Chapter 4

The Stress-Energy Tensor

Where matter is present, the Laplace equation of Newtonian theory is re-
placed by

2
= 4G ,
where G is the universal constant of gravitation and is the mass density. In
general relativity we shall have to nd a suitable tensor generalization T
ij
of
the mass density to serve as the source of the gravitational eld, and we shall
have to nd the correct replacement for the vacuum eld equations R
ij
= 0.
Electromagnetic Fields
Again we have little other than Maxwells theory of electromagnetism to
guide us in this endeavor. In Ch. 4 of Travelling in Time we saw that the
Maxwell eld equations could be derived using a variational principle, and it
was the form of the Lagrangian density from which we were able to identify
objects that transform as vectors and tensors under Lorentz transformations.
Perhaps the variational principle can help us in our quest to identify the
tensor T
ij
that we need when we want to write Einsteins eld equations in
the presence of electromagnetic elds.
At this time we can reexpress the variational principle of Ch. 4 in terms
of the language of dierential forms:

_ _
1
8
F F +
1
c
A J
_
= 0 .
29
30
Here it is understood that F = dA and one is to vary the components of
A = A
i
dx
i
holding the coordinate dierentials dx
i
xed. Since A is a 1-form
and J is a 3-form, the second term is a 4-form. Since F and F are both
2-forms, the rst term is also a 4-form.
The variational principle gives us

_ _
1
8
F F +
1
c
A J
_
=
_

_
1
8
F F +
1
c
A J
_
,
where

_
1
8
dA dA +
1
c
A J
_
=
1
8
[d(A) dA + dA d(A)] +
1
c
(A) J
=
1
4
d(A) dA +
1
c
(A) J
= d
_
1
4
(A) dA
_
+ (A)
_

1
4
d(dA) +
1
c
J
_
.
The rst term is an exact dierential, so the four-volume integral of that term
can be expressed as a three-surface integral. By demanding that A = 0 on
that surface, the surface integral can be made to vanish. That leaves us with
the implication
_
(A)
_

1
4
d(dA) +
1
c
J
_
= 0 .
However, the variation A is supposed to be completely arbitrary, so we
conclude that
d(dA) =
4
c
J ,
or
d F =
4
c
J , dF = 0 .
This is the form of Maxwells equations in an arbitrary curved spacetime.
Ex. 14 Show that these equations reduce to the familiar form of Maxwells
equations when you employ Cartesian coordinates in Minkowski space.
Alternatively, one could actually write out the Lagrangian density in
terms of arbitrary curvilinear coordinates, and then carry out the variation
31
with respect to A
i
. You would get the same Lagrange equations from the
Lagrangian density
L =
1
16
F
ab
F
ab

g .
Moreover, proceeding this way lets one see more explicitly how the La-
grangian density depends upon the metric tensor. Thus, we write
L =
1
16
F
ab
F
cd
g
ac
g
bd

g .
Suppose one holds F
ij
xed, and one varies instead the metric tensor, or even
better, the tensor density
G
ij
:= g
ij

g .
Since the Lagrangian density L is a Lorentz invariant object, we shall get
L =
1
2
T
ij
G
ij
,
where T
ij
is a symmetrical tensor. Could this tensor T
ij
be the source of the
gravitational eld for electromagnetic elds?
To proceed further, we must express L in terms of G
ij
. This proves not
to be very dicult, for one can easily show that G = g, where G is the
determinant of G
ij
and g is the determinant of g
ij
. Hence
L =
1
16
F
ab
F
cd
G
ac
G
bd
/

G .
By looking at the explicit determinants, one can also show that

G =
1
2
g
ij
G
ij
.
Using this result one can identify the traceless symmetric tensor
T
ij
=
1
4
_
F
k
i
F
jk

1
4
F
ab
F
ab
g
ij
_
.
One can get a feeling for the physical signicance of the tensor T
ij
by
considering an orthonormal frame corresponding to a tetrad {e
1
, e
2
, e
3
, e
4
}
relative to which the electric and magnetic eld components are given by
E
1
= F
14
, E
2
= F
24
, E
3
= F
34
, H
1
= F
23
, H
2
= F
31
, H
3
= F
12
.
32
Ex. 15 Show that T
44
=
1
8
(E
2
+H
2
), which is the energy density associated
with the electromagnetic eld.
Ex. 16 Show that, for i = 1, 2, 3, T
i4
=
1
4
(

E

H)
i
, which is the Poynting
vector associated with the electromagnetic eld.
Ex. 17 Show that, for i, j = 1, 2, 3,
T
ij
=
1
4
{E
i
E
j
+ H
i
H
j

1
2
(E
2
+ H
2
)g
ij
} ,
which is the stress tensor associated with the electromagnetic eld.
Alternatively, we can express these results in the following interesting man-
ner:
T
ij
=
1
8
{(E
i
iH
i
)(E
j
+ iH
j
) + (E
i
+ iH
i
)(E
j
iH
j
)}
+
1
8
(

