TEA

In India, there are three distinctly different tea growing regions. These regions are geographically separated, thereby producing three entirely different teas both in style & in taste/flavor. Three regions are: Darjeeling (North-Eastern India), Assam (far North-East India) & Nilgiri (South India).

In order to prevent tea from any possible adulteration, Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 is in existence. Tea therefore shall conform to following specifications as indicated in PFA Act, 1954. PFA specifications for tea
Total ash determined on tea dried to constant weight at 100 C 4.0 to 8.0 percent by weight

Total ash soluble in boiling distilled water

Not less than 40.0 percent of total ash Not more than 1.0 percent by weight on dry basis

Ash insoluble in HCL

Extract obtained by boiling dry tea (dried to constant weight at 100 C) with 100 parts of distilled water for one hour under reflux

Not less than 32.0 percent

Alkalinity of soluble ash

Not less than 1.0 percent and not more than 2.2 percent expressed as K2O on dry basis

Crude fibre determined on tea dried to constant weight at 100 C

Not more than 17.0 percent

Tea types: Made tea or Tea manufactured from green tea leaves is generally classified into 3 types viz. Black Tea , Oolong tea & Green Tea.

Green tea is different from Black tea since fermentation of green leaves is arrested in manufacturing green tea. Again black tea is of two types viz. Orthodox tea & CTC tea (Crushing, Tearing & Curling)

Orthodox teas are manufactured with help of orthodox roller in process of rolling while CTC machine/Rotervan is used in rolling process in manufacturing. While, most of teas produced in Sri Lanka is of orthodox variety, Kenya produces mainly CTC teas. Definition: Orthodox tea refers to either hand-processed tea or tea that is rolled with machinery in a manner that mimics hand-rolling. Most specialty tea is made with orthodox production methods. The opposite of orthodox tea is CTC tea, which is machine-processed in a way that chops the leaves into uniformly-sized bits that are typically used for low-grade teabags. Orthodox tea is generally known for being more nuanced and complex than CTC tea. All wholeleaf tea is made with orthodox production methods. TEA Processing: Tea processing in any factory in traditional way comprises following phases 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Withering Rolling Fermentation Drying Sorting & Grading

Depending on system of tea processing, tea is classified into black tea, oolong tea & green tea. Black tea is obtained by so called fermentation process where as for making green tea fermentation is prevented. Characteristic of beverage like tea is determined by major components of leaf i.e. polyphenols, peptic substances, flavouring constituents & caffeine.

Composition of tea Table. Average chemical Composition of Orthodox and CTC tea of assam clone Composition 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Water soluble solids % Theaflavins % Thearubigin % Total Lipid Carotenoids (g/g) Flavour volatilesd Total fibre % Crude fibre% Chlorophyll a mg/g Orthodox teas 39.52 0.59 6.5 3.11 215 18.40 19.35 11.70 1.38 0.77 CTC teas 41.12 1.30 18.00 3.68 176 8.20 18.93 11.12 0.48 0.58

10 Chlorophyll b mg/g

Chemical structure of tea can be generally divided into two parts Insoluble in water & soluble in water.

Soluble Matter (46%) : Tea leaves contain following soluble matter:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Tannin Starch Caffeine Sugars Proteins Pigments 22% 1% 4% 1% 16% 2%

Insoluble Matter (54%) : Tea leaves contain following insoluble matter:

1. 2. 3. 4. Crude Fibers Proteins Cellulose Residues 22% 18% 13% 1%

Insoluble part contributes to physical structure & appearance of tea & consists of crude fiber, cellulose, proteins, lignin, fats, chlorophyll & other pigments & starches.

Part of tea that we are mostly interested in is soluble part, which contains all those health benefits that we like so much, but also defines the way tea will taste. This part consists of polyphenols to large degree (commonly known as catechins also refereed to as tannin), amino acids (theanine), caffeine & minerals. 1. Polyphenols/ Catechins : Chemical composition of fresh tea leaves and type of manufacturing steps it undergoes affects the type and ratio of chemical compounds formed in the final product i.e. tea beverage. Among the numerous compounds, polyphenols and caffeine are the most important one which imparts unique flavor and functional properties to tea beverage. Catechins- are type of polyphenolic compounds present in tea leaves in high concentration. They are the fundamental elements of tea leaves in determining the colour, taste and aroma as well as the functional properties of tea. Catechins are colourless, water-soluble compounds which impart bitterness and astringency to tea infusions. Catechins in tea are also termed as tannins and they make up about 30% of dry weight tea. Catechin content is higher in green & white tea, because black tea undergoes oxidation process which reduces catechin content. During fermentation process about one third of total amount is oxidized into more complicated oxidized products such as theaflavin. Therefore, after this process tea contains two kinds of polyphenols, oxidized & unoxidized (natural polyphenols). Unoxidized polyphenols provide pungency, while oxidized ones give tea its colour & flavour. Higher the degree of oxidation, more colour & less pungency tea has. Green tea, which does not undergo oxidation, has more natural unoxidized polyphenols, & also more astringency. Black tea has more colour but less astringency. Both oxidized & unoxidized polyphenols may be beneficial. Catechins present in tea are namely - ()-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), ()epigallocatechin (EGC), ()-epicatechin gallate (ECG) and ()-epicatechin (EC). Structurally, tea catechins are flavanols derived by the shikimic and acetate-malonate biosynthetic pathways, and are characterised by their C6-C3-C6 skeletal structure which corresponds to 2-phenylsubstituted benzopyrans and pyrones.

