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Equações de Taxas de
Transmissão de Calor
1
NÃO confundir ou trocar os significados físicos de Energia Térmica,
Temperatura e Transferência de Calor
Quantidade Significado físico Símbolo Unidades
Energia Energia associada ao comportamento
Térmica+ microscópico da matéria U ou u J ou J/kg
Temperatura Modo indirecto de determinar a
quantidade de energia térmica T º C ou K
armazenada na matéria
Condução: Transferência de calor num sólido ou fluido estático (gás ou líquido) devida ao
movimento aleatório dos seus átomos, moléculas e/ou electrões constituintes.
Radiação: Energia que é emitida pela matéria devido a mudanças das configurações
electrónicas dos seus átomos ou moléculas e que é transportada por ondas
electromagnéticas (ou por fotões).
2
Aplicações
Identificação de mecanismos
Problema 1.73(a): Identificação de mecanismos de transferência de calor para janelas de vidro simples e duplo
qs Radiação solar incidente durante o dia: a fracção transmitida pelo vidro duplo é menor que a transmitida pelo vidro simples.
q c o n v ,1 Convecção entre a superfície interior da janela e o ar interior
q r a d ,1 Fluxo radiativo útil trocado entre as paredes do quarto e a superfície interior da janela
q c o n d ,1 Condução através do vidro que tem superfície interior em contacto com ar interior
q conv ,2 Convecção entre a superfície exterior da janela e o ar exterior
q rad ,2 Fluxo radiativo útil trocado entre a envolvente e a superfície exterior da janela
q c o n d , 2 Condução através do vidro que tem superfície interior em contacto com ar exterior na janela de vidro duplo
dT T −T
qx′′ = −k = −k 2 1
dx L
T1 − T2
qx′′ = k
L
3
Taxas de Transferência de Calor
Convecção
q ′′ = h (Ts − T∞ )
• Ebulição e condensação
4
Taxas de Transferência de Calor
Radiação
A transferência de calor por radiação numa interface gás/sólido envolve a emissão de
radiação a partir da superfície e pode também envolver a absorção da radiação incidente
da envolvente (irradiação, G ), bem como da convecção (se Ts ≠ T∞)
G = Gsur = σ Tsur
4
q 'rad
'
(
= ε E b (TS ) − α G = ε σ Ts4 − Tsur
4
)
5
Taxas de Transferência de Calor
Em alternativa,
''
q rad = hr (TS − Tsur )
[
hr W / m 2 .K ] Coeficiente de transferência de calor por radiação
Aplicações
Arrefecimento de componente electrónica
Problema 1.31: Dissipação de potência em chips que operam com uma temperatura superficial de 85°C
num quarto cujas paredes e ar estão a 25°C para (a) convecção natural e (b) convecção forçada.
Hipóteses: (1) Estacionário,
(2) Trocas de radiação entre superfície pequena e grande
envolvente,
(3) Transferência de calor desprezável das faces laterais
e da superfície de trás do chip
Pelec = 0.158W+0.065W=0.223W
6
Conservação de Energia
CONSERVAÇÃO DE ENERGIA
(Primeira Lei da Termodinâmica)
• Uma ferramenta importante na análise do fenómeno de transferência
de calor, constituindo geralmente a base para determinar a temperatura
do sistema em estudo.
•Formulações Alternativas
Base temporal:
Num instante
ou
Num intervalo de tempo
Tipo de Sistema:
Volume de controlo
Superfície de controlo
7
APLICAÇÃO A UM VOLUME DE CONTROLO
• Num instante de tempo:
Fenómenos superficiais
Fenómenos volumétricos
Taxa de geração de energia térmica devido à conversão de outra forma de energia (e.g.
eléctrica, nuclear, química); conversão essa de energia que ocorre no interior do sistema
Conservação de energia
8
O BALANÇO DE ENERGIA SUPERFICIAL
Há um caso especial para o qual não existe massa ou volume contidos na superfície de controlo
Considere a superfície de uma parede com transferência de calor (condução, convecção e radiação).
′′ − qconv
qcond ′′ − qrad′′ = 0
k
T1 − T2
L
( )
− h (T2 − T∞ ) − ε 2σ T24 − Tsur
4
=0
EXEMPLOS DE APLICAÇÃO
Exemplo 1.3: Aplicação à resposta térmica de um fio condutor com aquecimento por efeito
de Joule (geração de calor à passagem da corrente eléctrica).
E& in = 0 [
E& out = (π D L ) h (T − T∞ ) + ε σ T 4 − Tsur
4
( )]
E& g = Relect I 2 E& st =
d
(ρ c V T )
dt
9
EXEMPLOS DE APLICAÇÃO
Exemplo 1.43: Processamento térmico de uma bolacha de sílica num forno de 2 zonas.
Determinar
(a) Taxa inicial de aquecimento da bolacha a partir de Twi = 300K,
(b) Temperatura em regime estacionário.
A convecção é relevante?
Hipóteses:
ESQUEMA a) Temperatura da bolacha uniforme
b) Temperaturas uniformes das regiões quente e fria
c) Trocas radiativas entre corpo pequeno e
envolvente grande
d) Perdas da bolacha para o suporte desprezáveis
EXEMPLOS DE APLICAÇÃO
Exemplo 1.43: Processamento térmico de uma bolacha de sílica num forno de 2 zonas (cont)
ANÁLISE: No balanço de energia à bolacha de sílica deve contabilizar-se a convecção com o gás ambiente pelas
superfícies inferior (l) e superior (u), as trocas de radiação com as zonas quente e fria e a acumulação de energia.
( 4
εσ Tsur 4
) 4
( 4
)
, h − Tw + εσ Tsur , c − Tw − hu ( Tw − T∞ ) − hl (Tw − T∞ ) = ρ cd dt
w dT
( ) (
0.65 × 5.67 × 10−8 W / m 2 ⋅ K 4 1500 4 − 3004 K 4 + 0.65 × 5.67 × 10 −8 W / m 2 ⋅ K 4 3304 − 3004 K 4 )
−8 W / m 2 ⋅ K ( 300 − 700 ) K − 4 W / m 2 ⋅ K ( 300 − 700 ) K = 2700kg/m875J/kgK
3 ×⋅
× 0.00078 m ( d Tw / dt )i
( d Tw / dt )i = 104 K / s
10
EXEMPLOS DE APLICAÇÃO
Exemplo 1.43: Processamento térmico de uma bolacha de sílica num forno de 2 zonas (cont)
Em regime estacionário o armazenamento de energia é nulo. O balanço de energia é efectuado com a temperatura
da bolacha em regime estacionário, Tw,ss
(
0.65 σ 15004 − Tw,ss
4
) (
K 4 + 0.65 σ 3304 − Tw,ss
4
) ( ) ( )
K 4 −8 W / m 2 ⋅ K Tw,ss − 700 K − 4 W / m 2 ⋅ K Tw,ss − 700 K = 0
Tw,ss = 1251 K
Para determinar a importância relativa da convecção, resolver o balanço de energia sem convecção. Obtém-se
(dTw/dt)i = 101 K/s e Tw,ss = 1262 K. Logo, a radiação controla a taxa de aquecimento inicial e o regime
estacionário.
Fourier’s Law
and the
Heat Equation
11
Fourier’s Law
• A rate equation that allows determination of the conduction heat flux
from knowledge of the temperature distribution in a medium.
• Cartesian Coordinates: T ( x, y , z )
→ ∂T → ∂T → ∂T →
q ′′ = −k i −k j−k k
∂x ∂y ∂z
qx′′ q ′′y qz′′
• Spherical Coordinates: T ( r , φ ,θ )
→ ∂T → ∂T → ∂T →
q ′′ = −k i −k j−k k
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
qr′′ qθ′′ qφ′′
12
• In angular coordinates(φ or φ ,θ ) , the temperature gradient is still
based on temperature change over a length scale and hence has
units of °C/m and not °C/deg.
• Heat rate for one-dimensional, radial conduction in a cylinder or sphere:
– Cylinder
qr = Ar qr′′ = 2π rLqr′′
or,
qr′ = Ar′ qr′′ = 2π rqr′′
– Sphere
qr = Ar qr′′ = 4π r 2 qr′′
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T • ∂T
k + k + k + q = ρcp
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t
Net transfer of thermal energy into the Thermal energy Change in thermal
control volume (inflow-outflow) generation energy storage
13
• Cylindrical Coordinates:
1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T • ∂T
kr + k + k + q = ρc p
r ∂r ∂r r 2 ∂φ ∂φ ∂z ∂z ∂t
• Spherical Coordinates:
1 ∂ 2 ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T • ∂T
2 ∂r
kr + 2 2 k + 2 k sin θ + q = ρc p
r ∂r r sin θ ∂φ ∂φ r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ ∂t
∂ 2T 1 ∂T
=
∂x 2 α ∂t
k
α≡ → thermal diffusivity of the medium
ρcp
14
Boundary and Initial Conditions
• For transient conduction, heat equation is first order in time, requiring
specification of an initial temperature distribution: T ( x, t )t = 0 = T ( x, 0 )
• Since heat equation is second order in space, two boundary conditions
must be specified. Some common cases:
Constant Surface Temperature:
T ( 0, t ) = Ts
∂T ∂T
−k |x = 0 = qs′′ |x = 0 = 0
∂x ∂x
Convection
∂T
−k |x = 0 = h T∞ − T ( 0, t )
∂x
Thermophysical Properties
Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a material’s ability to transfer thermal
energy by conduction.
Property Tables:
Solids: Tables A.1 – A.3
Gases: Table A.4
Liquids: Tables A.5 – A.7
15
Methodology of a Conduction Analysis
• Solve appropriate form of heat equation to obtain the temperature
distribution.
• Applications:
KNOWN: Plane wall, initially at a uniform temperature, is suddenly exposed to convective heating.
FIND: (a) Differential equation and initial and boundary conditions which may be used to find the
temperature distribution, T(x,t); (b) Sketch T(x,t) for the following conditions: initial (t ≤ 0), steady-
state (t → ∞), and two intermediate times; (c) Sketch heat fluxes as a function of time at the two
surfaces; (d) Expression for total energy transferred to wall per unit volume (J/m3).
SCHEMATIC:
16
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) No internal
heat generation.
ANALYSIS: (a) For one-dimensional conduction with constant properties, the heat equation has the
form,
∂ 2T 1 ∂ T
=
∂ x2 α ∂ t
Note that the gradient at x = 0 is always zero, since this boundary is adiabatic. Note also that the
gradient at x = L decreases with time.
c) The heat flux, q ′x′ (x, t ) as a function of time, is shown on the sketch for the surfaces x = 0 and
x = L.
∞
E in = ∫ q′′conv As dt
0
∞
E in = hAs ∫
0
( T∞ − T ( L,t ) )dt
Dividing both sides by AsL, the energy transferred per unit volume is
Ein h ∞
T∞ − T ( L,t ) dt J/m3
V L ∫0
=
17
Problem: Non-uniform Generation due
to Radiation Absorption
Problem 2.28 Surface heat fluxes, heat generation and total rate of radiation
absorption in an irradiated semi-transparent material with a
prescribed temperature distribution.
FIND: (a) Expressions for the heat flux at the front and rear surfaces, (b) The heat generation rate
q& ( x ) , and (c) Expression for absorbed radiation per unit surface area.
SCHEMATIC :
Problem : Non-uniform
Generation (Cont.)
ANALYSIS: (a) Knowing the temperature distribution, the surface heat fluxes are found using
Fourier’s law,
dT A
q ′′x = −k = −k - 2 ( −a ) e-ax + B
dx ka
A A
Front Surface, x=0: q ′′x ( 0 ) = − k + ⋅ 1 + B = − + kB <
ka a
A A
Rear Surface, x=L: q ′′x ( L ) = − k + e-aL + B = − e-aL + kB . <
ka a
18
Problem : Non-uniform
Generation (Cont.)
( )
A L A
E& g′′ = ∫ q& ( x )dx= ∫ Ae-ax dx=- e-ax =
L L
1 − e-aL .
0 0 a 0 a
One-Dimensional, Steady-State
Conduction without
Thermal Energy Generation
19
Methodology of a Conduction Analysis
• Specify appropriate form of the heat equation.
• Solve for the temperature distribution.
• Apply Fourier’s Law to determine the heat flux.
• Common Geometries:
– The Plane Wall: Described in rectangular (x) coordinate. Area
perpendicular to direction of heat transfer is constant (independent of x).
– The Tube Wall: Radial conduction through tube wall.
– The Spherical Shell: Radial conduction through shell wall.
• Heat Equation:
d dT
k =0
dx dx
• Implications:
Heat flux ( q′′x ) is independent of x.
Heat rate ( qx ) is independent of x.
• Boundary Conditions: T ( 0 ) = Ts ,1, T ( L ) = Ts,2
20
• Heat Flux and Heat Rate:
= (Ts,1 − Ts,2 )
dT k
q′′x = − k
dx L
q x = −kA
dT kA
dx
=
L
(Ts,1 − Ts,2 )
∆T
• Thermal Resistances Rt = and Thermal Circuits:
q
L
Conduction in a plane wall: Rt ,cond =
kA
1
Convection: Rt ,conv =
hA
Thermal circuit for plane wall with adjoining fluids:
1 L 1
Rtot = + +
h1 A kA h 2 A
T∞,1 − T∞,2
qx =
Rtot
TA − TB Rt′′,c
Rt′′,c = Rt ,c =
q′′x Ac
Values depend on: Materials A and B, surface finishes, interstitial conditions, and
contact pressure (Tables 3.1 and 3.2)
21
• Composite Wall with Negligible Contact Resistance:
T∞,1 − T∞,4
qx =
Rtot
1 1 LA LB LC 1 Rtot′′
Rtot = + + + + =
A h1 k A k B kC h4 A
22
ALTERNATIVE CONDUCTION ANALYSIS:
• STEADY STATE
• NO HEAT GENERATION
• NO HEAT LOSS FROM THE SIDES
• A(x) and k(T)
dT
FROM THE FOURIER’S LAW: q x = − A( x) k (T )
dx
x T
dx
qx ∫ = − ∫ k (T )dT
0
A( x) T0
Tube Wall
The Tube Wall
• Heat Equation:
1 d dT
kr =0
r dr dr
What does the form of the heat equation tell us about the variation of qr with
r in the wall?
