CONSTRUCTION NORMS AND REGULATIONS

HIGHWAY DESIGN STANDARD

CNR 32-01-07

Second official edition MINISTRY OF ROAD, TRANSPORT AND TOURISM

Ulaanbaatar 2007

1 Highway classification Functional classification Technical classification General design principles Design vehicle dimensions

GENERAL PROVISIONS

2. HIGHWAY OPERATIONS AND TRAFFIC SAFETY General principles Roadway lighting 3 4 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION Environmental impact assessment BASIC DESIGN CONTROLS AND REQUIREMENTS Design speed and loads Cross Section Elements Number of Traffic Lanes Lane width Auxiliary lanes Cross slopes Travelway widening Horizontal and Vertical alignment Landscape Design Bicycle paths and sidewalks 5 INTERSECTIONS AND JUNCTIONS At grade intersections and junctions Interchanges Intersection; highways with railroads and utility lines 6 ROADBED General Design groundwater level Soils Aclive subgrade layer Embankments Cuts Drainage facilities Roadbed in difficult conditions 7 PAVEMENT STRUCTURE Pavement classification Performance requirements for pavement surfacing

General Design Principles Rigid pavements Additional pavement layers 8 9 BRIDGES, CULVERTS AND TUNNELS HIGHWAY HARDWARE AND PROTECTION STRUCTRES Roadside and traffic safety Traffic barriers Median barriers Guide posts Road signs and markings Protection structures 10 ROAD SERVICE FACILITIES Service centers Rest areas Fueling stations Border crossing facilities APPENDIX A Glossary APPENDIX B Design width of clear roadside zone APPENDIX C Climatic factors and Geotechnical properties of soils

HIGHWAY DESIGN STANDARD

Highway design standards in this document govern design of new and reconstruction of existing public roads outside of urban areas, irrespective of their state or private ownership. The present standard does not apply to design of temporary public roads. 1. 1.1 GENERAL PROVISIONS Design according to the present standards are based on a functional road classification system whereby the characteristics of a highway are determined based on its functional purpose and related level-of service requirements. Level-of-service is a qualitative index reflecting general operating conditions within a traffic stream defining safety, comfort, lack of traffic interruptions and determined primarily by the congestion level reflected in the service flow volume to capacity ratio. General quantitative characteristics of six levels of service, from A to F, are given in Table 1 with quantitative criteria based on peak hour traffic volume to highway capacity ratio. Design criteria specified in terms of the required level of service should be satisfied for Design Hourly6 Volume defined as hourly traffic volume that can be exceeded during not more than 50 hours of the last year of design period. In instances when data on hourly traffic volumes are not available it is permissible to use two-way Annual Average Daily Traffic for design of facilities classified as a conventional highway in Par 1.8. In conditions when the average monthly daily traffic for the peak volume month more than twice exceeds the average annual daily traffic, the later should be increased by a factor of 1.5 for design purposes. Classification of Highway 1.6 The road classification system used in this standard:

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

Subdivides road into functional classes on the basis of common traffic and land services within the transportation network and, as a rule, administered by the same jurisdiction. identifies highway types based on technical characteristics selected to perform specific network functions. subdivides roads within the same type into technical categories based on traffic volumes.

Table 1 Levels of Traffic Passage (levels of Service criteria)

Level-ofService Volume to capacity ratio Two-lane < 0.10 All terrain types 0.10-0.20 All terrain types Multilane < 0.30 Traffic volume per lane per hour Two-lane Multilane <650 Traffic characterization Two-lane Nearly free flow and little restriction on passing, average speed above 90 km/hr. Vehicles move in groups, overtaking is with some restrictions, average speed over 80 km/hr. Stable flow, vehicles move in large groups, overtaking is restricted, average speed over 70 km/hr Traffic flow approaching unstable, frequent traffic interruptions, low average speed Multi-lane Free traffic flow, vehicle density is below 6 per km Nearly free flow traffic, some vehicle interference, vehicle density below 10 per km Speeds are dose to free flow, lane change restricted, vehicle density below 15 per km. Speeds begin to decline, drivers start experiencing discomfort, vehicle density below 20 per km Traffic approaching unstable, density close to 25 vehicles per km

