. We write,
L x f
c x
=
) ( lim which means that as x approaches c, the function f (x) approaches the real
number L (see Figure 1 ).

In other words, as the independent variable x gets closer and closer to c, the function
value f(x) gets closer to L. Note that this does not imply that f(c) = L; in fact, the function may
not even exist at c or may equal some value different than L at c.

1.1.1. Theorems on Limits

1. The limit of a constant as x approaches a is the constant, i.e.
c c
a x
=
lim
2. The limit of the sum of two or more functions is equal to the sum of their limits.

a x a x
x f x f

= + lim )] ( ) ( [ lim
2 1
) (
1
x f + ) (
2
x f
3. The limit of the product of two or more functions is equal to the product of their limits.
a x a x
x f x f

= lim )] ( ) ( [ lim
2 1
) (
1
x f ) (
2
x f
4. The limit of the quotient of two functions is equal to the quotient of their limits, provided that
the limit of the denominator is not zero.
) ( lim
) ( lim
) (
) (
lim
2
1
2
1
x f
x f
x f
x f
a x
a x
a x
=
1.1.1. Evaluating Limits
Limits of functions are evaluated using many different techniques such as recognizing a
pattern, simple substitution, or using algebraic simplifications. Some of these techniques are
illustrated in the following examples.
Example 1.1: Find the limit of the sequence: ,...
7
6
,
6
5
,
5
4
,
4
3
,
3
2
,
2
1

Because the value of each fraction gets slightly larger for each term, while the numerator
is always one less than the denominator, the fraction values will get closer and closer to 1; hence,

Figure 1

The limit of f(x) as x approaches c.
2 + x
the limit of the sequence is 1.

Example 1.2: Evaluate ) 1 3 ( lim
2
x
x

When x is replaced by 2, 3 x approaches 6, and 3 x 1 approaches 5; hence, 5 ) 1 3 ( lim
2
=
x
x

Example 1.3: Evaluate .
3
9
lim
2
2
+
x
x
x

Substituting 3 for x yields 0/0, which is meaningless. Factoring first and simplifying, you find that
=
+
3
9
lim
2
2
x
x
x
3
) 3 )( 3 (
lim
2
+
+
x
x x
x

) 3 ( lim
2
=

x
x

6 =

Example 1.4: Evaluate
3
5
3
2
lim
3
x
x
x
x

Substituting 3 for x yields 0/0, which is meaningless. Simplifying the compound fraction, you find that

Example 1.5: Evaluate .
5
lim
0
+
x
x
x
Substituting 0 for x yields 0/5 = 0; hence,
x
x
x
5
lim
0
+

Substituting 0 for x yields 5/0, which is meaningless; hence,
x
x
x
5
lim
0
+
Does Not Exist (DNE).

(Remember, infinity is not a real number.)

4
2
lim
4
x
x
x

Rationalizing the numerator by multiplying both the numerator and the denominator by ,
0 lim
0
=
+
x
x
we have
4
1
2 2
1
2
1
lim
2
2
4
2
lim
4 4
=
+
=
+
=
+
+

x x
x
x
x
x x

2
6
lim
2 3
2
x
x x x
x

Answer: 9. Verify.
6 5 5 2
2
lim
2 3
2 3
2
+

x x x
x x x
x

Answer -8. Verify.

Exercise 1.1. Find each of the following limits if it exists.
1.
2
3
lim x
x

2.
1
2
lim
2
3
+
x
x x
x

3.
3 2
3 4
lim
2
2
1

+
x x
x x
x

4.
3 4
3 2
lim
2
2
1
+

x x
x x
x

5.
1
1
lim
2
1
+

x
x
x

6.
2
8
lim
3
2
x
x
x

7.
2 4
4 7 2
lim
2
2
1
x
x x
x

8.
1
1
lim
1
x
x
x

9.
1
1
1
lim
1
+
+

x
x
x

10.
x
x
x
2 2
lim
0
+

1.2. Directional Limits
There are functions whose limit needs restriction, such as x . This section discusses two
directions of limits right hand and left-hand limits.
1. illustrate the left-hand and right-hand limits of functions; and
2. evaluate left-hand and right-hand limits of functions.