Catechins are not unique to tea and have been found in red wines, apples, grapes and chocolate. However, tea is the only beverage that has been found to contain (+)-gallocatechin (GC), EGC, ECG, and EGCG in addition to (+)-catechin (C) and EC.

Figure1: Chemical structures of tea catechins and their epimers

Changes in catechins during fermentation/ processing: Catechins may influence tea quality in several ways. Almost all characteristics of manufactured tea, including taste, colour and aroma, are associated directly or indirectly with changes to tea Catechins. 1. Oxidation in relation to the colour of tea: The colour of a black tea infusion is not actually black, but is bright orange, reddish or reddish brown. Black tea pigments are usually divided into orange coloured theaflavins (TFs) and brown thearubigins (TRs). There are four main TFs in black tea: theaflavin, theaflavin 3-gallate, theaflavin 3'-gallate, and theaflavin 3,3'-digallate (fig.2). These are formed through oxidative dimerisation between quinones derived from a simple catechin and a gallocatechin during the manufacture of black tea (fig.3) Six catechin-derived polyphenols in tea leaves (C, EC, ECG, GC, EGC, & EGCG) are oxidized by enzyme PPO Firing of leaves heats enzymes to their peak activity rate. Catechins first form intermediate compounds called orthoquinones that are very unstable & reactive. Orthoquinones then combine in pairs in series of condensation reactions. They can function as either hydrogen acceptors or hydrogen donors. Combinations can happen through C-O or C-C bonds.

Compounds formed are called Theaflavins (TF), which are larger molecules & are unique in chemistry. Catechins react in pairs to form six theaflavins. TFs are unstable & further oxidize through action of PPO. They then form Thearubigins (TR). TRs are much larger & more complex. Their chemical structure is yet unknown. TRs are a heterogeneous group of phenolic pigments. They originate from further oxidative condensation via either C-O or C-C bond formation in oxidative polymerisation reactions. TRs are formed by the oxidation of any one of the tea catechins or a combination thereof. It has been found that the amount of TRs increases with a corresponding decrease in TFs during fermentation of black tea, indicating that TFs probably act as intermediates to TRs. The content of TFs in black tea is 0.3-2.0% on a dry weight basis while the TR fraction comprises 10-20% of the dry matter of black tea. The content of TFs and TRs and their relative proportions in black tea determine its colour: the higher the TF content, the brighter the tea infusion; the higher the TR content, the browner the tea infusion. The yellow colour in green tea infusions is mainly determined by water-soluble flavonols which include kaempherol, quercetin and myricetin, together with flavones and their glycosides, which have similar structures to catechins. The colour of green tea should be either green or yellowishgreen and should not contain any traces of red or brown colour such as that found in black tea; thus, catechin oxidation should be avoided in green tea production. Tab. Biochemical compounds responsible for colour Compounds Theaflavins Thearubigins Flavonol glycosides Pheophorbide Pheophytin Carotene Colour Yellowish brown Reddish brown Light yellow Brownish Blackish Yellow

Figure 2. Structures of theaflavins in black tea.

Figure 3. Polyphenol oxidation during black tea manufacture. 2. Catechins &The flavour of tea Taste and aroma both contribute to the flavour of tea infusions. The four major sensory properties associated with tea are- astringency, bitterness, sweetness and umami (a brothy or savoury taste. The taste of different types of tea is made up of a balance between these four basic properties. Although bitterness and astringency are unpleasant to most consumers, the taste of both green and black teas should contain elements of astringency and bitterness as these represent overall quality requirements.

Biochemical compounds responsible for taste Compounds Polyphenol Amino acids Caffeine Theaflavins Thearubigin Taste Astringent Brothy Bitter Astringent Ashy and slight astringent

The bitterness and astringency of the green tea brew are almost entirely caused by catechins and other phenolic compounds, with molecular weight determining whether catechins are bitter or astringent. The intensity of bitterness and astringency for catechins decreases in the order ECG > EGCG > GCG > EC > EGC = GC > C, indicating that gallated catechins are more bitter and more astringent than non-gallated ones. Generally speaking, monomeric flavonoids are more bitter than they are astringent, and, as polymer size increases, compounds become more astringent than bitter.