A Highest level

< 150

B High

0.30-0.45

150-240

650-800

C Average

0.10-0.40 All terrain types Flat 0.70-1.00 Rolling 0.60-1.00 Mount 0.50-1.00 Flat 0.40-0.70 Rolling 0.40-0.60 Mount 0.30-0.50 1.00 All terrain types

0.45-0.60

240-600

800-1200

D Low

0.60-0.70

600-750

12001400

Forced unstable flow 14002000

E Very Low

0.70-1.00

750-1200

F Failure

1.00

1200

2000

Forced unstable flow, average speed below 50 km/hr

Forced unstable flow

Functional classification 1.7 With respect to traffic and land services, well as on the basis of common jurisdiction, public roads are subdivided into the following three functional classes: International roads: roads designated as a part of international highway network international roads. Regional roads: provide direct traffic se between regional centers, smaller towns and villages. Regional roads generally form an integrated network through developed areas, collect local traffic feeding it to higher volume roads and arterials as distribute traffic in the reverse sequence. Local roads: provide access to land adjacent the regional roads and serve travel over relatively short distances. Traffic volumes on local roads are generally low. Technical classification 1.8 With respect to means of achieving vehicle access to and from abutting property and other highway facilities, public roads are subdivided into the following types:

highways with restricted access, where access connections are by means of grade-separated interchanges with a limited number of selected public roads highways with partially restricted access, achieved either by means of gradeseparation structures or through at-grade intersections such that preference is given to through traffic. Grade-separated railway crossings are mandatory as partial access control. conventional highways, with no restrictions on access in most cases.

1.9

For purposes of selecting effective design solutions to assure performance of road functions according to classification in Par.1.7, public roads are subdivided into the following four design types: Expressways: accommodate movements of traffic volumes safe, comfortable and free from any interruptions. Designed multilane divided highways with partial access control and assure a high level of service/passage. Other highways, as a rule, has no restrictions on access and are comprised of two basic groups: Multi-lane highways, with more than two traffic lanes, can serve a wide range of traffic volumes, can be divided or undivided, and depending on the initial design, can be converted into higher level facilities such as highspeed highway freeways. Partial access control may be warranted on some road sections to maintain high level of service. Two-lane highways, are flexible facilities in terms of their functional purpose and a range of design speeds but limited in terms of traffic capacity. When traffic volumes warrant, truck climbing lanes are provided. Low volume roads primarily serve traffic to and from isolated soums, baghs, recreational sites and resource development areas. Depending on the specific function, these roads are designed as one or two-lane facilities, generally, suitable for operation at slow speeds.

1.10 Conventional highways are subdivided into four technical categories corresponding to ranges of traffic volumes and level-of-service requirements; Table 2 establishes a relationship between highway functional classes and design types and categories that are adequate to satisfy functional requirements according to the classification system in Par. 1.7. 1.11 Passenger car equivalency factors should be selected for all commercial vehicles and busses as follows: level terrain rolling terrain -2 -4

mountainous terrain - 8 1.12 Selection of the number of traffic lanes for multi-lane highways and roads of categories lll-IV highways and of low volume roads should be based on level-ofservice criteria in Table 2. General design principles 1.13 The design type of a new or a reconstructed highway is determined by its functional classification and is detailed in the course of a feasibility study based on a 20-year design period.