Directional limits are defined as the left-hand and the right-hand limits.
The right-hand limit has the description
+
a x , i.e. ) ( lim x f
a x
+

Illustration:
DNE x
x
=
0
lim
) 1 ( lim
0
x
x
) 1 ( lim
0
x
x
1 1 0 ) 1 ( lim
0
= =
+
x
x
) 1 ( lim
0
x
x
x
1
1
lim
2
1
x
x
x
0
0
1
1
lim
2
1
=
x
x
x
0
2
0
1 1
1 1
1
1
) 1 )( 1 (
1 1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
lim
2 2
2
2
2
2
2 2
1
= =
+
=
+
=
+

=
x
x
x x
x x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
9
3
lim
2
3
x
x
x 1 2
2 3
lim
2
2
1
+
+
+
x x
x x
x
3 4
9
lim
2
2
3
+

x x
x
x
4
2
lim
2
2
x
x
x
u
x
x
x
3 sin
lim
0
3 ) 3 ( 1 3 lim
3
3 sin
lim
3 sin
lim
0 0 0
= = =
x x x
x
x
x
x

The left-hand limit has the description
a x , i.e. ) ( lim x f
a x

Illustration:



does not exist since is undefined for x < 0.


By substitution , which we should not permit! So, by rationalizing the
denominator, we have

Exercise 1.2.
Evaluate the right-hand or left-hand limits or state that it does not exist.

1. 3.

2. 4.

1.3. Limit Theorem of Trigonometric Functions
This section presents one important theorem for the evaluation of trigonometric
functions.

1. state the theorem for evaluating trigonometric functions; and
2. evaluate the limits of trigonometric functions.

Theorem 1. If is measured in radians,
1
sin
lim
0
=
u
u
u


0 ) 0 ( 1 lim
sin
lim
sin
lim
0
2
2
0
2
0
= = =

x
x
x
x
x
x x x
x
x
x
2
0
sin
lim
3
2
0
sin
lim
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x x x
1
lim
sin
lim
sin
lim
0
3
3
0
3
2
0
=
0 x
x
x
x
x
2 sin
lim
0
u
u
sin
lim
0 x
x
x
x
4
3 sin
lim
0
x x
x
x
2
0
2
2 sin
lim
) ( ) ( lim a f x f
a x
=
1
1
) (
2
=
x
x
x f
0
0
1 1
1 ) 1 (
) 1 (
2
=
= f



The limit is undefined or because as , .

Exercise 1.3.
Find the limit of the following trigonometric functions.

1. 3.

2. 4.

1.4. Continuity
This section has two parts continuity and infinite discontinuities.

1. enumerate and illustrate the continuity of a function at a point; and
2. interpret graphically the infinite limits and points of discontinuity.

A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a if the following conditions are all
satisfied:
i.) f(a) exists
ii.) lim f(x) exists
iii.)

Example 1.17: Is continuous at x =?

i.) . Since condition i) is no longer satisfied, then f(x) is

discontinuous at x=1.
x x f = ) (
x 0
x
x 0
lim
x lim x lim
+ =
) ( lim x f
a x
=
) ( lim x f
a x
1
1
lim
1
x
x
1
1
=
x
y
y
y
x
+
=
1
+
1 x
1
1
=
x
y
+ =
1
1
lim
1
x
x
1
1
=
x
y
=
1
1
lim
1
x
x
2
1
) 1 (
1
lim
x
x
+ =
2
1
) 1 (
1
lim
x
x
=
2
1
) 1 (
1
lim
x
x
5 3
1 2
lim
2
2
+

x x
x x
x
0
1
lim =

x
x
0
1
lim
2
=

x
x

Example 1.18: Is continuous at x = 0?

i.) when x = 0 is = 0
ii.) does not exist since has no limit. Thus is discontinuous
at x = 0.

Infinite Discontinuities
If a function increases without bound as x approaches a, then the function has infinite
discontinuity at x = a.
It may happen that f(x) may become large positive, or large negative so we write

Note that the symbol is not a number but merely a notation for a certain characteristic
or behavior of the graph that it may tend to go up or down indefinitely.


Note that x = 1 serves as the vertical asymptote of the graph. If , then ,

which is undefined at y = 0, the horizontal asymptote of the graph. Observe that as x becomes
close to 1 from the right, i.e. , becomes large positive, or

, then

Also, as x become close to 1 from the left, i.e. , becomes large negative,
or

, then


Try these!


Hint: In the evaluation of infinite limits, it is convenient to divide both the
numerator and the denominator by the greatest power of x. Remember that , likewise
.

+
1 x
1 x
1 x
1
1
lim
2
2
+

x
x
x


1.5. Limit of Sequences
The sequence 0.6, 0.66, 0.666, 0.6666 may be used to represent the rational number .
In

this case, we say that the nth term , which we denote by gets closer and closer to as n
increases.