Is the foregoing conclusion consistent with the energy conservation requirement?
23
• Heat Flux and Heat Rate:
qr′′ = − k
dT
=
k
dr r ln ( r2 / r1 )
(Ts,1 − Ts,2 )
2π k
qr′ = 2π rqr′′ =
ln ( r2 / r1 )
(Ts,1 − Ts,2 )
2π Lk
qr = 2π rLqr′′ =
ln ( r2 / r1 )
(Ts,1 − Ts,2 ) (3.27)
• Conduction Resistance:
ln ( r2 / r1 )
Rt ,cond = Units ↔ K/W
2π Lk
ln ( r2 / r1 )
Rt′,cond = Units ↔ m ⋅ K/W
2π k
T∞ ,1 − T∞,4
qr = = UA (T∞,1 − T∞ ,4 )
Rtot
Note that
UA = Rtot −1
is a constant independent of radius.
24
Spherical Shell
• Heat Equation
1 d 2 dT
r =0
r 2 dr dr
What does the form of the heat equation tell us about the variation of
qr with r ? Is this result consistent with conservation of energy?
T ( r ) = Ts ,1 − (Ts ,1 − Ts ,2 )
( )
1 − r1/ r
(
1 − r1 / r 2 )
qr′′ = −k
dT
=
k
dr r 2 (1/ r1 ) − (1/ r2 )
(Ts,1 − Ts,2 )
4π k
qr = 4π r 2qr′′ =
(1/ r1 ) − (1/ r2 )
(Ts,1 − Ts,2 )
Rt ,cond =
(1/ r1 ) − (1/ r2 )
4π k
• Composite Shell:
∆T
qr = overall = UA∆Toverall
Rtot
UA = Rtot −1 ↔ Constant
−1
U i = ( Ai Rtot ) ↔ Depends on Ai
25
r1 r2
r T¥ ,h
Critical radius (cylindrical geometry)
T¥,1 ,h1
Isolamento
(a)
T¥,1 T¥
1 ln (r2 /r1 ) ln (r / r2 ) 1
2p r1 L h1 2p k1 L 2p k L 2p r L h
T∞,1 − T∞ ⇒ (b)
q r ,sem revest . =
1 ln (r2 r1 ) 1
+ +
2 π r1 L h1 2 π k1 L 2 π r2 L h
T∞ ,1 − T∞
q r ,com revest. =
1 ln (r2 r1 ) ln (r r2 ) 1
+ + +
2 π r1 L h1 2 π k1 L 2π k L 2π r L h
d Rtot 1 1 1 1
= −
dr 2π k L r 2π L h r 2
d Rtot k d 2 Rtot 1 1 1 2
=0 ⇒ rcrit =
d r2
= − 2 + 3 >0
dr h r =k h 2 π k L r 2 π L h r r = k h
Schematic:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a composite plane wall, (2) Constant
properties, (3) Negligible radiation
26
ANALYSIS: For a unit area, the total thermal resistance with the TBC is
( )
R ′′tot, w = 10−3 + 3.85 × 10−4 + 10−4 + 2 × 10−4 + 2 × 10−3 m 2 ⋅ K W = 3.69 × 10−3 m 2 ⋅ K W
( )
Ts,i(w) = T∞,i + ( q ′′w h i ) = 400 K + 3.52 × 105 W m 2 500 W m 2 ⋅ K = 1104 K
−1 −1 −3
wo = h o + ( L k ) In + h i
′′
R tot, = 3.20 × 10
2
m ⋅K W
(
q ′′wo = T∞ , o − T∞ ,i ) R ′′tot, wo = 4.06×105 W/m2
The inner and outer surface temperatures of the Inconel are then
Ts, o(wo) = T∞ , i + [ (1 h i ) + ( L ]
k )In q wo
′′ = 1293 K
Use of the TBC facilitates operation of the Inconel below Tmax = 1250 K.
27
Problem 3.62: Suitability of a composite spherical shell for storing
radioactive wastes in oceanic waters.
SCHEMATIC:
( )
R conv = 1/ 4π × 0.312 m 2 × 500 W/m 2 ⋅ K = 0.00166 K/W
28
One-Dimensional, Steady-State
Conduction with
Thermal Energy Generation
E& g I2 R
q& = =
V V
q& ∝ exp(− α x )
29
The Plane Wall
• Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction
in a plane wall of constant k, uniform generation,
and asymmetric surface conditions:
• Heat Equation:
•
d dT • d 2T q
k +q =0→ 2 + =0 (3.39)
dx dx dx k
• General Solution:
T ( x ) = − q/ 2k x 2 + C1 x + C2
•
•
How does the temperature distribution change with increasing q ?
• Temperature Distribution:
•
q L2 x 2
T ( x) = 1− + Ts
2k L2
(3.42)
• How do we determine Ts ?
Overall energy balance on the wall →
• •
− E out + E g = 0
−hAs (Ts − T∞ ) + q As L = 0
•
•
qL
Ts = T∞ + (3.46)
h
• How do we determine the heat rate at x = L?
30
Radial Systems
Cylindrical (Tube) Wall Spherical Wall (Shell)
• Heat Equations:
Cylindrical Spherical
1 d dT • 1 d 2 dT •
kr +q =0 kr +q =0
r dr dr r 2 dr dr
31
Problem 3.91 Thermal conditions in a gas-cooled nuclear reactor
with a tubular thorium fuel rod and a concentric
graphite sheath: (a) Assessment of thermal integrity
for a generation rate of q = 108 W/m 3. (b) Evaluation of
temperature distributions in the thorium •
and graphite
for generation rates in the range 108 ≤ q ≤ 5x108.
Schematic:
Properties: Table A.1, Thorium: Tmp ≈ 2000 K ; Table A.2, Graphite: Tmp ≈ 2300 K .
Analysis: (a) The outer surface temperature of the fuel, T2 , may be determined from the rate equation
T2 − T∞
q′ =
′
Rtot
1n ( r3 / r2 ) 1
′ =
where Rtot + = 0.0185 m ⋅ K/W
2π k g 2π r3 h
The heat rate may be determined by applying an energy balance to a control surface about the fuel
element, • •
E out = E g
• •
or, per unit length, E ′out = E ′g
Since the interior surface of the element is essentially adiabatic, it follows that
Hence,
′ + T∞ = 17,907 W/m ( 0.0185 m K/W ) + 600 K = 931K
T2 = q′Rtot
With zero heat flux at the inner surface of the fuel element, Eq. C.14 yields
32
Since T1 and T2 are well below the melting points of thorium and graphite, the prescribed
operating condition is acceptable.
(b) The solution for the temperature distribution in a cylindrical wall with generation is
•
q r22 r 2
Tt ( r ) = T2 + 1 −
4kt r22
• 2
q r r2 1n ( r2 / r )
− 2 1 − 12 + ( T2 − T1 ) (C.2)
4kt r 1n ( r2 / r1 )
2
q• r 2 r 2
k 2 1 − 12 + (T2 − T1 ) (C.14)
4kt r2
•
q1′′ = 0 = 1 −
qr
r = r1 :
2 r11n ( r2 / r1 )
qr• 2 r 2
k 2 1 − 12 + ( T2 − T1 ) (C.17)
•
4kt r2
U 2 (T2 − T∞ ) = 2 −
qr
r = r2 :
2 r21n ( r2 / r1 )
−1 −1
U 2 = ( A2′ Rtot
′ ) = ( 2π r2 Rtot
′ ) (3.32)
The following results are obtained for temperature distributions in the graphite.
2500
2100
Temperature, T(K)
1700
1300
900
500
0.008 0.009 0.01 0.011
Radial location in fuel, r(m)
qdot = 5E8
qdot = 3E8
qdot = 1E8
•
Operation at q = 5x108 W/m3 is clearly unacceptable since the melting point of
thorium would be exceeded. To prevent softening of the material, which would occur
•
below the melting point, the reactor should not be operated much above q = 3x10 W/m.
8 3
The small radial temperature gradients are attributable to the large value of kt .
33
Using the value of T2 from the foregoing solution and computing T3 from the surface condition,
2π k g ( T2 − T3 )
q′ =
1n ( r3 / r2 )
(3.27)
2500
2100
Temperature, T(K)
1700
1300
900
500
0.011 0.012 0.013 0.014
Radial location in graphite, r(m)
qdot = 5E8
qdot = 3E8
qdot = 1E8
•
Operation at q = 5x108 W/m 3 is problematic for the graphite. Larger temperature gradients
are due to the small value of k g .
34
Extended Surfaces
35
Nature and Rationale of Extended Surfaces
• An extended surface (also know as a combined conduction-convection system
or a fin) is a solid within which heat transfer by conduction is assumed to be
one dimensional, while heat is also transferred by convection (and/or
radiation) from the surface in a direction transverse to that of conduction.
Straight fins of (a) uniform and (b) non-uniform cross sections; (c) annular
fin, and (d) pin fin of non-uniform cross section.
36
TYPICAL FIN CONFIGURATIONS
dx
z x
y
x
dT d qx dT d dT
q x = − k Ac q x+ dx = q x + dx = −k Ac −k Ac dx
dx dx dx d x d x
d qconv = h dAs (T − T∞ )
d dT d As
−k Ac + h (T − T∞ ) = 0
d x d x dx
d2T 1 d Ac d T 1 h d As
+ − (T − T∞ ) = 0
d x2 Ac d x d x Ac k d x
37
The Fin Equation
• Assuming one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in an extended surface
surface of constant conductivity ( k ) and uniform cross-sectional area ( Ac,)
with negligible generation q• = 0 and radiation ( q′′rad = 0 ) , the fin equation
is of the form:
d 2T hP
− (T − T∞ ) = 0 (3.62)
dx 2 kAc
d 2θ
− m 2θ = 0
dx 2
Base (x = 0) condition
θ ( 0 ) = Tb − T∞ ≡ θb
Tip ( x = L) conditions
A. Convection: − kdθ / dx |x = L = hθ ( L )
B. Adiabatic: dθ / dx |x = L = 0
C. Fixed temperature: θ ( L ) = θ L
D. Infinite fin (mL >2.65): θ ( L ) = 0
38
Condição de Distribuição de temperaturas Taxa de transmissão de
Caso
fronteira em x = L θ/θb calor
cosh[m(L − x )] + sinh[m(L − x )]
h
sinh (m L ) + cosh (m L )
h
dθ
= h θ (L )
mk mk
(i) − k M
cosh (m L ) + sinh (m L ) cosh (m L ) + sinh (m L )
d x x=L h h
mk mk
dθ cosh[m(L − x )]
(ii) =0 M tanh (m L )
d x x= L cosh (m L )
(iv) θ (L ) = 0 e− m x M
hP
m2 = M = h P k Ac θb
k Ac
• Fin Effectiveness:
qf
εf ≡
hAc , bθb
ε f ↑ with ↓ h, ↑ k and ↓ Ac / P
• Fin Resistance:
θb 1
Rt , f ≡ =
qf hA f η f
39
Correction of fin length to account for heat loss from the tip
Transmissão de calor
q f ,tip = h Ac θ (L ) ≈ h P (Lc − L )θ (L )
na extremidade
Ac
Lc = L +
P
Lc = L + t / 2
extremidade
Fin of circular cross section :
isolada
Lc = L + D / 4
Fins efficiency
t
0.7 (c)
0.6 0.6
ro
(d)
hf hf 0.5
ro
=1 (e)
0.4
ri
0.4
1.4 0.3
0.0 0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
40
Fin Arrays
• Representative arrays of
(a) rectangular and
(b) annular fins.
θb
qt = ηo ( c ) hAtθ b =
Rt , o ( c )
NA f η f
ηo ( c ) = 1 − 1 −
At C1
C1 = 1 + η f hA f ( Rt′′, c / Ac , b )
1
Rt , o ( c ) =
ηo ( c ) hAt
41
Problem 3.116: Assessment of cooling scheme for gas turbine blade.
Determination of whether blade temperatures are less
than the maximum allowable value (1050 °C) for
prescribed operating conditions and evaluation of blade
cooling rate.
Schematic:
(a) With the maximum temperature existing at x=L, Eq. 3.75 yields
T ( L ) − T∞ 1
=
Tb − T∞ cosh mL
( )
1/ 2
m = ( hP/kA c ) = 250W/m 2 ⋅ K × 0.11m/20W/m ⋅ K × 6 × 10−4 m 2
1/ 2
= 47.87 m-1
and, subject to the assumption of an adiabatic tip, the operating conditions are acceptable.
( ) ( −900 C ) = −517W ,
1/ 2
(b) With M = ( hPkA c )1 / 2 Θ b = 250W/m 2 ⋅ K × 0.11m × 20W/m ⋅ K × 6 × 10 −4 m 2 o
Hence, q b = −q f = 508W
Comments: Radiation losses from the blade surface contribute to reducing the blade
temperatures, but what is the effect of assuming an adiabatic tip condition? Calculate
the tip temperature allowing for convection from the gas.
42
Problem 3.132: Determination of maximum allowable power qc for a 20mm
x 20mm electronic chip whose temperature is not to exceed
Tc = 85o C, when the chip is attached to an air-cooled heat sink
with N=11 fins of prescribed dimensions.