1.14 The initial year of the projected design period should be taken as the year when the road is expected to be commissioned. 1.15 Basic design solutions related to vertical and horizontal alignment, dimensions of bridges and of other road structures should be made taking into account future developments beyond the initial road design period. 1.16 Selection of the number the traffic lanes for multi-lane highways, types of intersections and interchanges should be carried out taking into account the possibility of a staged construction as traffic volume increases. Design vehicle dimensions 1.17 Public roads designed according to this standard are intended for road vehicles with the following maximum dimensions: length of a single truck - up to 12 m and length trailers up to 24 m; width - up to 2.5 m, height - up to 4m. Table 2 Functional and technical classifications of highways and corresponding operation traffic characteristics and traffic volume
2

Road type Expressway Category I Category II Category III Category IV Category V

Note:
1 2

Number of lanes
1

Functional classification Arterial roads Arterial roads Arterial roads Arterial/regional roads Arterial/regional roads Regional roads

Levelofservice A B B B C D

Divided/ undivided Divided Divided or undivided Undivided Undivided Undivided Undivided

Access control

Multilanes Multilanes

Restricted Partially restricted Unrestricted Unrestricted Unrestricted Unrestricted

Multilanes Twolanes Twolanes 1-2 lanes

Multi-lane highways: number of lanes greater than 2 Volume to capacity ratio is defined in par 1.2 3 Definition of restricted access

2. HIGHWAY OPERATIONS AND TRAFFIC SAFETY General principles 2.1 Design of new highways and reconstruction and rehabilitation of existing highway facilities must include measures directed both at the reduction of traffic accident risks and mitigation of accident severity. Feasibility studies carried out in connection with construction, reconstruction and rehabilitation of highways must consider alternative traffic safety measures weighing their effectiveness in relation to costs.

2.2

2.3

Feasibility studies carried out in connection with construction, reconstruction and rehabilitation of highways must consider alternative traffic safety measures weighing their effectiveness in relation to costs. Highway safety features that must be considered in the course of a feasibility study for construction and reconstruction of highways to achieve the most significant reduction in risk of traffic accidents include: Full or partial access control Minimizing the number of at-grade intersection Providing grade-separated railway crossing

2.4

2.5

The following safety related issues must be addressed in the course of highway design:

Traffic safety on vertical and horizontal curves and grades Visual orientation of drivers, including adequate sight distances at intersections. Necessary skid resistance of the roadway surface in all-weather conditions. Adequate roadside safety to provide an opportunity for a vehicle leaving the travelway in emergency situations to recover or stop. Develop schematics for installation of traffic barriers, channelization, road markings, locations of traffic signs, automated systems to control traffic lights and driver advisory systems. Safe locations for intersection and junctions with necessary facilities to control traffic operations. Pedestrian crossings, bicycle paths, rest areas, bus stops, etc. Fencing at locations where instances of animal crossing are frequent. The use of additional traffic lanes on two-lane highways with heavy traffic. The use of left-turn lanes with divisor medians at the access to intersections. The use of middle lanes on roads with odd number of lanes for left turns.

2.6

Acceptance f minimum standards according to Par. 4.22 for new design or reconstruction of vertical alignment, horizontal alignment and cross section elements should be accompanied by a study of alternative solutions, taking into account highway safety. Utilization of steep embankment slopes in conditions envisaged in Par. 6.18 should accompanied by an economic analysis weighing the interests of traffic safety and the value of additional right-of-way required. Ensuring an adequate visibility range at accesses to at-grade intersections using visibility requirements higher than minimum values of Par. 5.11. Road design must include development of schematics for installation of road signs indicating their locations and installation methods. For roads with high and intermediate surfacing, project design documents must also include a road marking scheme. The ratio of road markings on the straight section will be 3:1, at transition curve 1:3, at curves with 1000-600m radii 1:3 and at curves with more than 1000m 3:1. The schematics for road markings must be coordinated with locations of roads (particularly, in areas with a prolonged snow cover).

