Caitlin Jade Esparza P.

6 AP Psych

Prenatal Development Through Birth

Conception - Women born with all the eggs ever will have, only 1 in 5000 will mature and release - Men begin producing sperm @ puberty and never stop, although # decreases w/age - 200mil or so approach egg 85,000x larger, release enzyme to penetrate protective coat - Fuses with egg to form fertilized egg (zygote) Prenatal Development - < Half of zygotes survive first 2 weeks - Those that do, cells begin multiplying, 100 after first week - Cells begin to differentiate (brain cell vs. intestine cell etc.) - 10 days after conception, zygote attaches to uterine wall - Inner cells become embryo - Over next 6 weeks, organs begin to form and function and heart begins to beat - 9 weeks in, looks human, called a fetus. - At 6th month stomach & other organs developed enough for chance of survival - Responsive to sound, @ birth prefers mothers to other woman or fathers voice - At each stage, genetic & environmental factors affect development - Placenta, zygotes outer cell attached to uterine wall, transfers nutrients & oxygen - Placenta shields from harmful substances, some, such as teratogens, get through - Teratogens are agents such as chemicals and viruses that cause harm - Baby can be born heroin addict, contract HIV, or underweight etc. - Alcohol depresses activity in mother and fetuss CNS - can result in future alcohol dependence, more likely to be heavy drinker, facial disproportions (fetal alcohol syndrome), birth defects, & mental retardation. The Competent Newborn - Born with reflexes for survival, reach for food, move from pain - New born cries often for food, cries quickly relieved - Try to find out what baby can hear, see, smell ,and think - Habituation, as stimulus becomes more familiar, gets less attention. (Memory) - Born preferring sights and sounds that facilitate social responsiveness

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych

Infancy and Childhood

Physical Development Brain Development - Infancy, grow from newborn to toddler, childhood, grow from toddler to teenager - Develop physically, cognitively, and socially along this path - When born, have most of your brain cells you will ever have - Neural networks that allow to walk, talk, and remember, grow AFTER birth - Age 3-6 rapid growth in frontal lobes, rational planning - Association areas- thinking, memory, &language- last cortical areas to develop - When do, mental abilities surge. - Fiber pathways supporting language and agility proliferate into puberty - After this, pruning process shuts down excess connections& strengthens others - Maturation, orderly sequence in biological growth processes. Inborn, explains commonalities (e.g. stand before walk, nouns b4 adj.). Sets course, experience adjusts. Motor Development - As babies muscles and nervous system develop, more complicated skills emerge - Almost always universal order, rollover-sit unsupported-crawl-walk, experience also has little effect on this before age 1 Maturation and Infant Memory - Average age of earliest conscience memory is 3.5 years - However, brain processes at very young age, (kick -> moving mobile test) - Often, conscience mind does not remember, but nervous system does (recalling classmates) Cognitive Development - Cognition, mental activities associated w/thinking, knowing, remembering,& communicating - Childrens brains are not little adult brains, they reason differently - Piagets studies lead him to believe childrens brains develop in stages - Driving force behind intellectual progression is the struggle to make sense of experiences - Build schemas, concepts/molds we pour our experiences into - Schemas range from dogs and cats to love by adulthood - Assimilate new experiences, interpret them in terms of our current understanding (schemas) - Adjust, or accommodate schemas in order to incorporate info from new experiences - Piaget says that children construct understandings while interacting with the world, experience spurts of change, followed by greater stability as they move from one cognitive plateau to the next

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych Piagets Theory and Current Thinking - That children process through 4 stages of cognitive development, w/ distinctive characteristics that allow specific kinds of thinking. Chart # 1:

Sensorimotor Stage -Take in world by looking, hearing, touching, mouthing grasping. - Birth to about 2 years - < 6 months dont grasp object permanence (out of sight, out of mind) - Piaget believed children in this stage cannot think, no abstract thoughts or ideas ~ critics say understand basics of physics, amazed@ ball disappearing/stopping mid air ~ can also count, stare at wrong number longer than right ones Preoperational Stage - Age 2- about 7 - Too young for mental operations, lack conservation ~ DeLoach shows symbolic thinking at younger age than that (model-->actual room) - Piaget said pre-schoolers are egocentric, have difficulty perceiving from alternate view - Do you have a brother? -yes- whats his name? -jim- does jim have a brother? no- Theory of mind- ideas about own and others mental states, their feelings, perceptions, an thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. - Our abilities to perform mental operations, think symbolically, take anothers perspective are not absent in the preoperational stage and then miraculously appear, rather they show up early and develop gradually.

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych Concrete Operational Stage - About 6 or 7 years old until about 11 or 12 - Grasp conservation, understand that change in form does not mean change in quantity - Comprehend mathematical transformations and conservation, 8+4=12, 12-4=8 Formal Operational Stage - Age 12+ - Thinking expands to include abstract as well as concrete - Capable of solving hypothetical propositions and deducing consequences ~Although full blown logic and reasoning wait till adolescence, rudiments of formal operational thinking begin earlier than Piaget realized. Reflecting on Piagets Theory - Piagets stage theory very influential, validating a # of ideas regarding growth and development in many cultures and societies. - Gave basic order of development - Changes: Development is continuous, not in set stages. Children show mental abilities and operations@ earlier age Formal logic is a smaller part of cognition Social Development - 8 months~ stranger anxiety, fear of strangers - Result of inability to fit strangers into known schemas - The brain, mind, and social-emotional behavior develop together. Origins of Attachment - By 12 months, cling to parent when frightened/expect separation, once reunited shower parent w/ smiles and hugs. - Attachment shown, emotional tie to another person, shown by young children by seeking closeness to caregiver and showing distress upon separation. Body Contact - Bond because of body contact, not nourishment - Shown by monkey+blanket, like fake mother in blanket more than one with food. Familiarity - Contact is one key to attachment, another is familiarity - In many animals, attachments based on familiarity form during a critical period- an optimal period when certain events must take place for proper development, shortly after birth - Imprinting, process through which certain animals form attachments, critical period very early - Children, unlike ducklings, dont imprint, however become attached to what they know

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych Attachment Differences - Placed in strange situation, 60% of infants show secure attachment, explore happily with mothers, but distressed without them - 30% show insecure attachment, cling to mother in strange environment - 60% okay anywhere if mother is there, 30% cling to mother if unknown environment - Mothers who noticed what their baby was doing and responded appropriately cause secure attachment in babies. - Mothers who attended to bay when felt like it but ignored at other times caused insecurely attached. - Harlows studies showed that monkeys had great anxiety if terrycloth mother was removed - Both rat pups and human infants develop secure attachments if the mother is relaxed and attentive. - In many cultures where fathers share the responsibility of raising children, similar secure attachments develop. - Separation anxiety peaks at about 13 months regardless Chart # 2: - Securely attached children approach life with sense of basic trust, sense world is reliable and predictable. - Still debate, but many believe early attachments form foundation for adult relationships etc. - Attachment also linked with motivation, securely attached usually less fear of failure, greater drive to achieve Deprivation of Attachment - Deprivation of attachments can result in: withdrawal, fear, inability to develop speech - Unloved or unloving - Abusers usually were victims but victims usually not abusers. - Those growing up under adversity usually become resilient (children of Holocaust) - About 30% of abused end up abusing their children - Abuse can cause lowered serotonin levels, which help control aggression. - Extreme early trauma- abused hard-wired at young age to deal with malevolent world