Schematic:
Assumptions: (1) Steady-state, (2) One-dimensional heat transfer, (3) Isothermal chip, (4)
Negligible heat transfer from top surface of chip, (5) Negligible temperature rise for air flow,
(6) Uniform convection coefficient associated with air flow through channels and over outer
surface of heat sink, (7) Negligible radiation.
T − T∞ Tc − T∞
qc = c =
R tot R t,c + R t,b + R t,o
′′ c / W 2 = 2 × 10 −6 m 2 ⋅ K / W / ( 0.02m ) 2 = 0.005 K / W
R t,c = R t,
R t, b = L b / k W ( ) = 0.003m / 180
2
W/m⋅K ( 0.02m ) 2 = 0.042 K / W
1 N Af
From Eqs. (3.103), (3.102), and (3.99) R t,o = , ηo = 1 − (1 − ηf ) , A t = N Af + A b
ηo h A t At
-4 2
Af = 2WLf = 2 × 0.02m × 0.015m = 6 × 10 m
2 2 -3 -4 2
Ab = W – N(tW) = (0.02m) – 11(0.182 × 10 m × 0.02m) = 3.6 × 10 m
-3 2
At = 6.96 × 10 m
1/2 2 -3 1/2
With mLf = (2h/kt) Lf = (200 W/m ⋅K/180 W/m⋅K × 0.182 × 10 m) (0.015m) =
1.17, tanh mLf = 0.824 and Eq. (3.87) yields
tanh mLf 0.824
ηf = = = 0.704
mLf 1.17
ηo = 0.719,
Rt,o = 2.00 K/W, and
(85 − 20 ) °C
qc = = 31.8 W
( 0.005 + 0.042 + 2.00 ) K / W
43
Comments: The heat sink significantly increases the allowable heat dissipation. If it
were not used and heat was simply transferred by convection from the surface of the chip with
h = 100 W/m 2 K , Rtot = 2.05 K/W from Part (a) would be replaced by
Rcnv = 1/ hW 2 = 25 K/W, yielding qc = 2.60 W.
Transient Conduction:
The Lumped Capacitance Method
44
Transient Conduction
• A heat transfer process for which the temperature varies with time, as well
as location within a solid.
• Solution Techniques
– The Lumped Capacitance Method
– Exact Solutions
– The Finite-Difference Method (not to be studied)
45
First Law:
d E st dT
= ρV C = E& in − E& out + E& g
dt dt
• Assuming energy outflow due to convection and radiation and with
inflow due to an applied heat flux q′′s ,
dT
ρV C = q's' ,h As ,h − hAs ,c ( T − T∞ ) − hs ,r As ,r ( T − Tsur ) + E& g
dt
T − T∞ b/a
= exp ( −at ) + 1 − exp ( −at )
Ti − T∞ Ti − T∞
46
Negligible Radiation and Source Terms h >> hr , Eg = 0, qs′′ = 0 :
dT
ρ∀c = − hAs , c ( T − T∞ )
dt
ρ∀c θ dθ t
∫
hAs , c θi θ
= − dt
o ∫
θ T − T∞ hAs , c t
= = exp − t = exp −
θi Ti − T∞ ρ∀c τt
h >> h, E = 0, q′′ = 0 :
Negligible Convection and Source Terms r g s
ρ∀c Tsur + T T +T
t= 1n − 1n sur i
4ε As , rσ Tsur
3
Tsur − T Tsur − Ti
T Ti
+2 tan −1 − tan −1
T sur T sur
47
The Biot Number and Validity of
The Lumped Capacitance Method
• The Biot Number: The first of many dimensionless parameters to be
considered.
Definition:
hL
Bi ≡ c
k
h → convection or radiation coefficient
k → thermal conductivity of the solid
Lc → characteristic length of the solid (∀ / As or coordinate
associated with maximum spatial temperature difference)
Physical Interpretation:
KNOWN: Diameter, density, specific heat and thermal conductivity of aluminum spheres used in
packed bed thermal energy storage system. Convection coefficient and inlet gas temperature.
FIND: Time required for sphere at inlet to acquire 90% of maximum possible thermal energy and the
corresponding center temperature.
Schematic:
Aluminum sphere
Gas D = 75 mm, Ti = 25oC
ρ = 2700 kg/m3
Tg,i = 300oC c = 950 J/kg-K
h = 75 W/m2-K k = 240 W/m-K
48
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Negligible heat transfer to or from a sphere by radiation or conduction due to
contact with other spheres, (2) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: To determine whether a lumped capacitance analysis can be used, first compute Bi =
2
h(ro/3)/k = 75 W/m ⋅K (0.025m)/150 W/m⋅K = 0.013 <<1.
Hence, the lumped capacitance approximation may be made, and a uniform temperature may be
assumed to exist in the sphere at any time.
From Eq. 5.8a, achievement of 90% of the maximum possible thermal energy storage corresponds to
∆Est
− = 0.90 = 1 − exp ( − t / τ t )
ρ cVθi
3
2700 kg / m × 0.075m × 950 J / kg ⋅ K
τ t = ρ Vc / hAs = ρ Dc / 6h = = 427s.
2
6 × 75 W / m ⋅ K
t = −τ t ln ( 0.1) = 427s × 2.30 = 984s
From Eq. (5.6), the corresponding temperature at any location in the sphere is
( )
T ( 984s ) = Tg,i + Ti − Tg,i exp ( −6ht / ρ Dc )
(
T ( 984s ) = 300°C − 275°C exp −6 × 75 W / m ⋅ K × 984s / 2700 kg / m × 0.075m × 950 J / kg ⋅ K
2 3
)
T ( 984s ) = 272.5°C
3
If the product of the density and specific heat of copper is (ρc)Cu ≈ 8900 kg/m × 400 J/kg⋅K = 3.56 ×
6 3
10 J/m ⋅K, is there any advantage to using copper spheres of equivalent diameter in lieu of aluminum
spheres?
Does the time required for a sphere to reach a prescribed state of thermal energy storage change with
increasing distance from the bed inlet? If so, how and why?
KNOWN: Thickness and properties of furnace wall. Thermal resistance of ceramic coating
on surface of wall exposed to furnace gases. Initial wall temperature.
FIND: (a) Time required for surface of wall to reach a prescribed temperature, (b)
Corresponding value of coating surface temperature.
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Constant properties, (2) Negligible coating thermal capacitance, (3)
Negligible radiation.
3
PROPERTIES: Carbon steel: ρ = 7850 kg/m , c = 430 J/kg⋅K, k = 60 W/m⋅K.
49
ANALYSIS: Heat transfer to the wall is determined by the total resistance to heat transfer
from the gas to the surface of the steel, and not simply by the convection resistance.
−1 −1
−1 1
+ 10−2 m 2 ⋅ K/W
1
Hence, with U = ( R ′′tot ) = + R ′′f = = 20 W/m 2 ⋅ K.
h 25 W/m 2 ⋅ K
UL 20 W/m 2 ⋅ K × 0.01 m
Bi = = = 0.0033 << 1
k 60 W/m ⋅ K
and the lumped capacitance method can be used.
(a) From Eqs. (5.6) and (5.7),
T − T∞
= exp ( − t/τ t ) = exp ( − t/R t C t ) = exp ( − Ut/ρ Lc )
Ti − T∞
t = 3886s = 1.08h.
(b) Performing an energy balance at the outer surface (s,o),
( ) (
h T∞ − Ts,o = Ts,o − Ts,i / R f′′ )
hT∞ + Ts,i / R f′′ 25 W/m2 ⋅ K × 1300 K + 1200 K/10-2 m2 ⋅ K/W
Ts,o = =
h + (1/ R f′′ ) ( 25 + 100 ) W/m 2 ⋅ K
Ts,o = 1220 K.
Transient Conduction:
Spatial Effects and the Role of
Analytical Solutions
50
Solution to the Heat Equation for a Plane Wall with
Symmetrical Convection Conditions
• If the lumped capacitance approximation can not be made, consideration must
be given to spatial, as well as temporal, variations in temperature during the
transient process.
• For a plane wall with symmetrical convection
conditions and constant properties, the heat
equation and initial/boundary conditions are:
∂2T 1 ∂T
=
∂x2 α ∂t
T ( x,0 ) = T i
∂T
=0
∂x x=0
∂T
−k = h T ( L, t ) − T ∞
∂x x=L
51
• The One-Term Approximation ( Fo > 0.2 ) :
Variation of midplane temperature (x*= 0) with time ( Fo ) :
(T o − T ∞ ) ≈ C exp −ζ 2 Fo
θ o* ≡ ( 1 )
(T i − T ∞ ) 1
Table 5.1 → C 1 and ζ 1 as a function of Bi
Variation of temperature with location (x*) and time ( Fo ) :
θ * = θ o* cos (ζ 1 x * )
Change in thermal energy storage with time:
∆E st = −Q
sin ζ 1 *
Q = Q o 1 − θo
ζ1
Q o = ρ c∀ (T i − T ∞ )
Can the foregoing results be used for a plane wall that is well insulated on one
side and convectively heated or cooled on the other?
Can the foregoing results be used if an isothermal condition (T s ≠ T i ) is
instantaneously imposed on both surfaces of a plane wall or on one surface of
a wall whose other surface is well insulated?
Bi ζ1 c1 ζ1 c1 ζ1 c1
0.01 0.09983 1.00166 0.14124 1.00250 0.17303 1.00300
0.02 0.14095 1.00331 0.19950 1.00498 0.24446 1.00599
0.03 0.17234 1.00495 0.24403 1.00746 0.29910 1.00898
0.04 0.19868 1.00657 0.28143 1.00993 0.34503 1.01197
0.05 0.22176 1.00819 0.31426 1.01240 0.38537 1.01495
0.06 0.24253 1.00979 0.34383 1.01485 0.42173 1.01793
0.07 0.26153 1.01138 0.37092 1.01729 0.45506 1.02090
0.08 0.27913 1.01297 0.39603 1.01973 0.48600 1.02387
0.09 0.29557 1.01454 0.41954 1.02216 0.51497 1.02684
0.10 0.31105 1.01609 0.44168 1.02458 0.54228 1.02980
0.15 0.37788 1.02372 0.53761 1.03655 0.66086 1.04453
0.20 0.43284 1.03109 0.61697 1.04830 0.75931 1.05915
0.25 0.48009 1.03819 0.68559 1.05984 0.84473 1.07365
0.30 0.52179 1.04505 0.74646 1.07116 0.92079 1.08802
0.35 0.55922 1.05166 0.80140 1.08226 0.98966 1.10226
0.40 0.59324 1.05804 0.85158 1.09314 1.05279 1.11635
0.45 0.62444 1.06419 0.89783 1.10381 1.11118 1.13030
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
52
Graphical Representation of the One-Term Approximation
The Heisler Charts – Plane wall
• Midplane Temperature:
• Temperature Distribution:
53
Radial Systems
Bi = hr o / k
Fo = α t / r o2
(5.184a)
• Long rod:
θ (r , t ) T (r , t ) − T∞ ∞
θ* =
θi
=
Ti − T∞
(
= ∑ c n J o (ζ n r *) exp − ζ n2 Fo )
n =1
J 1 (ζ n )
cn =
2 ζ n = λn ro r * = r ro
ζ n J o2 (ζ n ) + J12 (ζ n )
Radial Systems
θ* =
T − T∞
Ti − T∞
( )
≈ c1 J o (ζ 1 r *) exp − ζ 12 Fo = θ o* J o (ζ 1 r *) θ *o =
To − T∞
Ti − T∞
(
= c1 exp − ζ 12 Fo )
∆E st = −Q
(5.184a)
Q 2 J 1 (ζ 1 ) *
=1 − θo (Fo > 0.2)
Qo ζ1
Q o = ρ c∀ (T i − T ∞ )
54
Graphical Representation of the One-Term Approximation
The Heisler Charts – Infinite cylinder
• Centerline Temperature:
• Temperature Distribution:
55
Spherical Systems
• Spheres Heated or Cooled by Convection.
Bi = hr o / k
Fo = α t / r o2
• Sphere: (5.184a)
θ (r , t ) T (r , t ) − T∞ ∞
θ* =
θi
=
Ti − T∞
(
= ∑ cn exp − ζ n2 Fo
1
ζn r*
)
sin ζ n r * ( )
n=1
4 (sin ζ n − ζ n cos ζ n )
cn =
2 ζ n − sin (2 ζ n )
r * = r ro
1 − ζ n cotan ζ n = Bi
Spherical Systems
sin (ζ 1 r *) sin (ζ 1 r *)
θ* =
T − T∞
Ti − T∞
≈ c1
ζ1 r *
(
exp − ζ 12 Fo = θ o* ) ζ1 r *
θo* =
To − T∞
Ti − T∞
= c1 exp − ζ 12 Fo( )
Change in thermal energy storage with time:
∆E st = −Q
(5.184a)
3 θ *o
Q
= 1− (sin ζ 1 − ζ 1 cos ζ 1 ) (Fo > 0.2)
Qo ζ 13
Q o = ρ c∀ (T i − T ∞ )
56
Graphical Representation of the One-Term Approximation
The Heisler Charts – Sphere
• Center Temperature:
• Temperature Distribution:
57
The Semi-Infinite Solid
• A solid that is initially of uniform temperature Ti and is assumed to extend
to infinity from a surface at which thermal conditions are altered.