2.7

2.8 2.9

Installation of all traffic control devices must be carried out according to MNS 4596-2007. To ensure traffic safety, there must be no commercial advertising on arterial highways. 2.10 Distinctive color surfacing is recommended for marking pedestrian crossings, bus stops, speed change lanes, additional lanes on grades, vehicle stopping lanes, roadway in tunnels and under overpasses, at railway crossings, small bridges and other sections where obstructions are poorly visible on the pavement background. Roadway lighting 2.11 Stationary electric lighting should be installed on highway sections within populated areas. Provided there is a possibility of using existing power distribution networks, lighting should also be installed on large bridges, bus stops, intersections between arterial roads, intersections of arterial roads with railways, on connecting branches of interchanges and on roundabouts. If a distance between adjacent lighted sections is less than 250 m, it is recommended to provide a continuous lighting to avoid alternation of lighted and non-lighted areas. 2.12 The average luminance of the road surface on sections outside of populated areas, including sections of large and medium bridges, should be 0.8cd/m2 for multi-lane highways, 0.6 cd/m2 two-lane highways and 0.4 cd/m2 on connecting branches of interchanges. The ratio of the maximum luminance of the roadway surfacing to the minimum luminance should not exceed 3:1 on sections of multi-lane highways and 5:1 on roads of other types. The average horizontal illuminance of road sections of a length of up to 60 m under overpasses and bridges should be 15 Ix during dark hours, and the ratio of the maximum illuminance to the average-should be not more than 3:1. Lighting of highway sections within populated areas should comply with requirements as specified for those within the cities. Lighting installations on intersections between highways and railways should conform to lighting requirements as specified in the system of safely standards for railways. 2.13 Highway light posts can be installed on the median of width in excess of 5 m and shielded by guardrail. 2.14 Highway lighting should be switched on when the level of natural illuminance decreases to 15-20 Ix and lighting should be switched off when the level of natural illuminance increases to 10 Ix. 2.15 Management of the highway lighting network should be carried out using centralized remote control systems. 3. 3.1 ENVIRONEMNTAL PROTECTION Environmental impact assessment The environmental consequences of constructing new or reconstructing an existing road must be determined through a multidisciplinary environmental assessment of the project impacts and development of a mitigation plan. The environmental impact assessment road project must be completed in the course of the project feasibility study. Mitigation plan must be prepared during

3.2

the detailed project design stage. Road works cannot be started without review and approval of project documents by environmental assessment agencies. 3.3 The environmental impact assessment of road projects must consider negative impacts from the following sources related to highway operation, and road construction works: Transport pollution: emission of pollutants into the atmosphere, traffic noise and roadside pollution as a result of drainage from the roadway. Landscape changes as a result of road construction: terrain changes, alterations in drainage patterns, changes in ground water level, soil sion, alterations in land use patterns, demolition or reconstruction of existing structures. Impacts during construction: air and ground pollution due to construction machinery; construe! noise; dust spreading; reservoir pollution and damage to temporary acquired land. 3.4 Consequences of environmental impacts should be evaluated for the following elements: Natural surrounding. atmospheric composition; dust content; level; composition of surface drainage; water quality in reservoirs; ground water quality; ground water levels and flow patterns; ground stability; resistance to erosion; preservation of soil fertility; plants, animals (trees, bushes, a grassy cover, agricultural plants, animals, fish, water ecosystems). Socio-economic: population (interests of community and of individuals); land use (housing accommodation, agriculture, forests, recreation, industrial enterprises, etc.); transport infrastructure (transport network, availability of social units for transport); units under special protection (monuments to a history and culture, archeological units, reservations, natural phenomena sites); aesthetic aspects of the landscape (natural, artificial urbanized landscapes). 3.5 As a result of determining the range of pollutants spreading on the area adjacent to the road, boundaries of the zone of elevated influence should be established where, under a combination of unfavorable factors, pollution or environmental changes can exceed legal limits specified in appropriate regulatory documents or project-specific limits established as a result of a special study. The width of the zone of elevated road influence along the entire length if multilane highways should be determined by calculation of spreading of the most dangerous pollutants such as exhaust gas and traffic noise. For other roads, such calculations are performed only for sections passing through populated areas and specially protected lands. For the purpose of narrowing the zone of elevated road influence it is necessary to make use of special protective structures (noise-protective screens, guardrails, banks), multilane wood and bushes planting or special roadbed design (cuts, high embankments). Results of environmental impact assessment, including effects of mitigation measures and protective structures, must be used in preparation of terms and conditions for land utilization. Solutions being accepted as a result of design work should be subjected to coordination both with local environmental protection authorities and public.