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych - Young children terrorized by physical abuse/wartime atrocities, may result in nightmares, depression, adolescence of substance abuse, binge eating, or aggression. - Sexual abuse, esp. if severe and prolonged, increases risk for health problems, psychological disorders, substance abuse, and criminality. ~ At risk for depression if carry gene variation that spurs stress-hormone production - Behavior and emotion arise from a particular environment interacting particular genes. Disruption of Attachment - Separated from families often become upset and soon withdrawn and even despairing - If placed in positive, stable environment, most infants recover from separation distress. - Detaching is a process, not an event - Deep and long-standing detachments seldom break quickly. - Day-care is not really bad for children - However, day-care quality matters, but childs temperament, parents sensitivity, familys economic and educational level matter more than time in day care - Children have ability to thrive under variety of responsive care-giving - All children need consistent, warm relationship with people whom they can learn to trust Self-Concept - Infancys major social achievement is attachment - Childhoods major social achievement is a positive sense of self. - By age 12 most have developed a self-concept, an understanding and assessment of who they are. - For infants, use behavior to determine beginning of her self-awareness. - Darwin says it is when we recognize ourselves in mirror. - About 18m have schema for how face should look, self-concept builds from here. - By school age usually start to describe themselves in terms of gender, group memberships, and psychological traits, and compare themselves with other children. - By age 8 or 10, their self-image is quite stable. - Adoption does not affect self-esteem - Childrens views of themselves affect their actions. Positive self-image= more confident, independent, optimistic, assertive, and sociable.

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych Parenting Styles - Three parenting styles, authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative Authoritarian- impose rules and expect obedience ( often causes children to have lees social skills, and self-esteem) Permissive- submit to childrens desires, make few demands and use little punishment (usually more aggressive and immature) Authoritative- are both demanding and responsive, exert control by setting rules and enforcing them, but they also explain the reason for rules. And esp. with older children, they encourage open discussion when making the rules and allow exceptions (highest self-esteem, self-reliance, and social competence) - Association between certain parenting styles and certain childhood outcomes is correlational. CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION - Other factors like common genes may contribute to easy-going temperament and may invoke an authoritative parenting style.

Adolescence
- Many psychologists used to believe that childhood set traits, now know that it is a life-long process. - Adolescence is the years spent morphing from child to adult.- Starts with physical beginnings of sexual maturity, and ends with the social achievement of independent adult status. - Tension between biological maturity and social dependence creates storm and stress - Western often dont want to relive teenage years, time when peers approval, sense of direction in life in flux, and alienation from parents greatest. - Many time of vitality w/out cares of adulthood, rewarding friendships, heightened idealism, and growing sense of lifes exciting possibilities. Physical Development - Adolescence begins with puberty, time when mature sexually. - Puberty follows a surge of hormones, which may intensify moods and which trigger a two year period of rapid physical development. Girls- about 11. Boys- about 13

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych - Girls grow first, and then boys usually pass them one they hit puberty 2 yrs later - Primary sex characteristics, reproductive organs and external genitalia, develop dramatically during this growth spurt. - So do secondary sex characteristics, nonreproductive traits such as breasts and hips in girls and facial hair and deeper voices in boys. Pubic and underarm hair in both. - However, usually start being attracted to opposite (or same) sex two years prior. - Girls- puberty starts with breast development (now about age 10) - Landmarks of puberty- first ejaculation in boys, and first menstrual period in girls (usually w/in a year of 12 ) - First menstrual period is called menarche. - Brain also develops, until puberty, neurons are increasing. However, at puberty pruning process begins. Unused neuronal connections are lost to make other pathways more efficient. - In adolescence, neurons in frontal lobe grow myelin, which speeds up neuron conduction. - Frontal cortex development lags behind limbic systems development - Hormonal surges and the limbic system may explain occasional teen impulsiveness. - Frontal lobes keep maturing until about 25. Cognitive Development - As cognitive abilities mature, begin thinking about own thinking, and about others thinking. ~often wonder what peers are thinking about them - Also begin to think about what is ideally possible and compare that with the imperfect reality of society, their parents and even themselves. Developing Reasoning Power - Early teens, reasoning self- focused, think private experiences are unique, something parents could not understand. Mom, I love him, you dont understand. - According to Piaget, capable of formal operations, capable of abstract reasoning - Adolescents ponder and debate human nature, good and evil, truth and justice. - Ability to reason hypothetically and deduce consequences also enables to detect inconsistencies in others reasoning, and spot hypocrisy. Develop Morality - Two crucial tasks of childhood and adolescence are discerning right from wrong and developing character- psychological muscles for controlling impulses. - Much of morality rooted in gut-level reactions, for which mind seeks to rationalize - Moral reasoning is the thinking that occurs when consider right and wrong - Kohlberg found that as we develop intellectually; pass through basic levels of thinking