E i

H) (

E + i

H)g
ij
,
T
i4
=
1
8i
[(

E i

H) (

E + i

H)]
i
,
T
44
=
1
8
(

E i

H) (

E + i

H).
Here, each expression is homogeneous rst order in

Ei

H and homogeneous
rst order in

E + i

H.
Our sign conventions
1
have been selected so that

i
T
ij

j
0
for any timelike vector
i
.
For those who have not, in their courses in electromagnetic theory, yet
encountered the eld energy density, the Poynting vector or the stress tensor,
here is a brief review of these topics.
1
In some of my early papers I used the opposite sign convention, so please be careful if
you consult any of those papers.
33
We begin with the Maxwell equations,

H =
4
c
+
1
c

E ,

E =
1
c

H ,

H = 0 ,

E = 4 ,
and the vector identity

E

H) =

H (

E)

E (

H) ,
and easily establish that


E +

_
c
4

E

H
_
+

t
_
1
8
(E
2
+ H
2
)
_
= 0 .
This resembles the continuity equation that we encountered when we were
considering conservation charge. Integrating over a volume V , and using the
divergence theorem, we get
_
V


EdV +
_
S
_
c
4

E

H
_
ndS +
d
dt
_
V
_
1
8
(E
2
+ H
2
)
_
dV = 0 .
The rst term represents the Joule heating power in the volume V , the second
the rate of ow of energy out through the boundary surface S of the volume
V , and the third the rate of change of eld energy within the volume V . In
this way one can identify the eld energy density with the quantity
1
8
(E
2
+ H
2
) ,
and the rate of ow of energy density with the quantity
c
4

E

H ,
which is called the Poynting vector.
Let us return to the Maxwell equations and consider the expression

T,
where
T :=
1
4
_

E

E +

H

H
1
2
I(E
2
+ H
2
)
_
.
34
Using the divergence theorem one obtains after a reasonable amount of work
the equation
_
V
_

E +
1
c


H
_
dV +
_
S
(n T)dS +
d
dt
_
V
_
1
4c
(

E

H)
_
dV = 0 .
The rst term is the total force upon the charges located in the volume V ,
the second the surface stresses produced by the electromagnetic eld, and
the third the rate of change of eld momentum within the volume V .
In curved spacetime one has these same conservation laws, which can be
expressed in the form

i
T
i
j
= 0 ,
where
i
is the covariant derivative with respect to x
i
. It is the electro-
magnetic stress-energy tensor T
ij
, and other symmetric tensors that satisfy
such a conservation law, that Einstein used in formulating the nonvacuum
gravitational eld equations,
R
ij

1
2
Rg
ij
= (8G/c
4
)T
ij
.
The numerical constant on the right side is determined by considering the
Newtonian limit of the theory. The reason for including the second term on
the left side is that the equations

i
_
R
i
j

1
2
R
i
j
_
= 0
are identities, called the contracted Bianchi identities.
Stress-Energy Tensor of Matter
In the absence of a complete theory of matter, one can nevertheless construct
phenomenological models of material sources of gravitational elds. The sim-
plest such model is that of dust, wherein the stress-energy tensor is assumed
to have the form
T
ij
= u
i
u
j
,
where is the rest-mass density and u
i
is the four-vector velocity eld of
the dust. Where the dust happens to be at rest, the only non-vanishing
orthonormal component is
T
44
= c
2
,
35
the energy density corresponding to the rest-mass density . Slightly more
complex is the stress-energy tensor
T
ij
= ( + p/c
2
)u
i
u
j
+ pg
ij
of a perfect uid, where p is the isotropic pressure, which is assumed to be
related to the mass density by some equation of state.
Now, what is the signicance of the equations

i
_
( + p/c
2
)u
i
u
j
+ pg
ij
_
= 0
that are implied by the contracted Bianchi identities? Using the fact that

i
g
ij
= 0, we can cast these equations into the form
( + p/c
2
)(u
i

i
)u
j
+ (
i
p)g
ij
+
i
_
( + p/c
2
)u
i
_
u
j
= 0 .
Then, contracting with u
j
and using
u
i
u
i
= c
2
,
we obtain

i
_
( + p/c
2
)u
i
_
(1/c
2
)u
i

i
p = 0 , (4.1)
and, therefore,
( + p/c
2
)(u
i

i
)u
j
+
i
p
_
g
ij
+ (1/c
2
)u
i
u
j
_
= 0 . (4.2)
Evaluating the limit of Eq. (4.1) as c , we obtain

i
_
u
i
_
= 0 ,
which is the continuity equation associated with the classical law of conser-
vation of mass. On the other hand, Eq. (4.2) is a relativistic generalization of
Newtons second law of motion, as applied to a specic uid element.
2
The
classical equation is simply

_
u
t
+ (u

)u
_
+

p = 0 ,
where account has been taken of the fact that the uid velocity
u = u(x(t), t)
depends upon t both explicitly and implicitly through x(t). Here we have
another indication that the equations of motion of material bodies are de-
termined by the gravitational eld equations through the contracted Bianchi
identities.
2
Newtons second law must always be applied to a body, that is, a denite collection of
atoms.