1. give the formula for the nth term of a sequence of numbers; and
2. find the limit of the sequence of numbers.

A sequence of real numbers is a correspondence that assigns to each
positive number n a number . The number is called the nth term of the sequence.

Example 1.23: The sequence of numbers has the nth term .

Example 1.24: The following illustrations show the sequence of real numbers with the nth term

Sequence Defining Rule
(a)

(b)

3
2
n
u
3
2
n
u u u u ,..., , ,
3 2 1
n
u
n
u
,...
5
4
,
4
3
,
3
2
,
2
1
1 +
=
n
n
u
n
n
u
1 = n u
n
1 ,..., 2 , 1 , 0 n
n
1
,...,
3
1
,
2
1
, 1
n
u
n
1
=
1
) 1 (
+
=
n
n
u
L u
n
n
=

lim
1
1
1
1
lim
1
lim =
+
=
+

n
n
n
n n
. 2 lim =

n
n
u
. lim
n
n
u

.
1 3
1
) 1 ( lim
1 3
) 1 ( lim
2
1
2
1
n n
n
n
n
n
n
n
+

+

. 2 } ) 1 ( 2 { lim = +

n
n
. lim
n
n
u

(c)

(d)

(e)

Limit Theorem of a Sequence
If an n gets larger, and approaches a number L, then L is called the limit of the
sequence. If the sequence has a limit L, then we write .

Example 1.25: Find the limit of the sequence .

We first illustrate the sequence of numbers as indicated in the following table
n 1 2 3 4 5
u
n

2
1
3
2
4
3
5
4
6
5

Thus, applying the limit as , we have

Example 1.26: Find the limit of the sequence
The first 4 terms of the sequence are
2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001,
The 6
th
term is 2.000001, so the limit is apparently 2, i.e.

Example 1.27: List the first 4 terms of the following sequences and find the

a)

b) =

The sequence has no limit, since as ,

Example 1.28: Write the 1
st
, 5
th
, 10
th
, 100
th
, 1000
th
, 10000
th
, 100000
th
terms of the sequence

and find the

When n = 1, u
1
= 0.222
1
) 1 ( ,..., 1 , 1 , 1 , 1
+

n
n
n 1
,...,
4
3
,
3
2
,
2
1
, 0

n
n
u
n
1
=
1
) 1 ( ,...,
5
4
,
4
3
,
3
2
,
2
1
1
+

+
n
n
n
1
) 1 (
1
+
=
+
n
n
u
n
n
n
u
,... ,
2 1
u u
1
,...
6
5
,
5
4
,
4
3
,
3
2
,
2
1
+ n
n
n
{ }. ) 01 . 0 ( 2
n
n
u + =
)
`
=
+
1 3
) 1 (
2
1
n
n
u
n
n
1 3
) 1 ( ,...,
6
5
,
17
16
,
8
9
,
3
4
,
2
1
2
1

+
n
n
n
n .
n
u
{ }
n
n
u ) 1 ( 2 + =
1
) 1 ( 2 ,...,
16
1
2 ,
8
1
2 ,
4
1
2 ,
2
1
2 , 2
+
+ + + =
n
5 4
1 3
+
=
n
n
u
n
.
4
3
5 4
1 3
lim =
+

n
n
n
n
n
u

lim
n = 5, u
5
= 0.56000
n = 10, u
10
= 0.64444
n = 100, u
100
= 0.73827
n = 1000, u
1000
= 0.74988
n = 10,000, u
10000
= 0. 74998

Apparently, u
n
approaches 0.75 or as , i.e.

Exercise 1.4.
I. Give the nth term of the following:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

II. Find the first four terms and if it exists.

1.

2.

3.

n
,... 3 , 3 , 3 , 3 , 3
,...
4
7
,
3
5
,
2
3
, 1
... 17 , 10 , 5 , 2
,...
7
5
,
6
4
,
5
3
,
4
2
,
3
1
,...
5
32
, 4 ,
3
8
, 2 , 2
2 3 +
=
n
n
u
n
1 5
5 6
+
=
n
n
u
n
2
2
2 3
4 7
n
n
u
n
+
=

4.

5.

1
) 1 3 )( 1 2 (
3
+
+
=
n
n n
u
n
5 4
3
) 1 (
2
1
+ +
=
+
n n
n
u
n
n

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Course Outline:

1. Limits and Continuity

Does Not Exist (DNE).

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