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych Preconvential morality- Before age 9, children show morality to avoid punishment or gain reward Conventional morality- By early adolescence, social rules and laws are upheld for their own sake. Postconventional morality- Affirms peoples agreedupon rights or follows personally perceived ethical principles. - As our thinking matures, so does our behavior in that we become less selfish and more caring. - People who engage in doing the right thing develop empathy for others and the selfdiscipline to resist their own impulses. - Good moral acts induce elation, bad induces disgust. - Could human morality really be run my moral emotions, while moral reasoning struts about pretending to be in control? - Moral reasoning- our minds press secretary- aims to convince ourselves and others of what we intuitively feel. - Moral action feeds moral attitudes Social Development - Adolescents work at synthesizing past, present, and future possibilities into a clearer sense of self. Who am I as an individual? What do I want to do with life? What values should I live by? What do I believe in? (Search for identity)

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych Forming an Identity - In Western cultures, many adolescents try out different selves, changing image. - Then settle into comfortable and consistent identity, leads to forming close relationships. - Identity is our sense of self, according to Erikson, the adolescents task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles. - For adults and adolescents, group identities from around how we differ from those around us - Social identity, the we aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to Who am I? that comes from our group memberships, often forms around distinctiveness. - Some adolescents forge identity early, in line with parents values and expectations. - Others adopt identity in direct opposition to parents but in conformity to particular peer group - Another key task believed to be to find a purpose - Self-esteem falls in early to mid-teen years, depression in girls increases - Rebounds in late teens and twenties - In late teen years, identity also becomes more personalized - Adolescent identity stage followed by developing capacity for intimacy - Ready to form emotionally close relationships Parent and Peer Relationships - Become independent of parents as get older - Still relate in things such as religiosity and career choices - Peer approval and relationships very important Emerging Adulthood - Emerging adulthood is for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to early twenties, bridging gap between adolescent dependence and responsible adulthood. - 18-25 - Live with parents, attend college, or work - Emerging adults usually marry in mid-twenties - Transition to adulthood now more gradual, esp. in Western cultures.

Adulthood
- Begins sometime after mid-twenties - Harder to set adulthood stages than childhood or adolescence Physical Development - Physical abilities, muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output all crest by the mid-twenties.

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych Physical Changes in Middle Adulthood - Around age 50 women go through menopause, time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines. - Men experience decreased levels of hormones and fertility. (gradual decline in sperm count) Physical Changes Later in Life Life Expectancy - Is increasing - More old people, as result of decreased birth rate and increased life expectancy - Lead to decrease in population - Males are more prone to dying, by age 100 females outnumber males 5 to 1 - 126 male embryos for every 100 female, but down to 105 to 100, respectively, at birth - With age, chromosome tips, telomeres, wear down. - As these protective tips wear down, aging cells may die w/out being replaced by exact replicas. - Theory to aging: evolutionary think has to do with survival of species. We survive best when we reproduce, raise children and then stop using resources. - Death- deferral phenomenon, shown by increased death rate after Christmas than on or 2 days before, same for birthdays, and first day of 2000. Theoretically can postpone death - Sensory abilities- > 70, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell diminish, as do muscle strength, reaction time, and stamina. >80 neural processes slow, esp. complex ones - Motor abilities- 70, our motor abilities also decline. 70yearold is no match for a 20yearold individual. Fatal accidents also increase around this age. Dementia and Alzheimers Disease - Some adults do suffer substantial loss of brain cells - Until age 95, incidence of mental disintegration doubles about every 5 yrs - Series of small strokes, brain tumor, or alcohol dependence can progressively damage brain - This causes mental erosion we call dementia, or Alzheimers (3% of worlds pop.) - Alzheimers symptoms are not normal aging. - Firsts memory deteriorates, then reasoning, become emotionally flat, then disoriented and disinhibited, then incontinent, and finally mentally vacant. - Underlying symptoms is loss of brain cells, and deterioration of neurons that produce Ach. Cognitive Development Aging and Memory - As we age remember things like recent events and events from a decade or two back well. - However, names get harder to remember - Recognition memory does not decline remember w/ meaning better than meaningless