Table. Biochemical compounds responsible for flavour Compounds Linalool, Linalool oxide Geraniol, Phenylacetaldehyde Nerolidol, Benzaldehyde, Methyl salicylate, Phenyl ethanol Flavour Sweet Floral Fruity

Trans-2-Hexenal, n-Hexanal, Cis-3-Hexenol, Grassy, b-Ionone Fresh flavour

3. Catechins & Complex formation: Tea cream and tea scum can often be observed after a cup of black tea is made. Tea cream is defined as the precipitate formed when a black tea infusion cools and is a complex of mainly TFs, TRs, ester-type catechins (EGCG, ECG) and caffeine. Complex formation between TFs and caffeine results in an orange-yellow colour, while the complexes between TRs and caffeine are dark reddish brown. Therefore, the ratio of TFs to TRs can influence the colour of creamed down teas. It was found that binding of caffeine to TRs was weaker than binding of caffeine to TFs. 4. Catechins & Antioxidant properties of tea Catechins are not only important quality contributors to tea but also have important bioactive (functional) properties. Catechins have been shown to have antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, antithrombotic, and vasodilatory activities. These properties are thought to be related to their antioxidative activity. However, individual catechins differ in their chemical or biological activities according to the concentrations and the media used. It is generally accepted that galloyl esters of catechins are more active than non-galloylated catechins because they have lower redox potentials.

Catechin, main polyphenol of green tea scavenges free radicals. Any biological system creates free radicals as biproduct of living. Oxygen accepts electrons to become active Oxygen &

Hydroxyl free radicals. These free radicals attempt to oxidize lipids, contributing to old-age diseases. Catechins protect system against oxidation of lipids & suppress cancer growth by combining protons with free radicals & stopping potential reactions. Catechins have been shown to be more effective scavengers than other antioxidants like vitamins C & E, making them very good for human systems. 2. Caffeine Caffeine is slightly bitter, colorless compound which is present in tea leaf to extent of 2.0% to 4.5%. Caffeine is a purine derivative, which is 1,3,7-tri- methyl xanthine. Caffeine content in black tea is around 3 4% of dry weight. It has stimulating property and removes mental fatigue. The contribution of caffeine to the infusion is the briskness and creamy property resulting from the complex formed by caffeine with polyphenols. Briskness is a taste and sensation while creaming is the turbidity that develops from a good cup of tea when cooled. 3. Tea fibre The leaf cell wall, containing cellulostic materials surrounded by hemi-cellulose and a lignin seal, prevents the penetration of hydrolyzing enzymes. The reduced succulence in the matured shoot is believed to be due to structural bonding between phenolic components of lignin, polysaccharides and cutin of cell wall. 4. Carbohydrates The free sugars found in tea shoot are glucose, fructose, sucrose, raffinose and stachyose. Maltose in Assam variety and rhamnose in china variety appeared special. Pectic substances contain galactose, arabinose, galacturonic acid, rhamnose and ribose. Free sugars are responsible for the synthesis of catechins in tea shoot, formation of heterocyclic flavour compounds during processing of black tea and contributing towards water-soluble solids in tea liquor. Cellulose, hemi-cellulose, pectins and lignins are responsible for the formation of crude fibre content in black tea. 5. Amino acids Aspartic, glutamic, serine, glutamine, tyrosine, valine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine and theanine (5-N-ethylglutamine) were found to be the principal amino acids present in tea leaf. Theanine alone contributed around 60% of total amino acid content. Asparagine was formed during withering. The amino acids play an important role in the development of tea aroma during the processing of black tea. Volatile Carbonyl Compounds formed from the amino acids during processing: Glycine formaldehyde Alanine acetaldehyde Valine isobutyraldehyde Leucine isovaleraldehyde

Isoleucine 2-methylbutanol Methionine methional Phenyl alanine phenylacetaldehyde 6. Lipids and fatty acids The neutral, glyco and phospholipid contents and their fatty acid composition varied in Assam, China and Cambod varieties and also during different stages of black tea manufacture. The major fatty acids available in tea are linolenic, linoleic, oleic and palmitic. Total lipid contents(%) and total fatty acids (g/g) at different stages are as follows:

Total Lipid content (%) Green Leaf Withered Leaf Rolled Leaf Fermented Leaf Black Tea 6.5 5.7 4.5 4.3 2.8