3.6

3.7

3.8

The highway route location should be selected on the least valuable arable lands, preferably along boundaries of landscapes. As a rule, the road location for transit traffic must not be selected through protected watersheds and populated areas. Places of mass residence and reproduction of wild animals, birds, aquatic animals should be outside of the zone of a road influence which can be approximately taken as 10 times the width of the zone of elevated road influence. Construction of special structures (fences, cattle crossings) or introduction of traffic control measures such as limiting speed, time of traffic, etc., should be implemented when a road crosses a habitual path animal migration.

3.9

The highway route for bypasses of populated areas should be located from the lee side, using predominant wind direction during the time of the year when conditions are most unfavorable from the point of view of air quality.

3.10 Design solutions for the roadbed, drainage structures and facilities must take into account, environmental consequences of changes in surface drainage, groundwater levels, snow accumulation. It is necessary to prevent formation of reservoirs with impaired drainage leading to bogginess. There should be no changes in groundwater level in areas of forests, water reservoirs, agricultural areas and in boggy areas of agricultural significance. 3.11 During construction of roads on boggy or irrigated areas, drainage or flooding of lands due to cuts or embankments is permissible only when such actions are compatible with land reclamation projects within the highway area. 3.12 Diversion of flows from different watersheds into a single drainage basin must not be carried out in erosion-prone areas. 3.13 Fertile soils within areas of the right-of-way to be occupied by roadbed and other road structures as well as in borrow areas, quarries and other workings should be stripped and stored in piles in the designated location. The depth of fertile soil stripping should be determined in the course of site investigation. Removal of the fertile soil layer is not necessary when it is permanently frozen, from swamp areas, slopes steeper than 1:3. Note: Clayey to sandy-loam humus soils with physical and chemical compositions conforming to requirements of MNS are referred to as fertile soils. Fertile soils can be used for stabilization of road-bed slopes, recultivation of borrow areas and quarries, for grass sowing. The surplus volume of humus soils should be disposed of if it cannot be marketed. 3.14 Selection of design solutions for structures and buildings in road-related areas should be carried out taking into account their visual qualities compatibility with natural surrounding. It is necessary for aesthetic purposes to avoid disruptions of a landscape, introduction into natural landscape of unusual geometric forms (large geometric volumes, bright colors, changes in a natural relief, etc.) and the destruction of visually attractive natural complexes and picturesque elements. The natural form and variable steep pitch should be applied to slopes of deep excavations and high embankments. 3.15 Highway design tor traffic volumes in excess of 1500 veh/day within the limits of populated areas and for roads with traffic volume more than 700 veh/day near protected water reservoirs and recreational facilities must stipulate measures for collection and diversion of discharge from roadways, bridges, rest areas, etc.

The discharge collected outside the protected area of a water reservoir should be diverted into accumulation wells with subsequent discharge into reservoirs through soil filters alter primary sedimentation. The quality of water in reservoirs should meet regulatory requirements. 3.16 Highway design projects must stipulate preservation of historic and cultural monuments located within the construction area - ancient structures, burial grounds, archeological units, objects of special attention of the local population, etc., and also unique natural sites - special geological forms, water sources, valuable specimens of trees, etc. 3.17 Utilization of industrial wastes should be carried out taking into account their possible toxic properties and radioactivity. Utilization of organic, water-soluble, chemically active industrial and household wastes requires approval of appropriate environmental authorities and is feasible in structures when the possibility of their transport by drainage or percolating water is excluded. Salvageable solid waste discarded during augmentation of existing road into new shall be sorted out at location agreed with concerned local authorities and environmental agency for purpose of reuse. 4 4.1 BASIC DESIGN CONROLS AND REQUIREMENTS Design speed and loads Design speed is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of highway when conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway govern. Selection of speed for purposes of designing road elements that are speeddependent should be carried out according to Table 3. Design speed values in Table 3 are minimum permissible. Higher design speeds can be adopted provided that design speed on adjacent section of highways should not differ by more than 15%. When higher than minimum design speeds are considered, the following guidelines should be used:

4.2 4.3

The driver expects to be able to drive at certain maximum speeds consistent with the functional purpose of the highway. The design speed selected for a highway, more than any other design control have a major impact on-all facets of geometric design, and, consequently on construction costs. Horizontal and vertical alignment are permanent features of the road and frequently cannot be altered in the future, particularly on roads designed to fit the landscape or when there are design restrictions related to abutting development. Benefits of higher degree of safety, access and mobility must weigh against the environmental, right-of way-and cost impacts.

4.4

With the exception of low volume roads, pavement structural design for all road classes and categories should be carried out for 100 kN single wheel, single axle load. If vehicles with an axle load over 60 kN are not expected on roads of category IV during a significant portion of the design period, their structural design should be carried out for 60 kN single wheel load. Minimum design axle load for low volume roads should be 60 kN (single wheel, single axle). Pavement structural design using loads specified in Par. 4.4 should be

carried out according to design manuals complying with design principles detailed in Section 7. Table 3 Design speed for motor roads
Road type Expressways Category I Category II Category III Category IV Category V Multi-lane Multi-lane Multi-lane 2 lanes 2 lanes 1-2 lanes Design speed km/h Flat 140 120 120 100 80 60 Rolling 120 100 100 80 60 40 Mountainous 80 60 60 50 40 30

Cross Section Elements 4.5 Basic cross section elements for all types and categories of roads should be taken according to Table 4. Number of traffic lanes 4.6 The number of traffic lanes tor multi-lane highways should be determined on the basis of capacity analysis and in accordance with the required level of service. Lane Width 4.7 If design speeds higher than minimum in Table 3 are selected, wider lanes compared to those specified in Table 4 can be adopted based on the following guidelines:

Wider lanes increase highway capacity. The lane width and pavement conditions more than any other highway element positively affects safety and comfort of drivers. Desirable clearance between trucks during overtaking on a two-lane highway is when the lane width is 3.75 m. In general, increase in lane width above 3.75 m does not give additional traffic safety benefits.

4.8

When reduced design speed is selected according to conditions of Table 3 for rolling and mountainous terrain, lane width of category II and III roads can be reduced to 3.3 m.

Table 4 Basic dimensions of cross section elements

Traffic lanes Shoulder dimensions, m Number of Lane width, Usable Paved strip lanes m Expressway 4 3.75 3.75 0.75 Category I 4 3.75 3.5 0.75 Category II 2-3 3.75 3.0 0.75 Category III 2 3.5 2.0-2.5 0.5 Category IV 2 3.0 1.5-2.0 0.5 Category V 1 4.5-5.0 1.0 0 Note: Type IV and V shall be provided for local roads Road type Minimum median width, m 5 2 0 0 0 0

4.9

As a rule, right-turn and left-turn lanes should be of the same width as traffic lanes or 0.2 m narrower. Left-turn lanes adjacent to a median can be 3 m wide. In conditions of restricted right-of-way, widths of turning lanes can be reduced to 3 m at the most.

4.10 Climbing lanes for trucks on two-lane highways should be provided in conditions of mixed traffic if one of the following conditions exist:

Up-grade traffic volume exceeds 200 vehicles per hour and up-grade truck traffic is in excess of 200 vehicle per hour for more than 50 hours in a year. A 15 km/hr or greater speed reduction is expected for a typical truck. A low level of service (E or F) exits on an upgrade section longer than 0.5 km. A reduction of two or more levels of service on an upgrade section is expected.