• Problem formulation
∂2 T 1 dT
= T(x, 0) = Ti
∂ x2 α dt
T(∞, t) = Ti
• Special Cases:
T ( 0, t ) = T s ≠ T ( x,0 ) = T i
T ( x, t ) − T s x
= erf
Ti − Ts 2 αt
k (T s − T i )
q′′s =
πα t
2q′′o (α t / π )
1
x2
2
T ( x, t ) − T i = exp −
k 4α t
q′′ x x
− o erfc
k 2 αt (5.59)
∂T
−k = h T ∞ − T ( 0, t )
∂x x =0
T ( x, t ) − T i x
= erfc
T∞ − Ti 2 αt
hx h 2α t x h αt
− exp + erfc +
k k 2 αt k
2
(5.60)
58
Contact between two semi-infinite bodies
• Two bodies initially at uniform temperatures,
TA and TB, are placed in contact at their free
surfaces
k A ρ A c p, A T A,i + k B ρ B c p, B T B,i
Ts =
k A ρ A c p, A + k B ρ B c p,B
Multidimensional Effects
• Solutions for multidimensional transient conduction can often be expressed
as a product of related one-dimensional solutions for a plane wall, P(x,t),
an infinite cylinder, C(r,t), and/or a semi-infinite solid, S(x,t). See Equations
(5.64) to (5.66) and Fig. 5.11.
T ( r , x, t ) − T ∞
= P ( x, t ) x C ( r , t )
Ti − T∞
T ( x, t ) − T ∞ T ( r,t ) − T ∞
= x
Ti − T∞ Plane Ti − T∞ Infinite
Wall Cylinder
59
T (x,y,t ) − T∞ T (x,t ) − T∞ T ( y,t ) − T∞
= ×
Ti − T∞ barra de secção
rectangular (2 a×2b )
Ti − T∞ placa infinita de Ti − T∞
espessura 2a
espessura
placa infinita de
2b
T (x,t ) − T∞ To (t ) − T∞ T ( y,t ) − T∞ To (t ) − T∞
= ×
To (t ) − T∞ Ti − T∞ placa infinita de To (t ) − T∞ Ti − T∞ placa infinita de
espessura 2a espessura 2b
Q Q Q
= +
Qo barra de sec ção Qo placa plana de Qo placa plana de
rectangular 2 a×2b espessura 2 a espessura 2b
Q Q
− ×
Qo espessura
placa plana de Qo
2a
espessura
placa plana de
2b
T ( x, t ) − T∞ T (x, t ) − T∞ T (r , t ) − T∞
S ( x, t ) = P( x, t ) = C (r , t ) =
Ti − T∞ Ti − T∞ Ti − T∞
60
Problem 5.66: Charging a thermal energy storage system consisting of
a packed bed of Pyrex spheres.
FIND: Time required for sphere to acquire 90% of maximum possible thermal
energy and the corresponding center and surface temperatures.
SCHEMATIC:
61
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional radial conduction in sphere, (2)
Negligible heat transfer to or from a sphere by radiation or conduction due to
contact with adjoining spheres, (3) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: With Bi ≡ h(ro/3)/k = 75 W/m2⋅K (0.0125m)/1.4 W/m⋅K = 0.67,
the lumped capacitance method is inappropriate and the approximate (one-term)
solution for one-dimensional transient conduction in a sphere is used to obtain the
desired results.
To obtain the required time, the specified charging requirement
( Q / Q o = 0.9 ) must first be used to obtain the dimensionless center temperature,
θ o* .
With Bi ≡ hro/k = 2.01, ζ 1 ≈ 2.03 and C1 ≈ 1.48 from Table 5.1. Hence,
0.1( 2.03)
3
0.837
θ o∗ = = = 0.155
3 0.896 − 2.03 ( −0.443 ) 5.386
( )
α = k / ρ c = 1.4 W / m ⋅ K / 2225 kg / m 3 × 835 J / kg ⋅ K = 7.54 × 10 −7 m 2 / s,
( 0.0375m ) 2
ln ( 0.155 /1.48 )
t=− = 1,020s
7.54 × 10−7 m 2 / s ( 2.03)
2
( )
To = Tg,i + 0.155 Ti − Tg,i = 300°C − 42.7°C = 257.3°C
The surface temperature at the time of interest may be obtained from Eq. (5.50b)
with r ∗ = 1,
62
Problem: 5.82: Use of radiation heat transfer from high intensity lamps
( q′′s = 10 4 W/m 2 ) for a prescribed duration (t=30 min) to assess
ability of firewall to meet safety standards corresponding to
maximum allowable temperatures at the heated (front) and
unheated (back) surfaces.
KNOWN: Thickness, initial temperature and thermophysical properties of
concrete firewall. Incident radiant flux and duration of radiant heating.
Maximum allowable surface temperatures at the end of heating.
SCHEMATIC:
x L = 0.25 m
Concrete, Ti = 25oC
qs = 104 W/m2 ρ = 2300 kg/m3
c = 880 J/kg-K
k = 1.4 W/m-K
αs = 1.0
Tmax = 325oC Tmax = 25oC
2 q ′′o (α t / π )
1/ 2
− x 2 q′′o x x
T ( x, t ) = Ti + exp −
4α t
erfc
k k 2 αt
−7
where, α = k / ρ c p = 6.92 × 10 m / s and for
2
( 2
)
At x = 0.25m, − x / 4α t = −12.54, q ′′o x / k = 1, 786K, and x / 2 (α t )
1/ 2
= 3.54.
Hence,
( )
T ( 0.25m, 30 min ) = 25°C + 284.5°C 3.58 × 10−6 − 1786°C × ( ~ 0 ) ≈ 25°C
63
Both requirements are met.
5.89
Um cilindro de cobre, com 100 mm de comprimento e 50 mm de diâmetro
encontra-se inicialmente à temperatura uniforme de 20ºC.
As duas bases são aquecidas muito rapidamente, a partir de um determinado
instante, ficando à temperatura de 500 ºC, enquanto a superfície lateral do
cilindro é aquecida por uma corrente de gás a 500 ºC e com um coeficiente de
convecção de 100 W/m2K.
Propriedades do cobre
64
CILINDRO CURTO: 2D
PROPRIEDADES CONSTANTES →
h CONSTANTE
65
5.90
Considerando que a carne fica cozida quando atinge uma temperatura de 80ºC,
calcule o tempo necessário para assar uma peça de carne com 2,25 kg.
Admitir que a peça de carne é um cilindro com diâmetro igual ao comprimento e
que as suas propriedades são equivalentes às de água líquida.
Considere que a carne se encontra inicialmente à temperatura de 6ºC e que a
temperatura do forno é 175ºC e o coeficiente de convecção é de 15 W/m2K.
Propriedades da água:
66
SOLUÇÃO TENTATIVA-ERRO:
Introduction to Convection:
Flow and Thermal Considerations
67
Boundary Layers: Physical Features
• Velocity Boundary Layer
68
Distinction between Local and
Average Heat Transfer Coefficients
• Local Heat Flux and Coefficient:
q′′ = h (Ts − T∞ )
q = hAs (Ts − T∞ )
1
h= ∫ hdAs
As As
Governing equations
Equação da continuidade ∂ ρ ∂ ( ρ u ) ∂ ( ρ v ) ∂ ( ρ w)
• + + + =0
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ui ∂ u j 2 ∂ uk
τ ij = µ + − µ δ
∂ x j ∂ xi 3 ∂ x k ij
Equação de conservação da
energia
∂T ∂u j ∂ ui
• Energia interna ∂
∂t ∂xj
(
(ρ e ) + ∂ ρ u j e = ∂
∂xj
) k − p
∂xj ∂ x
+ τ ij
∂ xj
+ q& ′′′
j
∂ ui ∂u ∂u j ∂ ui 2 ∂ u k 2
Dissipação µ Φ = τ ij = µ i + − µ =
∂xj ∂ x j ∂ xi ∂ x j 3 ∂ x k
viscosa de energia
∂ u 2 ∂ v 2 ∂ w 2 ∂ u ∂ v 2 ∂ u ∂ w 2 ∂ v ∂ w 2
= 2 µ + + + µ + + + + ∂ z + ∂ y −
∂ x ∂ y ∂ z ∂ y ∂ x ∂z ∂x
2
2 ∂u ∂ v ∂ w
µ + +
3 ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z
69
Governing equations
p
h =e+
ρ
∂T ∂p
• Entalpia específica ∂
∂t ∂xj
(
(ρ h) + ∂ ρ u j h = ∂
∂xj
) k
∂xj
+
∂t
+uj
∂p
∂xj
+ µ Φ + q& ′′′
dh = c p dT + (1 − β T )
1
dp
ρ
1 ∂ρ
Coeficiente de expansão térmica: β =−
ρ ∂ T p
Gás perfeito: β = 1/T
Fluido incompressível: β = 0
∂T
• Temperatura cp
∂
∂t
(
(ρ T ) + c p ∂ ρ u j T = ∂
∂xj
)
∂ xj
k
∂xj
+ β T ∂ p + u j ∂ p + µ Φ + q& ′′′
∂t ∂ x
j
• Consider concurrent velocity and thermal boundary layer development for steady,
two-dimensional, incompressible flow with constant fluid properties µ , c p , k and ( )
negligible body forces.
• Apply conservation of mass, Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion and conservation of energy
to a differential control volume and invoke the boundary layer approximations.
Velocity Boundary Layer:
u >> v
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
>> , ,
Thermal Boundary Layer:
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
∂T ∂T
>>
∂y ∂x
70
• Conservation of Mass:
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
In the context of flow through a differential control volume, what is the physical
significance of the foregoing terms, if each is multiplied by the mass density of
the fluid?
• Newton’s Second Law of Motion:
x-direction :
∂u ∂u dp ∂ 2u
ρ u +v =− +µ 2
∂x ∂u dx ∂y
• Conservation of Energy:
2
∂T ∂T ∂ 2T ∂u
ρcp u +v = k 2 + µ
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
What is the second term on the right-hand side called and under what conditions
may it be neglected?
71
Boundary Layer Similarity
• As applied to the boundary layers, the principle of similitude is based on
determining similarity parameters that facilitate application of results obtained
for a surface experiencing one set of conditions to geometrically similar surfaces
experiencing different conditions. (Recall how introduction of the similarity
parameters Bi and Fo permitted generalization of results for transient, one-
dimensional condition).
• Dependent boundary layer variables of interest are:
τ s and q′′ or h
Hence,
u = f ( x, y , L , V , ρ , µ )
τ s = f ( x , L, V , ρ , µ )
and
T = f ( x, y , L , V , ρ , µ , c p , k )
h = f ( x , L, V , ρ , µ , c p , k )
72
ρVL VL
Re L ≡ = → the Reynolds Number
µ v
cpµ v
Pr ≡ = → the Prandtl Number
k α δ
How may the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers be interpreted physically? ≈ Pr n n>0
δt
• For a prescribed geometry,
(
u * = f x* , y* ,Re L )
∂u µV ∂u
*
τs = µ = *
∂y y=0 L ∂y y* = 0
∂u
( )
*
= f x* ,Re L
∂y* *
y =0
Cf =
2
Re L
f x* , Re L ( )
What is the functional dependence of the average friction coefficient, Cf ?
(
T * = f x* , y* ,Re L ,Pr )
− k f ∂T / ∂y k f (T∞ − Ts ) ∂T * k f ∂T *
y =0
h= =− =+
Ts − T∞ L (Ts − T∞ ) ∂y *
y* = 0
L ∂y * y* = 0
hL ∂T *
Nu ≡
kf
= *
∂y *
(
= f x* , Re L , Pr )
y =0
How does the Nusselt number differ from the Biot number?
73
Boundary Layer Transition
• How would you characterize conditions in the laminar region of boundary layer
development? In the turbulent region?
• What conditions are associated with transition from laminar to turbulent flow?
• Why is the Reynolds number an appropriate parameter for quantifying transition
from laminar to turbulent flow?
• Transition criterion for a flat plate in parallel flow:
ρu x
Re x , c ≡ ∞ c → critical Reynolds number
µ
xc → location at which transition to turbulence begins
105 < Re x , c < 3 x 106
~ ~
What may be said about transition if ReL < Rex,c? If ReL > Rex,c?
Why does transition provide a significant increase in the boundary layer thickness?
Why does the convection coefficient decay in the laminar region? Why does it increase
significantly with transition to turbulence, despite the increase in the boundary layer
thickness? Why does the convection coefficient decay in the turbulent region?
74
The Reynolds Analogy
• Equivalence of dimensionless momentum and energy equations for
negligible pressure gradient (dp*/dx*~0) and Pr~1:
∂u * ∂u * 1 ∂ 2u *
u* + v* * =
∂x *
∂y Re ∂y*2
∂T * ∂T * 1 ∂ 2T *
u* + v* * =
∂x *
∂y Re ∂y*2
• Hence, for equivalent boundary conditions, the solutions are of the same form:
u* = T *
∂u * ∂T *
=
∂y* y* = 0
∂y * y* = 0
Re
Cf = Nu
2
With Pr = 1, the Reynolds analogy, which relates important parameters of the velocity
and thermal boundary layers, is
Cf
= St
2
• Modified Reynolds (Chilton-Colburn) Analogy:
– An empirical result that extends applicability of the Reynolds analogy:
Cf 2
= St Pr 3
≡ jH 0.6 < Pr < 60
2
Colburn j factor for heat transfer
75
Problem 6.28: Determination of heat transfer rate for prescribed
turbine blade operating conditions from wind tunnel data
obtained for a geometrically similar but smaller
blade. The blade surface area may be assumed to be
directly proportional to its characteristic length ( As ∝ L ) .
SCHEMATIC:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Constant properties, (3) Surface area A is
directly proportional to characteristic length L, (4) Negligible radiation, (5) Blade shapes are
geometrically similar.