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych Aging and Intelligence Phase I: Cross Sectional Evidence for Intellectual Decline - In cross-sectional studies, at one point in time test and compare people of various ages - Older adults give less correct answers than younger ones in intelligence test - For long time view that mental abilities decline with age was widely accepted Phase II Longitudinal Evidence for Intellectual Stability - Longitudinally~ retesting the same people over a period of years - Expected: decrease in intelligence >30 Found: stable until late in life, sometimes increased - Problems with cross-sectional studies~ different ages and eras!- older were born in say 1920s and therefore less educated, than those born in 1970s, better education. Also differences such as family size, more affluent vs. less affluent Phase III: It All Depends - Problems with longitudinal studies- those that survive to end of studies may be bright, healthy - Intelligence not single trait, but rather several - Fluid intelligence is ability to reason speedily - Crystalline intelligence is accumulated knowledge and skills - Believed fluid decreases with age but crystalline does not - e.g gain vocab and knowledge but lose recall memory and process more slowly Social Development - Many differences between young and old not only physical and cognitive abilities, may be life events associated with family, relationships, and work Adulthoods Ages and Stages - Adults probably dont have orderly sequence of agebound stages - Midlife crises less because of age& more because of major events (divorce, job loss) Adulthood Commitments - Love and work, defining themes - Job satisfaction, work can provide sense of identity - Work in job that fits interests and provides sense of competence and accomplishment - Commitment has survival value~ parents that stay together more likely to leave viable future generation Well Being Across the Life Span - Well- being and satisfaction relatively stable across life span.

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych Successful aging is contributed by biological, social-cultural, and psychological influences. Death and Dying - normal range of reactions or grief stages after the death of a loved one varies widely. - Grief more severe if death occurs unexpectedly - Facing death with dignity and openness helps people complete life cycle w/ sense of lifes meaningfulness and unity- that existence has been good and death are parts of ongoing cycle.

Reflections on Two Major Developmental Issues

Continuity and Stages - Those who view development as a slow, continuous process usually emphasize experience and learning. - Biological perspectives however, view maturation and development as a series of genetically predisposed steps or stages (Piaget, Kohlberg, and Erikson) Stability and Change - Lifelong development requires both stability and change. - Personality stabilizes with age. - Does not mean traits change over life. Some temperaments are more stable than others.