The width of climbing lanes should be equal to the width of the basic traffic lanes. Length of a transition section to a widened roadway should not be less than 60 m. 4.11 Passing lanes are provided on two-Iane highways with significant volume of slow moving vehicles to facilitate passing maneuvers. Standard widths are the same as the adjacent lane width or 0.2 m less and not less than 3.3 m. 4.12 On one-lane low volume roads turnouts should be provided with spacing not less than stopping sight distances. Turnouts should be provided on two-lane low volume roads on sections with grades exceeding 60%. Transition to a widened section on approach to a turnout should not be less than 10 m. 4.13 Surfacing on shoulders and on the stabilize pad of medians should differ in color and appearance from the roadway surfacing or it should be distinguished by markings. Cross-slopes 4.14 Roadway cross-slopes (excluding superelevated sections of horizontal curves) should be specified depending on the number of traffic lanes and the climatic conditions according to Table 5.

Table 5 Pavement cross slopes

Climatic zone Multi-lane highways Two-way cross slopes One-way cross slopes First & second lane from the median Third and subsequent from the median Two-lane highway I 0.15 0.015 0.02 0.02 II 0.02 0.02 0.025 0.02 III 0.02 0.02 0.025 0.02 IV 0.025 0.02 0.025 0.02 V 0.015 0.015 0.02 0.015

4.15 Cross-slopes for low volume roads should not be less than values indicated in Table 6. 4.16 Shoulder cross-slopes for crown sections should be 1.2% greater than the roadway cross-slope. The following values of shoulder cross-slopes should be used, depending on the type of shoulder surfacing: concrete bituminous surfacing gravel, aggregate surfacing 3% 3% 4% Table 6 Pavement cross-slopes for low volume roads
Surfacing type Surfaced road Gravel, aggregate, earth Cross slope, % 2-4 4

4.17 Shoulder cross-slopes for low volume roads should not be less than values indicated in Table 6. 4.18 Roadway cross-slopes on superelevated sections should be selected according to horizontal curve radii as per Table 8. In situations of very difficult terrain or in difficult construction conditions, highway sections with variable ("stepped-up") superelevation and widened roadways can be individually designed. 4.19 Superelevation is not required when horizontal curve radii are in excess of values in Table 7. Table 7 Minimum radius on horizontal curves not requiring superelevation
Design speed, km/h <60 80 100 120 140 Minimum radius, m 900 1300 2700 4600 7500

4.20 Transition from crown road sections to single camber should be carried out on a transition curve and if there is no transition curve (in case of road reconstruction) - on straight section, adjacent to the curve, equal to the length of transition curve.

As a rule, superelevation on multi-lane highways should be designed with separate cross-slopes for roadways of opposite direction and with necessary adjustments in median cross-slopes. Cross-slopes of inner shoulders on superelevated sections should be equal to roadway cross-slopes and cross-slopes of outer shoulders should be opposite to roadway cross-slopes. Transition curve from shoulders of normal crown sections to shoulders corresponding to single camber should be carried out, as a rule, as per Table 8. Additional longitudinal slope of the roadway edge relative to design grade on transition sections should not exceed the values given in Table 11.
Horizontal curve radii, m 30 LT 2 lanes % % 40 LT 2 lanes % Superelevation %, for design speed, km/hr, Transition curve length, m 50 60 80 100 120 LT LT LT LT LT -2 lanes 2 lanes 2 lanes 4 lanes 4 lanes 2 lanes 4 lanes 2 lanes 4 lanes % % % % % 140 LT 2 lanes 4 lanes

7000 6000 5000 3000 2000 1500 1200 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 350 300 250 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30

NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC RC RC RC 2.3 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.3 3.5 3.8 4.4 4.2 4.5 4.7 5.0 5.4 5.8 6.0

10 10 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 20 20 22 23 24 26 28 29

NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC NC RC RC 2.1 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.3 4.5 4.9 5.2 5.4

10 10 11 13 14 16 17 18 20 21 22 23 25 27 28

NC NC NC NC NC NC NC RC RC RC 2.1 2.4 2.6 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.4 4.7 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.7 6.0

11 11 11 12 13 16 18 20 22 23 24 26 27 29 30 32 33

NC NC NC NC NC NC RC 12 18 2.1 13 19 2.3 14 21 2.5 15 23 2.9 17 25 3.1 19 28 3.5 21 32 4.0 24 36 4.3 26 38 4.6 28 41 5.0 30 45 5.2 31 47 5.5 33 50 5.7 35 52 5.9 37 53 6.0 38 54 Rmin =135