Therefore,
Nu 2 = Nu 1
( h 2 L2 / k 2 ) = ( h1L1 / k1 ) L L q1
h 2 = 1 h1 = 1
L2 (
L2 A1 Ts,1 − T∞ )
COMMENTS: (i) The variation in ν from Case 1 to Case 2 would cause ReL,2 to differ from
ReL,1. However, for air and the prescribed temperatures, this non-constant property effect is
small. (ii) If the Reynolds numbers were not equal ( Re L,1 ≠ Re L 2 ) , knowledge of the specific form of
( )
f Re L, Pr would be needed to determine h2.
76
Problem 6.35: Use of a local Nusselt number correlation to estimate the
surface temperature of a chip on a circuit board.
KNOWN: Expression for the local heat transfer coefficient of air at prescribed velocity and
temperature flowing over electronic elements on a circuit board and heat dissipation rate for a 4 × 4 mm
chip located 120mm from the leading edge.
SCHEMATIC:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Power dissipated within chip is lost by convection
across the upper surface only, (3) Chip surface is isothermal, (4) The average heat transfer coefficient
for the chip surface is equivalent to the local value at x = L.
PROPERTIES: Table A-4, Air (Evaluate properties at the average temperature of air in the boundary
layer. Assuming Ts = 45°C, Tave = (45 + 25)/2 = 35°C = 308K. Also, p = 1atm): ν = 16.69 ×
-6 2 -3
10 m /s, k = 26.9 × 10 W/m⋅K, Pr = 0.703.
Newton’s law of cooling for the upper chip surface can be written as
Ts = T∞ + q conv / h A chip (2)
where A chip = l2 .
( )
Assuming that the average heat transfer coefficient h over the chip surface is equivalent to the local
coefficient evaluated at x = L, that is, h chip ≈ h x ( L ) , the local coefficient can be evaluated by
applying the prescribed correlation at x = L.
0.85
h x Vx
Nu x = x = 0.04 Pr1/ 3
k ν
0.85
k VL
h L = 0.04 Pr1/ 3
L ν
77
0.85
0.0269 W/m ⋅ K 10 m/s × 0.120 m
h L = 0.04 ( 0.703)1/ 3 = 107 W/m 2 ⋅ K.
0.120 m 16.69 × 10-6 m 2 / s
COMMENTS: (1) The estimated value of Tave used to evaluate the air properties is reasonable.
(2) How else could h chip have been evaluated? Is the assumption of h = hL reasonable?
Internal Flow:
General Considerations
78
Entrance Conditions
• Must distinguish between entrance and fully developed regions.
• Hydrodynamic Effects: Assume laminar flow with uniform velocity profile at
inlet of a circular tube.
– Velocity boundary layer develops on surface of tube and thickens with increasing x.
– Inviscid region of uniform velocity shrinks as boundary layer grows.
Does the centerline velocity change with increasing x? If so, how does it change?
– Subsequent to boundary layer merger at the centerline, the velocity profile
becomes parabolic and invariant with x. The flow is then said to be
hydrodynamically fully developed.
How would the fully developed velocity profile differ for turbulent flow?
– Thermal boundary layer develops on surface of tube and thickens with increasing x.
– Isothermal core shrinks as boundary layer grows.
79
For uniform surface temperature, what may be said about the change
in the temperature profile with increasing x?
For uniform surface heat flux, what may be said about the change in the
temperature profile with increasing x?
m = ρ um Ac
or,
m = ∫Ac ρ u ( r , x ) d Ac
Hence,
∫ Ac ρ u ( r , x ) d Ac
um =
ρ Ac
ro
2
um = ∫ u ( r , x ) r dr
2 o
ro
80
• Linkage of mean temperature to thermal energy transport associated with flow
through a cross section:
E t = ∫ Ac ρ ucυ T dAc ≡ m cυ Tm
Hence,
∫ Ac ρ ucυ T dAc
Tm =
m cυ
ro
2
Tm =
um ro
2 ∫ u ( x, r )T ( x, r ) r dr
0
What is the essential difference between use of Tm for internal flow and T∞
for external flow?
ρ um Dh
Re D ≡
µ
The hydraulic diameter is defined as
4 Ac
Dh ≡
P
in which case,
ρ um Dh 4 m
Re D ≡ =
µ Pµ
81
– Onset of turbulence occurs at a critical Reynolds number of
Re D , c ≈ 2300
• For laminar flow, how do hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths compare for a gas?
An oil? A liquid metal?
What may be said about the variation of the mean velocity with distance from the
tube entrance for steady, constant property flow?
• The pressure drop may be determined from knowledge of the friction factor
f, where,
f ≡−
( dp / dx ) D
ρ um2 / 2
82
Turbulent flow in a roughened circular tube:
h ≠ f ( x)
Variation of h in entrance and fully developed regions:
83
Determination of the Mean Temperature
• Determination of Tm ( x ) is an essential feature of an internal flow analysis.
Determination begins with an energy balance for a differential control volume.
dqconv = m d ( cυ Tm + pυ ) ≈ m c p dTm
dTm q′′s P P
= = h (Ts − Tm ) (2)
dx m c m cp
p
q′′s P
Tm ( x ) = Tm ,i + x
m cp
Why does the surface temperature vary with x as shown in the figure?
In principle, what value does Ts assume at x=0?
Total heat rate:
qconv = q′′s PL
84
• Special Case: Uniform Surface Temperature
From Eq. (2), with ∆T ≡ Ts − Tm
d Tm d ( ∆T ) P
=− = h ∆T
dx dx mcp
Integrating from x=0 to any downstream location,
Ts − Tm ( x ) Px
= exp − hx
Ts − Tm ,i
m cp
1 x
hx = ∫o hx dx
x
Overall Conditions:
∆To Ts − Tm , o PL hA
= = exp − h = exp − s
∆Ti Ts − Tm ,i
m cp m cp
qconv = h As ∆Tlm
∆To − ∆Ti
∆Tlm = ( 3)
1n ( ∆To / ∆Ti )
∆To T∞ − Tm , o U As 1
= = exp − = exp −
∆Ti T∞ − Tm ,i
mc p m c p Rtot
∆T
q = UAs ∆Tlm = lm
Rtot
85
Problem 8.17: Estimate temperature of water emerging from a thin-walled
tube heated by walls and air of a furnace. Inner and outer
convection coefficients are known.
KNOWN: Water at prescribed temperature and flow rate enters a 0.25 m diameter, black thin-walled
tube of 8-m length, which passes through a large furnace whose walls and air are at a temperature of
Tfur = T∞ = 700 K. The convection coefficients for the internal water flow and external furnace air are
300 W/m2⋅K and 50 W/m2⋅K, respectively.
SCHEMATIC:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions; (2) Tube is small object with large, isothermal surroundings; (3)
Furnace air and walls are at the same temperature; and (3) Tube is thin-walled with black surface.
ANALYSIS: The linearized radiation coefficient may be estimated from Eq. 1.9 with ε = 1,
(
h rad ≈ σ ( Tt + Tfur ) Tt2 + Tfur
2
)
where Tt represents the average tube wall surface temperature, which can be estimated from an energy balance
on the tube.
86
and the mean temperature of the water is approximated as
(
Tm = Tm,i + Tm,o / 2 )
The outlet temperature can be calculated from Eq. 8.46b, with Tfur = T∞,
T∞ − Tm,o
= exp − 1
T∞ − Tm,i
m cp R tot
where
1
R tot = R cv,i +
1/ R cv,o + 1/ R rad
with
R cv,i = 6.631 × 10−5 K / W R cv,o = 3.978 × 10−4 K / W R rad = 4.724 × 10−4 K / W
it follows that
Tm = 331 K Tt = 418 K Tm,o = 362 K
Internal Flow:
Heat Transfer Correlations
87
Fully Developed Flow
• Laminar Flow in a Circular Tube:
The local Nusselt number is a constant throughout the fully developed
region, but its value depends on the surface thermal condition.
– Uniform Surface Heat Flux (q′′s ) :
Nu D = hD = 4.36
k
– Uniform Surface Temperature (Ts ) :
Nu D = hD = 3.66
k
• Turbulent Flow in a Circular Tube:
– For a smooth surface and fully turbulent conditions ( Re D > 10,000 ) , the
Dittus – Boelter equation may be used as a first approximation:
Nu D = 0.023Re 4D/ 5 Pr n n = 0.3 (Ts < Tm )
n = 0.4 ( Ts > Tm )
– The effects of wall roughness and transitional flow conditions ( Re D > 3000 )
may be considered by using the Gnielinski correlation:
Nu D =
( f / 8)( Re D − 1000 ) Pr
1 + 12.7 ( f / 8 ) ( Pr 2 / 3 − 1)
1/ 2
Smooth surface:
f = ( 0.790 1n Re D − 1.64 )
−2
88
Effect of the Entry Region
• The manner in which the Nusselt decays from inlet to fully developed conditions
for laminar flow depends on the nature of thermal and velocity boundary layer
development in the entry region, as well as the surface thermal condition.
Laminar flow in a
circular tube.
• Average Nusselt Number for Laminar Flow in a Circular Tube with Uniform
Surface Temperature:
– Combined Entry Length:
0.14
µ
1/ 3
Re Pr
Nu D = 1.86 D µ
L/ D s
Re D Pr/ ( L / D ) ( µ / µ s )0.14 < 2 :
1/ 3
Nu D = 3.66
– Thermal Entry Length:
0.0668 ( D / L ) Re D Pr
Nu D = 3.66 +
1 + 0.04 ( D / L ) Re D Pr
2/3
89
• Average Nusselt Number for Turbulent Flow in a Circular Tube :
– Effects of entry and surface thermal conditions are less pronounced for
turbulent flow and can be neglected.
– For long tubes ( L / D > 60 ) :
Nu D ≈ NuD , fd
• Noncircular Tubes:
– Laminar Flow:
Nu Dh depends strongly on aspect ratio, as well as entry region and surface
thermal conditions.
– Turbulent Flow:
As a first approximation, correlations for a circular tube may be used
with D replaced by Dh .
90
The Concentric Tube Annulus
• Fluid flow through
region formed by
concentric tubes.
qo′′ = ho (Ts , o − Tm )
hi Dh ho Dh
Nui ≡ Nuo ≡
k k
Dh = Do − Di
91
Convecção Natural
Considerações Gerais
• A convecção natural tem lugar quando há movimento de um fluido
resultante de forças de impulsão.
92
• Escoamentos sem superfície adjacente (esteira, jacto, camada de mistura)
Ocorre num meio (em princípio, infinito), em repouso (velocidade
nula longe da origem do escoamento).
Placas verticais
• Desenvolvimento da camada limite numa placa vertical aquecida
93
• Equação de balanço de quantidade de movimento na direcção x
(escoamento laminar)
∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ∂2 u
u +v =− − g +ν
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂ y2
∂ p ∂ p
=
∂ x dentro da camada limite ∂ x fora da camada limite
∂p 1 ∂ρ 1 ρ∞ − ρ
= − ρ∞ g β =− ≈−
∂x ρ ∂ T p ρ T∞ − T
∂u ∂u g ∂2 u
u +v = (ρ ∞ − ρ ) + ν
∂x ∂y ρ ∂ y2
∂u ∂u ∂2 u
u +v = g β (T − T∞ ) + ν
∂x ∂y ∂ y2
u ∂u + υ ∂u = g β (T − T∞ ) + ν ∂ u2
2
∂x ∂y ∂y
Dado que u (x,y) depende de T (x,y), a solução desta equação tem de ser
obtida juntamente com a solução para a equação de camada limite da
energia T (x,y).
u ∂T + υ ∂T = α ∂ T2
2
∂x ∂y ∂y
94
• Adimensionalização das equações
x y
x* = y* =
L L
u v T − T∞
u* = v* = T* =
uo uo Ts − T∞
∂u* ∂ u * g β (Ts − T∞ ) L 1 ∂2 u *
u* + v* = T * +
∂ x* ∂ y* uo2 Re L ∂ y *2
∂T * ∂T * 1 ∂2 T *
u* + v* =
∂ x* ∂ y * Re L Pr ∂ y *2
g β (Ts − T∞ ) L u o L g β (Ts − T∞ ) L3
2
GrL = × =
uo2
1 ν 3
424 ν2
Re 2
∂u* ∂ u * GrL 1 ∂ u* 2
u* + v* = T *+
∂ x* ∂ y * Re 2 Re L ∂ y *2
Número de Grashof:
g β (Ts − T∞ ) L3 Forças de impulsão
GrL = ~
ν2 Forças viscosas
L: dimensão característica da superfície
∂ρ
β = 1
Coeficiente de expansão térmica da superfície (propriedade
ρ ∂T p termodinâmica do fluido
Rayleigh Number
g β (Ts − T∞ ) L3
RaL = GrL Pr =
να
95
Método integral
• Equação de balanço integral de quantidade de movimento:
d δ δ ∂u
∫ 0 ρ u dy = ∫ 0 ρ g β (T − T∞ ) dy − µ
2
dx ∂ y y =0
u ( x,0) = 0 u ( x, δ ) = 0
∂u ∂2 u
= 0 µ = − ρ g β (Ts − T∞ )
2
∂ y y =δ ∂ y y =0
ρ g β (Ts − T∞ ) 2 y y
2 2
y y
u= δ 1 − = u o ( x ) 1 −
4µ δ δ δ δ
T − T∞ y
2
= 1 −
Ts − T∞ δ
96
Vamos assumir que uo e δ são funções do tipo
uo (x ) = C1 x m δ ( x ) = C2 x n
daqui resulta
2m + n 2
C1 C2 x 2 m + n −1 = 2 g β (Ts − T∞ ) x n − 1 ν x m −n
C C
105 3 C2
m+n 2 α −n
C1 C2 x m + n −1 = x
30 C2
2m + n − 1 = n = m − n
⇒ m=1/2, n=1/4
m + n − 1 = −n
g β (Ts − T∞ )
−1 2
Logo 20
12
C1 = 5.17 ν + Pr
21 ν2
g β (Ts − T∞ )
14 −1 4
20
C2 = 3.93ν + Pr Pr −1 2
21 ν2
Obtém-se então
= 5.17 ν (0.952 + Pr ) Grx
uo −1 2 12
δ
= 3.93 Pr −1 2 (0.952 + Pr ) Grx
14 −1 4
pelo que
∂T
− k
∂ y y =0 x 2 x
= 0.508 Pr1 2 (0.952 + Pr ) Grx
hx −1 4
Nu x = = =
14
k Ts − T∞ k δ
97
• Solução de semelhança
Usando a seguinte variável de semelhança, η a equação de balanço
de quantidade de movimento na direcção x pode ser transformada de
uma equação com derivadas parciais (em x e y) numa equação
diferencial ordinária expressa exclusivamente em termos de η.