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych pg. 176 A/Y- I am not surprised by newborns competency because if they are born with brains with so many excess neurons they have to be aware of something. They also cannot start from nothing; they need something to build off to develop. T/Y 1- This is a good idea because alcohol consumed during pregnancy can result in Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), which can cause physical and cognitive abnormalities in children and in severe cases cause noticeable facial disproportions. pg. 196 A/Y- I personally cannot, but for years my step dad thought the song lyrics Feel Good were milk duds. I thought this was really weird, too many candy songs out there? T/Y 2- Children are not mini adults because according to Piaget, adults are in the formal operational stage, which begins at about 12 years of age. In this stage you can reason abstractly and have the potential for mature moral reasoning. However, in the sensorimotor stage, infants experience the world through their senses and experiences, they also do not understand object permanence and form stranger anxiety. Then in the preoperational stage, children ages 2 to 7 represent things with language and use intuitive reasoning instead of logic, they also show egocentrism. By the time children reach 7 to about 11 they are in the concrete operational stage, in which they think logically about concrete ideas and grasp conservation. It is not until the final formal operational stage however, that children show signs of ability to think abstractly as they will in adulthood. pg. 206 A/Y- The most positive and negative things I remember about my adolescence are in some aspects similar. Some of my worst experiences are issues keeping good friends or even finding friends that I fit in well with. Then, I finally found friends who I am truly comfortable with. There also been negatives but growing up is always going to have its ups and downs so I cannot blame or give credit to either my peers or my parents for that. T/Y 3- In the last century or so the transition from adolescence to adulthood has become more drawn out and is now sometimes even called emerging adulthood. This is mostly because many do not move out immediately because their parents are the most economically efficient place to stay as a single adult. Also, many go to college and are still financially dependent on their parents and as a result, nowadays, in many Western cultures adulthood does not start until the age of 22 or 23.

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych pg. 223 A/Y- I most regret that I was not focused or dedicated enough in my earlier years because I could be a lot more successful now if I was. I do however, feel good about my development as a person in general and my current drive and motivation. T/Y 4- William Axinn and Arland Thorton have reported two possibilities. One is a result of the selection effect; we seek out others who are similar to us. Cohabitation attracts people who are more open to short, quick relationships. Those who cohabitate before marriage tend to be more individualistic and have more fragile relationships, both people being this way, since they sought each other out results in a higher likelihood of divorce. Another possibility is the causal effect of experiencing cohabitation. Eventually, those who cohabitated become more willing to accept an end to an unsatisfying union. This acceptance also increases the chances of divorce. pg. 225 A/Y- I am obviously not the same person I was when I was younger. As I have grown I have had new experienced and learned some lessons. However, certain aspects have not changed about me, my stubbornness; need to be in control, and perfectionism. I also still enjoy things like reading, a love of mine since childhood, but have also learned new hobbies such as tennis as a sophomore and softball at age 9. Also, my drive to always try to be the best, and want the absolute best for myself, has not changed. T/Y 5- Findings by Piaget, Kohlberg, and Erikson, in cognitive development, moral development, and psychosocial development, respectively, all support the stage theory. However, the stage theory, that we grow and mature in set stages, has been challenges by theorists who point out that findings show that change is much more gradual than the stage theory and less universal than initially thought. Also, certain traits are relatively stable throughout a lifetime. However, these findings do concede that we change in many ways such as our social attitudes, esp. in our early years, and findings such as Piaget are still very relevant and lay the correct order even if they actually overlap a lot.

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych

1) The life cycle begins with conception, when a sperm fertilizes an egg, to form a zygote. This zygote rapidly multiplies for the next two weeks until it then becomes an embryo. Attached to the uterine wall by the placenta, the embryos organs begin to form and function. At 9 weeks, it is now a fetus as it will remain until birth. At this point it is recognizably human and also in danger of teratogens, viruses or chemicals that will cause harm, this is what happens in FAS and can inhibit development in the fetus. 2) Newborns experience the world through their sense, and have reflexes that are essential for their survival. They flinch away from pain and look for food from their mother. They also are quick to identify their mothers smell and sound. Further abilities are being studied that test habituation, e.g the novelty- preference procedure. 3) The brains nerves and cells are sculpted by heredity and experience. After birth, interconnections quickly multiply. We develop in a semi- predictable way, crawling before walking and garbled language before coherent speech. We gain conscious memory from about age 3 on, mostly because parts of the brain have not matured yet. 4) Piaget proposed that we use assimilation and accommodation to relate and edit our schemas, tools of seeing the world, in order to build our understanding of the world. Development starts with the sensorimotor stage(0-2), in which a child mostly experiences the world through their sense, and develops object permanence. Then comes the preoperational stage (2-6) in which children develop a theory of mind and express the world in language and use intuitive rather than logical reasoning. However, they are egocentric, unable to see from anothers point of view and unable to perform simple logical operations. The concrete operational stage (7-12) is when a child can perform concrete operations, and thinks logically about concrete events but not abstract ones. They also understand the idea of conservation, unlike in past stages. Lastly is the formal operational stage (12+) in which children can reason abstractly and have a potential for moral reasoning. However, todays research shows that young children are more competent than he believed and that we develop continuously and not in set stages. 5) Parent- infant attachments form with the mother and child early on, but most attachments from when infants develop stranger anxiety at about 8 months. They develop attachments, esp. stronger ones when caregivers are comfortable, familiar, and responsive. We develop attachments based largely on parenting, many animals however, form attachments in the critical period in which they imprint. Infants however, can have