Fatty Acids 9.8 8.4 6.6 4.8 3.7

7. Carotenoids: Four major carotenoids, -carotene, lutein, violaxanthine & neoxanthine have been found in tea. All these carotenoids were found to decrease appreciably during black tea manufacture. Decrease was found to be higher in curling, tearing & crushing method than in conventional orthodox method of tea manufacture. Changes of two of these carotenoids viz. carotene & lutein were not significant statistically during withering but were highly significant during fermentation. However, reverse was true for violoaxanthine where as neoxanthine shows significant changes in both of these stages. 8. Anthocyanidins: Delphenidin & cyanidin were major anthocyanidins present in tea leaf. Anthocyanin contents were higher in tea shoots from pruned than those of unpruned bushes. Role of anthocyanins on quality of black tea however, has not been found to be significant. 9. Organic acids Citric, tartaric, malic, oxalic, fumaric and succinic acids were detected in Assam leaf. Role of organic acids towards the biochemical influence on the quality of black tea is not yet reported.

Principal Components of Black Tea Beverage are given below: Components Catechins Theaflavins Thearubigins Flavanols Phenolic acids and Depsides Amino acids Methylxanthines Carbohydrates Protein Mineral matter Volatiles Concentration (g/100g) 3 3 12 6 10 13 8 10 0.8 8 0.05

The Grading Of Tea

The grading of tea facilitates the international trade in tea and is the central component in the assessing of a money value for the various types of tea This classifying of tea into grades is an important tool for the tea experts in their task of making evaluations and comparisons between different varieties of tea that are grown and manufactured throughout the world. The accepted methods of grading tea relate to the grading of Black tea only. The two main factors which affect the grading of tea are: 1. The size of the tea leaves: Whole, large tea leaves gain a higher grading 2. The method of production of the tea: There are 2 methods of manufacturing tea. These are the traditional method of production of tea by hand and the more modern mechanized method which is aptly called the CTC process (Crush, Tear and Curl). It is considered that the mechanized method damages the tea leaves and as a result the tea leaves bear a lower grading.

Green tea
In respect of Green tea and Oolong tea, as opposed to black tea, no single accepted method of grading has been developed. For these teas there exists a whole range of grading systems and these differ from tea grower to tea grower, from tea growing region to tea growing region and so on. These tea grading methods are based on and depend on factors different from those that affect the grading of Black tea . The grading of Green tea and Oolong tea is affected by factors such as the variety of the tea plant , the region and area in which the tea was grown and the stage at which the picking of the tea leaves took place. The grading of Green tea and Oolong tea indicate the taste and quality of the tea. The Grades Of Tea There are five main grades for classifying tea and these are: 1. Dust D This is the lowest grade in the classification of Black tea. Actually it consists of small pieces of tea leaves and tea dust. 2. Fanning This consists mainly of pieces of tea leaves. It is a low grade. 3. BOP Broken Orange Pekoe This consists of small tea leaves or pieces of large Leaves.It is considered a medium grading for the classification of tea leaves. 4. OP - Orange Pekoe This consists of large, whole tea leaves picked without the flower bud of the tea plant. 5. FOP Flowery Orange Pekoe These are the whole tea leaves together with the flowering tea plant.

In addition to the five main categories of tea there are two further important qualities or traits and these are Golden where gold hues occur in the tea leaves evidencing their quality and Tippy which signifies an abundance of young tea buds. The following classifications relate to choice tea consisting of whole leaves and complemented by one of the above traits: GFOP Golden Flowery Orange Pekoe These are whole, young tea leaves whose tips are golden and are complemented by the flowers of the tea plant. TGFOP Tippy Golden Flowery Orange Pekoe This consists of the tea bud and two uppermost leaves of the tea plant complemented by the flowers of the tea plant. This is the highest category in the grading of tea. However in this highest grading of tea leaves there are also two further quality refinements marking the best of the best: FTGFOP Fine Tippy Golden Flowery Orange Pekoe for choice tea leaves SFTGFOP Super Fine Tippy Golden Flowery Orange Pekoe which is the highest existing grade for tea leaves.

The Quality Of The Tea

In evaluating the quality of tea, the tea experts give consideration to the variety of tea, the region where the tea was grown, the stage of picking of the leaves and the tea manufacturing process. Two further tests help in determining the quality and the taste of the tea brew and these are: The Scientific Test: A critical assessment of the quality of the tea by chemical and physical means such as an analysis of the chemical composition of the tea, use of the electronic nose and other tests. The Sensory Test:Classification of the quality of the tea by way of the senses the taste, smell, the physical feel of the leaves to the touch, and the appearance of the tea which includes the shape, size and color of the leaves. This sensory test is a subjective evaluation of the quality of the tea and is the result of the knowledge and experience of the expert tea tasters. The sensory test is still the most widely accepted means of evaluating the quality of tea.