1/ 4
η ≡ x
y Gr
x 4
f ′′′ + 3 ff ′′ − 2 ( f ′ ) + T ∗ = 0
2
T ∗′′ + 3Pr fT ∗′ = 0
T − T∞
= x ( Grx−1/ 2 ) u
df
f ′ (η ) ≡ T∗ ≡
dη 2ν Ts − T∞
98
Números de Nusselt ( Nu x and Nu L ) :
1/ 4 1/ 4
Gr
Nu x = hx = − x dT ∗ Gr
= x g ( Pr )
k 4 dη η = 0 4
0.75 Pr1/ 2
g ( Pr ) = ( 0 < Pr < ∞ )
( 0.609 + 1.221 Pr + 1.238 Pr )
1/ 2 1/ 4
h = 1 ∫oL h dx → Nu L = 4 Nu L
L 3
0.670 Ra1/ 4
Nu L = 0.68 + L
4/9
1 + ( 0.492 / Pr )9 /16
Todas as condições
2
0.387 Ra1/L 6
Nu L = 0.825 + 4/9
1 + ( 0.492 / Pr )9 /16
99
Placas inclinadas
• Componente da aceleração gravítica paralela à placa: g cos θ
Ts < T∝ Ts > T∝
Placas Horizontais
• A força de impulsão é normal às placas
T s > T∞ Ts < T∞
Nu L = 0.54 Ra 1/ 4
L (10 4
< RaL < 107 )
100
• Face inferior aquecida ou face superior arrefecida
Ts > T∞ Ts < T∞
Nu L = 0.27 Ra1/
L
4
(10 5
< RaL < 1010 )
KNOWN: Dimensions and emissivity of cylindrical solar receiver. Incident solar flux.
Temperature of ambient air.
FIND: (a) Heat loss and collection efficiency for a prescribed receiver temperature, (b) Effect
of receiver temperature on heat losses and collector efficiency.
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state, (2) Ambient air is quiescent, (3) Incident solar flux is
uniformly distributed over receiver surface, (4) All of the incident solar flux is absorbed by the
receiver, (5) Negligible irradiation from the surroundings, (6) Uniform receiver surface
temperature, (7) Curvature of cylinder has a negligible effect on boundary layer development,
(8) Constant properties
101
PROPERTIES: Table A-4, air (Tf = 550 K): k = 0.0439 W/m⋅K, ν = 45.6 × 10-6 m2/s, α =
66.7 × 10-6 m2/s, Pr = 0.683, β = 1.82 × 10-3 K-1.
With RaL = gβ (Ts - T∞)L3/να = 9.8 m/s2 (1.82 × 10-3 K-1) 500K (12m)3/(45.6 × 66.7 × 10-12
m4/s2) = 5.07 × 1012, the Churchill and Chu correlation yields
2
k
0.387 Ra1L/ 6
0.0439 W / m ⋅ K
h = 0.825 +
8 / 27
= {0.825 + 42.4}2 = 6.83 W / m2 ⋅ K
L 1 + ( 0.492 / Pr )9 /16 12m
A q ′′ − q
η = s s 100 =
( 2.64 ×107 − 2.13 ×106 ) W (100) = 91.9%
′′ A s qs 2.64 × 107 W
(b) As shown below, because of its dependence on temperature to the fourth power, qrad
increases more significantly with increasing Ts than does qconv, and the effect on the efficiency is
pronounced
5E6 100
4E6
95
Collector efficiency, %
Heat rate, W
3E6
90
2E6
1E6 85
0 80
600 700 800 900 1000
Receiver temperature, K
75
Convection 600 700 800 900 1000
Radiation
Total Receiver temperature, K
COMMENTS: The collector efficiency is also reduced by the inability to have a perfectly
absorbing receiver. Partial reflection of the incident solar flux will reduce the efficiency by at
least several percent.
102
Cilindro horizontal
• Desenvolvimento da camada limite e variação do número de Nusselt
local para um cilindro aquecido:
Esferas
• Número de Nusselt médio:
0.589 Ra1/D 4
Nu D = 2 + 4/9
1 + ( 0.469 / Pr )9 /16
103
Convecção entre placas paralelas
q A S g β (Ts − T∞ ) S 3
Nu s = Ras =
Ts − T∞ k αν
1 S
Nu s , fd = Ra s
24 L
1 S
Nu s , fd = Ra s
12 L
104
Convecção entre placas paralelas
12
S
Nu s , L , fd = 0.204 Ra *s
L
105
• Placas isotérmicas
Cavidades
• Cavidades Rectangulares
106
• Cavidades horizontais
Aquecimento na base (τ = 0 )
– RaL < RaL , c = 1708 :
Camada de fluido termicamente estável
Nu L = hL = 1
k
–1708 < Ra L < 5 × 104 :
RaL < 10 :
3
Nu L = 1
RaL > 10 :
3
107
• Cavidades inclinadas
Relevante para colectores solares planos
Cavidades anulares
• Cilindros concêntricos
2π keff
q′ = (Ti − To )
1n ( Do Di )
Rac* = RaL
L3 ( Di−3 / 5 + Do−3 / 5 )
5
L ≡ ( Do − Di ) / 2
108
Rac < 100 :
*
keff / k = 1
( 0.861Pr+ Pr )
1/ 4
( Ra )
keff * 1/ 4
= 0.386 c
k
• Esferas concêntricas
DD
q = keff π i o (Ti − To )
L
Número de Rayleigh crítico:
RaL
Ras* = L
( Do / Di ) ( D −7 / 5 + D −7 / 5 )
4 5
i o
Ras < 100 : keff / k = 1
*
( 0.861Pr+ Pr )
1/ 4
( Ra )
keff * 1/ 4
= 0.74 s
k
Nu n ≈ NuFC
n
± Nu NC
n
n≈3
109
Problem 9.74: Use of saturated steam to heat a pharmaceutical in a batch reactor.
FIND: (a) Initial rate of heat transfer to the pharmaceutical, (b) Time required to heat the
pharmaceutical to 70°C and the amount of steam condensed during the process.
SCHEMATIC:
Saturated steam
Tubing
psat = 2.455 bars D = 15 mm, L = 15 m
ρ = 1100 kg/m3
Pharmaceutical c = 2000 J/kg-K
Ts = 127oC k = 0.250 W/m-K
Ti = 25oC, Tf = 70oC ν = 4.0x10-6 m2/s
T(t) V = 200 L Pr = 10, β = 0.002 K-1
PROPERTIES: Table A-4, Saturated water (2.455 bars): Tsat = 400K = 127°C, hfg = 2.183 ×
106 J/kg. Pharmaceutical: See schematic.
ANALYSIS: (a) The initial rate of heat transfer is q = hAs ( Ts − Ti ) , where As = πDL = 0.707
m2 and h is obtained from Eq. 9.34.
110
With α = ν/Pr = 4.0 × 10-7 m2/s and RaD = gβ (Ts – Ti) D3/αν = 9.8 m/s2 (0.002 K-1) (102K)
(0.015m)3/16 × 10-13 m4/s2 = 4.22 × 106,
2 2
( )
1/ 6
0.387 Ra1/ 6 0.387 4.22 × 106
D
Nu D = 0.60 + = 0.60 + = 27.7
8 / 27 8 / 27
1 + ( 0.559 / Pr )9 /16 1 + ( 0.559 /10 )9 /16
(b) Performing an energy balance at an instant of time for a control surface about the liquid,
d ( ρ∀c T )
= q ( t ) = h ( t ) A s ( Ts − T ( t ) )
dt
where the Rayleigh number, and hence h , changes with time due to the change in the
temperature of the liquid.
Integrating the foregoing equation numerically, the following results are obtained for the
variation of T and h with t.
75 470
Convection coefficient, hbar (W/m ^2.K)
65 450
Temperature, (C)
55 430
45 410
35 390
25 370
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Time, t(s ) Time, t(s)
t f ≈ 855s <
The rate at which T increases decreases with increasing time due to the corresponding
reduction in (Ts – T), and hence reductions in Ra D , h and q.
The Rayleigh number decreases from 4.22 × 106 to 2.16 × 106, while the heat rate decreases
from 33,300 to 14,000 W.
The convection coefficient decreases approximately as (Ts – T)1/3, while q ~ (Ts – T)4/3.
111
The latent energy released by the condensed steam corresponds to the increase in thermal
energy of the pharmaceutical. Hence, mc h fg = ρ∀c ( Tf − Ti ) ,
and
COMMENTS: (1) Over such a large temperature range, the fluid properties are likely to vary
significantly, particularly ν and Pr. A more accurate solution could therefore be performed if
the temperature dependence of the properties were known. (2) Condensation of the steam is a
significant process expense, which is linked to the equipment (capital) and energy (operating)
costs associated with steam production.
Heat Exchangers:
Design Considerations
112
Heat Exchanger Types
Heat exchangers are ubiquitous to energy conversion and utilization. They involve
heat exchange between two fluids separated by a solid and encompass a wide
range of flow configurations.
Simplest configuration.
For cross-flow over the tubes, fluid motion, and hence mixing, in the transverse
direction (y) is prevented for the finned tubes, but occurs for the unfinned condition.
113
• Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers
Baffles are used to establish a cross-flow and to induce turbulent mixing of the
shell-side fluid, both of which enhance convection.
The number of tube and shell passes may be varied, e.g.:
114
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• An essential requirement for heat exchanger design or performance calculations.
• With subscripts c and h used to designate the hot and cold fluids, respectively,
the most general expression for the overall coefficient is:
1 = 1 = 1
UA (UA )c (UA) h
1 R′′f , c R′′f , h 1
= + + Rw + +
(ηo hA )c (ηo A)c (ηo A )h (ηo hA )h
→ Table 11.1
Rw → Wall conduction resistance (K/W)
tanh ( mL )
η f , c or h =
mL c or h
mc or h = ( 2U p / kwt )
c or h
U p , c or h = h → partial overall coefficient
1 + hR′′
f c or h
115
A Methodology for Heat Exchanger
Design Calculations
- The Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) Method -
• A form of Newton’s Law of Cooling may be applied to heat exchangers by
using a log-mean value of the temperature difference between the two fluids:
q = U A ∆ T1m
∆ T1 − ∆ T2
∆ T1m =
1n ( ∆ T1 / ∆ T2 )
∆ T1 ≡ Th,1 − Tc ,1
= Th, i − Tc , o
∆ T2 ≡ Th,2 − Tc ,2
= Th , o − Tc ,i
∆ T1 ≡ Th,1 − Tc ,1
= Th, i − Tc , i
∆ T2 ≡ Th,2 − Tc ,2
= Th, o − Tc , o
Note that Tc,o can not exceed Th,o for a PF HX, but can do so for a CF HX.
For equivalent values of UA and inlet temperatures,
∆ T1m ,CF > ∆ T1m, PF
116
117
Overall Energy Balance
• Application to the hot (h) and cold (c) fluids:
• Assume negligible heat transfer between the exchanger and its surroundings
and negligible potential and kinetic energy changes for each fluid.
q = m h ( ih, i − ih, o )
⋅
q = m c ( ic , o − ic ,i )
⋅
i → fluid enthalpy
• Assuming no l/v phase change and constant specific heats,
q = m h c p , h ( Th ,i − Th , o ) = Ch (Th ,i − Th , o )
⋅
q = m c c p , c (Tc , o − Tc , i ) = Cc ( Tc , o − Tc , i )
⋅
118
Heat Exchangers:
The Effectiveness – NTU Method
General Considerations
• Computational Features/Limitations of the LMTD Method:
119
Definitions
Definitions
• Heat exchanger effectiveness, ε :
q
ε=
qmax
0 ≤ ε ≤1
Ch if Ch < Cc
Cmin = or
Cc if Cc < Ch
Will the fluid characterized by Cmin or Cmax experience the largest possible
temperature change in transit through the HX?