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych different attachment styles based on individual temperament and the responsiveness of their caregiver. 6) Studies have shown that some children are securely attached and others insecurely. Sensitive, responsive parents tend to have securely attached children who are more willing to wander. Adult relationships tend to form attachments on the same principles as infant ones; this supports the idea that basic trust is formed in infancy by our experiences with caregivers. 7) Although children are very resilient, if moved too much, abused, or otherwise prohibited from forming attachments by age 2, they may have issues with attachment later in life. Day care, if good quality with responsive adults in a safe environment, does not seem to show any negative impact on children. Some studies have shown excessive time in day care can cause aggressiveness and defiance, but other factors such as temperament must also be considered. 8) Self- concept, our sense of self and worth tend to emerge gradually. We recognize ourselves in a mirror at about 15 months and by school age can describe ourselves. At age 8 or so our self-image is relatively stable. Different parenting styles, authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative, show different amounts of control. Children with high esteem and a positive self- concept tend to have authoritative parents, but cause and effect cannot be verified. 9) Adolescence is marked by many physical changes. In these transition years between puberty and social independence both primary and secondary sexual characteristics develop. The primaries are reproductive organs and external genetalia, secondary being breasts and hips in girls, voice change in boys, and body hair in both. Also, girls experience changes sooner, and tend to pass boys in height from the ages of 11 to 13, but then boys hit puberty at this time and have a growth streak. 10) Piaget theorized that adolescents develop the ability for formal operations and that this development also applies to moral development. Kohlberg proposed a stagre theory for moral development, from preconventional, shown by a self-interest sense of morality. Followed by conventional morality, which upholds laws and social rules just because. Then postconventional morality, which is based on universal ethical principles. Critics of Kohlberg morality lies in action, and also that he did not have a representative enough sample, saying his postconventional morality is the perspective of middle-class males. 11) Erikson said that the chief task of adolescence is to solidify ones sense of self. This is often accomplished by trying out different roles and images. During this time,

Caitlin Jade Esparza P.6 AP Psych adolescents are less influenced by parents and more so by peers. However, adolescents are still influenced by peers in terms of religion, their future, and often political views. 12) Emerging adulthood is a stage between adolescence and adulthood that is forming in many western cultures. This is usually because many people are still dependent on their parents in some way even after adolescence. This is often because they still live with or near their parents, or as more people attend college after high school many are still financially dependent on their parents. As a result, adulthood often does nto happen until the age of 22 or 23. 13) As we age, in middle and late adulthood, muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac output begin to decline. Around age 50, women go through menopause, and are no longer able to reproduce. This does not happen in men, they become steadily less fertile but have no sudden drop. 14) As years pass, the ability to recall drops especially when it comes to meaningless information. However, recognition memory stays steady throughout the years despite popular belief that all elderly are senile. Also, cross-sectional and longitudinal studies show that fluid intelligence, ability to process speedily, declines with time, but crystallized intelligence, the accumulative knowledge in person, does not. 15) Adults do not have set stages as many believe children do. Most events are determined by the social clock, in other words, most marry, have kids, retire, according to their culture. Dominant themes that guide us in adulthood are love and work. Life satisfaction does not decrease across a lifespan but stays relatively steady.