120
Heat Exchanger Relations
⋅
q = m h ih,i − ih, o ( )
• or
q = Ch (Th, i − Th, o )
q = mc ( ic , o − ic , i )
⋅
• or
q = Cc ( Tc , o − Tc ,i )
• q = ε Cmin ( Th ,i − Tc , i )
• Performance Calculations:
ε = f ( NTU , Cmin / Cmax )
Cr
Relations → Table 11.3 or Figs. 11.14 - 11.19
[( ) ]
∗
1 − exp − 1 − C NTU 1 1 − εC ∗
ln
1 − ε
[( ) ]
ε = NTU =
Counterflow ∗ ∗ ∗
1 − C exp − 1 − C NTU 1−C
Parallel Flow
ε =
1
∗
[1 − exp[− (1 + C ∗ )NTU ]] NTU = −
1
∗
[ (
ln 1 + ε 1 + C
∗
)]
1+ C 1+C
1 − exp(− C ∗ NTU )
[ )]
Cross flow, Cmin
mixed and Cmax ε = 1 − exp ∗ NTU = −
1
∗
∗
ln 1 + C ln 1 − ε (
unmixed C C
ε =
2 1 / 2
2 − ε 1 + C ∗ − 1 + C ∗ 2
1 / 2
1 to 2 shell-and- 1 + exp − NTU 1 + C ∗ 2 NTU =
1
1 + C + (1 + C )
(1 + C ∗2 )1/ 2
ln
∗ ∗2 1 / 2 ∗ 1 / 2
tube HEX
2 − ε 1 + C + 1 + C ∗
1 / 2
2
1 − exp − NTU 1 + C ∗ 2
121
122
• Design Calculations:
NTU = f ( ε , Cmin / Cmax )
ε = 1 − exp ( − NTU )
or
NTU = −1n (1 − ε )
123
Radiação: Considerações gerais
• A emissão de gases ou sólidos semi-transparentes ou líquidos é um
fenómeno volumétrico.
•A emissão de sólidos ou líquidos opacos é um fenómeno superficial (com a
emissão originária em átomos ou moléculas a 1 µm da superfície).
O espectro electromagnético
124
Radiação: Considerações gerais
Efeitos direccionais
125
Radiação: Considerações gerais
Intensidade de radiação
dAn
dω ≡
r2
dAn = r 2 sin θ dθ d φ
dAn
dω = = sin θ dθ d φ
r2
126
Radiação: Considerações gerais
Intensidade de radiação
A intensidade espectral, I λ ,e , associada à emissão de um elemento de área unitário, dA1,
num ângulo sólido, d ω (em torno de θ e φ),e num intervalo de comprimento de onda, d λ,
(em torno de λ), é:
dq
I λ ,e ( λ ,θ ,φ ) ≡
( dA1 cos θ ) ⋅ d ω ⋅ d λ
O argumento para definir o fluxo radiativo em termos da área projectada da superfície
( dA1 cos θ ) emerge do facto de haver superfícies para as quais, com boa aproximação,
I λ ,e é independente da direcção: superfícies difusas, e a radiação é isotrópica.
Intensidade de radiação
A taxa de calor espectral e o fluxo de calor espectral associados à emissão a partir de
dA1 são, respectivamente,
dq
dqλ ≡ = I λ ,e ( λ ,θ ,φ ) dA1 cos θ d ω
dλ
127
Relação da intensidade com poder
emissivo, irradiação e radiosidade
O poder emissivo espectral (W/m2.µm) corresponde à emissão espectral em todas as
direcções possíveis: 2π π / 2
Eλ ( λ ) = ∫ 0 ∫0 I λ ,e ( λ ,θ ,φ ) cos θ sin θ dθ d φ
128
Relação da intensidade com poder
emissivo, irradiação e radiosidade
Com I λ ,e + r a designar a intensidade espectral associada à radiação emitida pela superfície
e a reflexão da radiação incidente, a radiosidade espectral é ( W/m 2 ⋅ µ m ) :
2π π/2
Jλ (λ ) = ∫0 ∫0 I λ ,e + r ( λ ,θ ,φ ) cos θ sin θ dθ d φ
∞
J = ∫0 Jλ (λ ) d λ
129
Radiação de CORPO NEGRO
• A Cavidade Isotérmica (Hohlraum):
parede interior a temperatura uniforme.
Primeira constante:
C1 = 3.742 x 108 W ⋅ µ m 4 / m 2
Segunda constante: C2 = 1.439 x 104 µ m ⋅ K
130
Lei de Stefan-Boltzmann
• O poder emissivo total de um corpo negro é obtido integrando a distribuição de Planck
em todos os comprimentos de onda possíveis. ∞
Eb = π I b = ∫ 0 Eλ ,b d λ = σ T 4
a lei de Stefan-Boltzmann, em que:
• A fracção total da emissão de um corpo negro que está contida num intervalo de comprimento
σ ou banda λ −< λ < λ K é:
de onda prescrito ( 1 2)
λ λ
∫ 02 Eλ ,b d λ − ∫ o1 Eλ ,b d λ
F( λ1 − λ2 ) = F( 0 − λ2 ) − F( 0 − λ1 ) =
σT 4
λ
∫ 0 Eλ ,b d λ
F( 0 − λ ) = = f ( λT )
σT
C1
Eλ ,b ( λ ,T ) = π I λ ,b ( λ ,T ) =
λ 5 exp ( C2 / λT ) − 1
σ −
K
131
Band Emission (cont)
Note ability to readily determine I λ ,b and its relation to the maximum intensity from
the 3rd and 4th columns, respectively.
If emission from the sun may be approximated as that from a blackbody at
5800K, at what wavelength does peak emission occur?
Would you expect radiation emitted by a blackbody at 800K to be discernible
by the naked eye?
As the temperature of a blackbody is increased, what color would be
the first to be discerned by the naked eye?
KNOWN: Flux and intensity of direct and diffuse components, respectively, of solar
irradiation.
132
SCHEMATIC:
ANALYSIS: Since the irradiation is based on the actual surface area, the contribution due to
the direct solar radiation is
′′ ⋅ cos θ .
G dir = qdir
Hence
′′ ⋅ cos θ + π Idif
G = G dir + G dif = qdir
or
G = 1000 W / m 2 × 0.866 + π sr × 70 W / m 2 ⋅ sr
G = ( 866 + 220 ) W / m 2
G = 1086 W / m 2 .
COMMENTS: Although a diffuse approximation is often made for the non-direct component
of solar radiation, the actual directional distribution deviates from this condition, providing
larger intensities at angles close to the direct beam.
133
Problem 12.18: Determination of the sun’s emissive power, temperature
and wavelength of maximum emission, as well as the
earth’s temperature, from knowledge of the sun/earth
geometry and the solar flux at the outer edge of the earth’s
atmosphere.
FIND: (a) Emissive power of sun, (b) Surface temperature of sun, (c) Wavelength of
maximum solar emission, (d) Earth equilibrium temperature.
SCHEMATIC:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Sun and earth emit as blackbodies, (2) No attenuation of solar
radiation enroute to earth, (3) Earth atmosphere has no effect on earth energy balance.
ANALYSIS: (a) Applying conservation of energy to the solar energy crossing two concentric
spheres, one having the radius of the sun and the other having the radial distance from the edge
of the earth’s atmosphere to the center of the sun, it follows that
( )
2
D
Es π Ds2 = 4π R s − e − e q ′′ .
2 s
Hence
134
(d) From an energy balance on the earth’s surface
( ) (
Ee π De2 = qS′′ π De2 / 4 . )
Hence, from the Stefan-Boltzmann law,
1/ 4 1/ 4
q ′′ 1353 W / m 2
Te = S = = 278 K.
4σ 4 × 5.67 × 10−8 W / m 2 ⋅ K 4
COMMENTS: The average earth temperature is higher than 278 K due to the shielding effect
of the earth’s atmosphere (transparent to solar radiation but not to longer wavelength earth
emission).
135
Processos e propriedades radiativas.
Propriedades radiativas de superfícies
• A emissividade total hemisférica (uma média direccional e espectral):
∞
E (T ) ∫ 0 ε λ ( λ , T ) Eλ ,b ( λ ,T ) d , λ
ε (T ) ≡ =
Eb ( T ) Eb (T )
Com um boa de aproximação, a emissividade hemisférica é igual à emissividade normal: ε = ε n
Notas:
Baixas emissividades dos metais polidos e
crescente emissividade de metais não polidos
e superfícies oxidadas.
Emissividades comparativamente elevadas
dos não condutores.
136
Absorção, reflexão e transmissão:
resposta à radiação incidente
• Pode haver 3 respostas de um meio semi transparente à irradiação:
Balanço de Radiação
137
Absorsividade de uma superfície opaca
• A absorsividade espectral direccional, desprezando dependência de T:
I λ ,i ,abs ( λ ,θ ,φ )
α λ ,θ ( λ ,θ ,φ ) ≡
I λ ,i ( λ ,θ ,φ )
138
Reflectividade de uma superfície opaca
Transmissividade
• A transmissividade espectral hemisférica ,desprezando dependência de T:
Gλ ,tr λ
τλ ≡
Gλ ( λ )
139
Lei de Kirchhoff
• A Lei de Kirchhoff estabelece que a emissividade total hemisférica de uma
superfície é igual à sua absorsividade total hemisférica :
ε =α
Contudo, as condições associadas à sua derivação são muito restritivas:
A irradiação da superfície corresponde à emissão de um corpo negro à mesma
temperatura do corpo.
Supefícies difusas/cinzentas
Com ∫ 02π ∫π0 / 2 ε λ ,θ cos θ sin θ dθ d φ
ελ =
∫ 02π ∫π0 / 2 cos θ sin θ dθ d φ
e ∫ 02π ∫ π0 / 2 α λ ,θ I λ ,i cos θ sin θ dθ dφ
αλ =
∫ 20π ∫π0 / 2 I λ ,i cos θ sin θ dθ dφ
Em que condições se pode igualar ελ a αλ ?
∞
• Com ∫ ε E (λ ) d λ
ε = 0 λ λ ,b
Eb (T )
∞
e ∫ 0 α λ Gλ ( λ ) d λ
α=
G
Em que condições se pode igualar ε a α ?
140
Problem 12.49: Determination of the solar absorptivity and total emissivity
of a diffuse surface from knowledge of the spectral
distribution of α λ ( λ ) and the surface temperature.
FIND: (a) Solar absorptivity, (b) Total, hemispherical emissivity for Ts = 340K.
SCHEMATIC:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Surface is opaque, (2) ελ = αλ, (3) Solar spectrum has Gλ = Gλ,S
proportional to Eλ,b (λ, 5800K).
141
Hence,
αS = 0 × 0.0355 + 0.9 [ 0.8805 − 0.0335] + 0.1[1 − 0.8805] = 0.774.
(b) The total, hemispherical emissivity for the surface at 340K may be expressed as
∞
ε = ∫ ε λ ( λ ) Eλ ,b ( λ ,340K ) dλ / E b ( 340K ) .
0
With ελ = αλ , the integral can be written in terms of the F(0 → λ) function. However, it is readily
recognized that since
F( 0 →1.5 µ m, 340K ) ≈ 0.000 at λ T = 1.5 × 340 = 510 µ m ⋅ K
It follows that
ε = ε λ = α λ = 0.1
KNOWN: Vertical plate of height L = 2 m suspended in quiescent air. Exposed surface with
diffuse coating of prescribed spectral absorptivity distribution subjected to simulated solar
irradiation, GS,λ. Plate steady-state temperature Ts = 400 K.
142
FIND: Plate emissivity, ε, plate absorptivity, α, and plate irradiation, G.
SCHEMATIC:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Ambient air is extensive, quiescent, (3)
Spectral distribution of the simulated solar irradiation, GS,λ , proportional to that of a blackbody at
5800 K, (4) Coating is opaque, diffuse, and (5) Plate is perfectly insulated on the edges and the
back side, and (6) Plate is isothermal.
PROPERTIES: Table A.4, Air (Tf = 350 K, 1 atm): ν = 20.92 × 10-6 m2/s, k = 0.030 W/m⋅K, α
= 29.90 × 10-6 m2/s, Pr = 0.700.
ANALYSIS: (a) Perform an energy balance on the plate as shown in the schematic on a per unit
plate width basis,
E& in − E out = 0
α G − εσ T 4 − h ( T − T ) L = 0
s s ∞
where α and ε are determined from knowledge of αλ and h is estimated from an appropriate
correlation.
Plate total emissivity: Expressing the emissivity in terms of the band emission factor, F(0 - λT),
ε = α1F( 0 − λ T ) + α 2 1 − F( 0 − λ T )
1 s 1 s
where, from Table 12.1, with λ,Ts = 1µm × 400 K = 400 µm⋅K, F(0-λT) = 0.000.
143
Plate absorptivity: With the spectral distribution of simulated solar irradiation proportional to
emission from a blackbody at 5800 K,
α = α1F( 0 − λ T ) + α 2 1 − F( 0 − λ T )
1 s 1 s
where, from Table 12.1, with λ1Ts = 5800 µm⋅K, F(0 -λT) = 0.7202.
Estimating the free convection coefficient, h : Using the Churchill-Chu correlation with
properties evaluated at Tf = (Ts + T∞ )/2 = 350 K,
gβ ( Ts − T∞ ) L3
Ra L =
να
144
Solar Radiation
• The sun is a nearly spherical source of radiation whose outer diameter is
1.39 x 109 m and whose emissive power approximates that of a blackbody at 5800K.
• The distance from the center of the sun to the center of the earth varies with time
of year from a minimum of 1.471 x 1011 m to a maximum of 1.521 x 1011 m, with
an annual average of 1.496 x 1011 m.
145
• Effect of Atmosphere on Spectral Distribution of Solar Radiation:
Attenuation over the entire spectrum but more pronounced in spectral bands
associated with polar molecules.
Note concentration of all radiation in the spectral region 0.3 < λ < 3µ m and
peak at λ ≈ 0.5µ m.
Why is the assumption of graybody behavior often inappropriate for
surfaces experiencing solar irradiation?
146
Terrestrial Radiation
• Emission by Earth’s Surface:
E = εσ T 4
• Atmospheric Emission:
Largely due to emission from CO2 and H2O (v) and concentrated in the
spectral regions 5 < λ < 8 µ m and λ > 13µ m.
• Can water in the natural environment freeze if the ambient air temperature
exceeds 273K? If so, what environmental conditions (wind and sky)
favor ice formation?
147
Surface Radiative Properties
• Concentration of solar ( 0.3 < λ < 3µ m ) and terrestrial ( 4 < λ < 40 µ m ) in
different spectral regions often precludes use of the gray surface approximation
(ε ≠ α S ) .
Note significant differences in ρλ and α λ for the two spectral regions: snow,
human skin, white paint.
In terms of net radiation transfer to a surface with solar irradiation, the parameter
α S / ε has special significance. Why?
Surface αS / ε
Snow 0.29
148
Problem 12.119: Determination of preferred roof coating (Parsons Black,
Acrylic White, or Zinc Oxide White) and corresponding
heat load for prescribed operating conditions.
KNOWN: Dimensions and construction of truck roof. Roof interior surface temperature. Truck
speed, ambient air temperature, and solar irradiation.
FIND: (a) Preferred roof coating, (b) Roof surface temperature, (c) Heat load through roof,
(d) Effect of velocity on surface temperature and heat load.
SCHEMATIC:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Turbulent boundary layer development over entire roof, (2) Constant
properties, (3) Negligible atmospheric (sky) irradiation, (4) Negligible contact resistance.
ANALYSIS: (a) To minimize heat transfer through the roof, minimize solar absorption relative
to surface emission. Hence, from Table A.12, use zinc oxide white for which αS = 0.16
and ε = 0.93.
′′
(b) Performing an energy balance on the outer surface of the roof, αSGS + q conv ′′
− E − q cond = 0,
it follows that
4
αSG S + h(T∞ − Ts,o ) = εσ Ts,o + (k t)(Ts,o − Ts,i )
149
where it is assumed that convection is from the air to the roof. With
VL 30 m s(5 m)
Re L = = = 107
ν 15 × 10 −6 m 2 s
Substituting numerical values in the energy balance and solving by trial-and-error, we obtain
Ts,o = 295.2 K.
(d) From parametric calculations based on the foregoing model, the following results are
obtained.
300 700
295 650
Temperature, Tso(K)
290 600
285 550
500
280
5 10 15 20 25 30
5 10 15 20 25 30
Velocity, V(m/s)
Velocity, V(m/s)
The surface temperature and heat load decrease with decreasing V due to a reduction in the
convection heat transfer coefficient and hence convection heat transfer from the air.
150
Trocas radiativas entre superfícies: recintos
fechados com meio não participativo
Conceitos básicos
• Recinto fechado consiste de 2 ou mais superfícies que englobam uma região do espaço
(tipicamente preenchida com gás) e que trocam energia radiativa entre si.
• Um meio não participativo, num recinto fechado, não emite, não absorve,
nem sofre scattering de energia radiativa. Portanto, não produz qualquer efeito nas
trocas de radiação entre as superfícies.
• Cada superfície que limita o recinto fechado é suposta ser isotérmica, opaca, difusa
e cinzenta, sendo caracterizada por radiosidade e irradiação uniformes.
qi → j
Fij =
Ai J i
cosθi cosθ j
dqi → j = I i cosθ i dAi dω j − i = J i dAi dAj
π R2
cosθi cosθ j
Fij = 1 ∫ A ∫ Aj dAi dA j
Ai i π R2
151
Trocas radiativas entre superfícies: recintos
fechados com meio não participativo
Relações para o Factor de Forma
cosθi cosθ j
• Relação de Reciprocidade:
Fji = 1 ∫ Ai ∫ A j dAi dA j
Aj π R2
Ai Fij = A j Fji
N
∑ Fij = 1
j =1
( ) ( )
1/ 2
2
1/ 2
+ D tan−1 s − 2D
2 2
Fij = 1 − 1 − D
s s D
152
Trocas radiativas entre superfícies: recintos
fechados com meio não participativo
Relações para o Factor de Forma
• Geometrias Tri-Dimensionais (Tabela 13.2). Por exemplo,
2 1/ 2
Fij = 1 S − S 2 − 4 ( rj / ri )
2
1 + R 2j
S = 1+
Ri2
Ri = ri / L R j = rj / L
A1
A2
153
Trocas radiativas entre superfícies: recintos
fechados com meio não participativo
FACTORES DE FORMA – MÉTODO DAS CORDAS
L3
L1
L2
L4
A1F12 =
∑ cordas cruzadas − ∑ cordas não cruzadas
2
A1F12 =
(L1 + L2 ) − (L1 + L2 )
2
A1 cosθi cosθ j
Fij = 1 ∫ A ∫ A dAdA
Ai i j π R2 i j
R
A3
A1F12 = A3 F34
A4
A2
154
Trocas radiativas entre superfícies: recintos
fechados com meio não participativo
FACTORES DE FORMA – OUTRAS RELAÇÕES
n
Fi ( j ) = ∑ Fik
k =1
n
A( j )F( j )i = ∑ Ak Fki
k =1
n
∑AF k ki
F( j )i = k =1
A( j )
j =1
155
Troca radiativa entre as N superfícies opacas,
difusas e cinzentas de um recinto fechado
Ebi − J i
qi = → Fig. (d) (3)
(1 − ε i ) / ε i Ai
(AF )
−1 (4)
j =1 j =1
i ij
156
Metodologia de análise para recintos fechados
Aplicar Eq. (4) a cada superfície para a qual o fluxo útil de radiação qi
é connecido.
Aplicar Eq. (5) a cada uma das restantes superfícies para a qual a temperatura Ti ,
e, portanto, Ebi ,, é conhecida.
Usar Eq. (3) para determinar qi para cada superfície onde se conhece
Ti e para determinar Ti para cada superfície onde se conhece qi.
σ (T14 − T24 )
q1 = − q2 = q12 =
1 − ε1 1− ε2
+ 1 +
ε1 A1 A1F12 ε 2 A2
157
• A tabela 13.3 apresenta resultados para alguns casos especiais. Por exemplo:
As
=0
Asur
(
q = As ε s σ Ts4 − Tsur
4
)
Fs , sur = 1
Escudo de radiação
α = ε
• Superfície com reflectividade elevada (baixo α = ε) colocada entre duas
superfícies cuja troca de calor por radiação se pretende reduzir
• Considere um único escudo de radiação num reconto fechado, tal como é o caso de
duas placas planas paralelas e infinitas.
Note que, embora raramente, a emissão pode ser diferente para as duas superfícies do
escudo de radiação.
158
Análogo eléctrico
σ (T14 − T24 )
q12 = q1 = − q2 =
1 − ε1 1 − ε 3,1 1 − ε 3,2 1− ε2
+ 1 + + + 1 +
ε1 A1 A1F13 ε 3,1 A3 ε 3,2 A3 A3 F32 ε 2 A2
• O resultado anterior pode ser facimente estendido para ter em conta múlitplos
escudos de radiação e aplicado a cilindros longos e concêntricos, esferas
concêntricas e placas longas e paralelas.
A superficie re-radiante
σ (T14 − T24 )
q1 = −q2 =
1 − ε1 1 1− ε2
+ +
ε1 A1 A1F12 + (1 / A1F1R ) + (1 / A2 F2 R ) −1 ε 2 A2
159
A superficie re-radiante
J1 − J R J − J2
= R
(1 / A1F1R ) (1 / A2 F2 R )
1/ 4
J
TR = R
σ
FIND: Power required to maintain the furnace operating conditions with the surroundings at
23°C.
160
SCHEMATIC:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) All surfaces are diffuse gray, and (2) Uniform radiosity over the
sections 1, 2, and 3.
ANALYSIS: By defining the furnace opening as the hypothetical area A4, the furnace can be
represented as a four-surface enclosure.
The power required to maintain A1 at T1 is q1, the net radiation leaving A1.
To obtain q1, we must determine the radiosity at each surface by simultaneously solving
radiation energy balance equations of the form
E bi − Ji N J −J
j j
q = =∑ (1,2)
i (1 − ε i ) / ε i Ai 1/ Ai Fij
j =1
However, since ε4 = 1, J4 = Eb4, and only three energy balances are needed for A1, A2, and A3.
E b1 − J1 J1 − J 2 J −J J − J4
A1: = + 1 3 + 1 (3)
(1 − ε1 ) / ε1A1 1/ A1F12 1/ A1F13 1/ A1F14
J 2 − J1 J − J3 J − J4
A2: 0= + 2 + 2 (4)
1/ A 2 F21
1/ A 2 F23 1/ A 2 F24
J −J J − J2 J − J4
A3: 0= 3 1 + 3 + 3 (5)
1/ A3 F31 1/ A3 F32 1/ A3 F34
where q2 = q3 = 0 since the surfaces are insulated (adiabatic) and hence reradiating.
Of the N2 = 42 = 16 view factors, N(N – 1)/2 = 6 must be independently evaluated, while the
remaining can be determined by the summation rule and appropriate reciprocity relations. The
six independently determined Fij are:
161
Coaxial parallel disks: From Table 13.2,
1/ 2
F24 = 0.5 S − S2 − 4 ( r4 / r2 )
2
(3) = 0.05573
where
2 2
1 + R4 1 + 0.250
S = 1+ = 1+ = 18.00 R 2 = r2 / L = 45 / 180 = 0.250 R 4 = r4 / L = 0.250
2 2
R2 0.250
The View Factors: Using summation rules and appropriate reciprocity relations, the remaining 10 view
factors can be evaluated. Written in matrix form, the Fij are
0.6972* 0.1514 0.09704 0.05438
0.9083* 0* 0.03597 0.05573*
0.2911 0.01798 0.3819 0.3090
0.3262 0.05573 0.6180* 0*
The Fij shown with an asterisk were independently determined.
From knowledge of the relevant view factors, the energy balances, Eqs. (3, 4, 5), can be solved
simultaneously to obtain the radiosities,
J1 = 73, 084 W / m 2 J 2 = 67, 723 W / m 2 J3 = 36, 609 W / m 2
The net heat rate leaving A1 can be evaluated using Eq. (1) written as
E b1 − J1 ( 75,159 − 73, 084 ) W / m 2
q1 = = = 317 W <
(1 − ε1 ) / ε1A1 (1 − 0.8 ) / 0.8 × 0.03817 m2
where Eb1 = σ T14 = σ(800 + 273K)4 = 75,159 W/m2 and A1 = πDL1 = π × 0.090m × 0.135m =
0.03817 m2.
COMMENTS: Recognize the importance of defining the furnace opening as the hypothetical
area A4 which completes the four-surface enclosure representing the furnace. The temperature
of A4 is that of the surroundings and its emissivity is unity since it absorbs all radiation incident
on it.
162
Problem 13.93: Assessment of ceiling radiative properties for an ice rink
in terms of ability to maintain surface temperature above
the dewpoint.
KNOWN: Ice rink with prescribed ice, rink air, wall, ceiling and outdoor air conditions.
FIND: (a) Temperature of the ceiling, Tc, for an emissivity of 0.05 (highly reflective panels) or
0.94 (painted panels); determine whether condensation will occur for either or both ceiling
panel types if the relative humidity of the rink air is 70%, and (b) Calculate and plot the ceiling
temperature as a function of ceiling insulation thickness for 0.1 ≤ t ≤ 1 m; identify conditions
for which condensation will occur on the ceiling.
SCHEMATIC:
Insulation, k = 0.035 W/m-K, thickness t = 0.3m
Too,o = -5oC
Ceiling (c), Tc, ε = 0.05 or 0.94
Walls (w)
Rink air Tw = 15 oC
Too,i = 15oC
L = 10 m hi = 5 W/m2-K
D = 50 m
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Rink comprised of the ice, walls and ceiling approximates a three-
surface, diffuse-gray enclosure, (2) Surfaces have uniform radiosities, (3) Ice surface and walls
are black, (4) Panels are diffuse-gray, and (5) Thermal resistance for convection on the outdoor
side of the ceiling is negligible compared to the conduction resistance of the ceiling insulation.
163
PROPERTIES: Psychometric chart (Atmospheric pressure; dry bulb temperature, Tdb = T∞,i
= 15°C; relative humidity, RH = 70%): Dew point temperature, Tdp = 9.4°C.
ANALYSIS: Applying an energy balance to the inner surface of the ceiling and treating all
heat rates as energy outflows,
E& in − E& out = 0
−q o − q conv,c − q rad,c = 0 (1)
where the rate equations for each process are
(
q o = Tc − T∞,o / R cond )
R cond = t / kA c (2,3)
From the summation rule applied to the ice (i) and the reciprocity rule,
Fic + Fiw = 1 Fiw = Fcw (symmetry)
Fcw = 1 − Fic
Fwc = ( A c / A w ) Fcw = ( A c / A w ) (1 − Fic ) = 0.410
where Ac = π D2/4 and Aw = π DL.
Using the foregoing energy balance, Eq. (1), and the rate equations, Eqs. (2-5), the ceiling
temperature is calculated using radiative properties for the two panel types,
Ceiling panel ε Tc (°C)
Reflective 0.05 14.0
Paint 0.94 8.6 Tc < Tdp <
b) Applying
(b) Applyingthe
theforegoing
foregoingmodel
modelforfor ≤ t≤≤t1≤
0.10.1 .01.0 m the
m, the following
following result
result is obtained
is obtained
15
Ceiling temperature, Tc (C)
10
5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Ceiling insulation thickness, t (m)
164
For the reflective panel (ε = 0.05), the ceiling surface temperature is considerably above the
dew point. Therefore, condensation will not occur for the range of insulation thicknesses. For
the painted panel (ε = 0.94), the ceiling surface temperature is always below the dew point, and
condensation occurs for the range of insulation thicknesses.
COMMENTS: From the analysis, recognize that radiative exchange between the ice and the
ceiling has the dominant effect on the ceiling temperature. With the reflective panel, the rate is
reduced nearly 20-fold relative to that for the painted panel. With the painted panel ceiling,
condensation will occur for most of the conditions likely to exist in the rink.
165