NC NC NC NC RC 14 2.2 16 2.7 19 3.1 22 3.4 24 3.6 26 4.0 29 4.3 31 4.6 35 5.3 38 5.6 40 5.9 42 6.0 43 Rmin =250 Note: % LT NC RC

22 24 29 33 37 39 43 46 52 57 60 64 66

NC NC RC RC 16 26 2.5 20 31 3.1 25 38 3.7 30 45 4.2 34 52 4.5 37 55 4.9 40 60 5.2 43 64 5.6 46 69 5.9 46 72 Rmin =435

NC NC NC 2.3 22 33 3.3 31 47 4.2 40 60 5.0 47 71 5.5 53 80 5.8 55 82 6.0 57 85 Rmin =755

RC RC RC 2.5 26 39 3.7 38 67 4.9 48 73 5.5 58 86 6.0 62 93 Rmin =950

5.6 29 5.8 30 6.0 31 Rmin =65

6.0 33 Rmin =90

Superelevation slope Transition curve length, m Normal Cross-slope Cross-slopes of shoulders should be equal to roadway cross-slopes

Note: If two adjacent horizontal curves are in close proximity and rotating in the same direction, and there is no straight section between them or its length is insignificant, single camber cross section should be adopted continuously over the entire length of both curves. In areas where snow cover is present during a short time period and instances of black ice are infrequent, the highest superelevation of 80% can be used. Transition curve length (LT) has been taken in correspondence with Clotoid methodology, hence it does not pertain to Miting method.

Travelway widening 4.21 For horizontal curves of radius 1000 m and less, it is necessary to introduce widening of the travelway on the inner side of the curve by reducing shoulders in such a way that the shoulder width should be is not less than 1.5 m for multi-lane highways and not less than 1 m for other highways. The values of complete widening on horizontal curves tor two-lane roadway should be adopted according to Table 9. In instances of insufficient width of shoulders for specified travelway widening, an appropriate road bed widening should be undertaken. Widening the roadway should be carried out in proportion the distance from the beginning of the transition curve in such a way that the complete roadbed widening is achieved by the beginning of the circular curve. Table 9 Lane widening on horizontal curves
Curve radii, m 1000 850 650 575 425 325 225 140 95 80 70 60 50 40 30 Width of widening for vehicles and combination trucks with distance from front bumper to rear axle, m All Combination trucks vehicles <7 <11 13 15 18 20 25 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.3 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.7 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.5 2.1 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.8 0.9 0.9 1.4 1.5 2.2 2.7 1.1 1.1 1.8 2.0 3.0 3.5 1.2 1.2 2.0 2.3 3.5 1.3 1.3 2.2 2.5 1.4 1.4 2.8 3.0 1.5 1.5 3.0 3.5 1.8 1.8 3.5 2.2 2.2

The magnitude of complete travelway widening for roads with four traffic lanes and more should be increased in proportion to the number of lanes, and, for single lane roads, it should be decreased by a factor of 2 compared to values of Table 9. In mountain areas, as an exception, travelway widening can be partially arranged on the outer side of the curve. Expediency of using horizontal curves requiring travelway widening of more than 2 - 3 m should be justified by comparison with options of increasing the horizontal curve radius to values not requiring such an extensive widening. Horizontal and vertical alignment 4.22 Design of horizontal and vertical road alignment should be carried out introducing the least limitations on speed and speed change from one section to another ensuring the highest possible traffic safely and travel comfort. The alignment design should also minimize the need for future road reconstruction beyond the projected period as per Par. 1.13. The following values of parameters for elements of horizontal and vertical alignment should be adopted as basic:

longitudinal grades - not more than 30%; sight distance for vehicle stopping - not less than 450 m; horizontal curve radii - not requiring superelevation (according to Table 7); vertical curve radii: not less than 30,000 m for crest curves; and not less than 8000 m for sag curves; lengths of vertical curves: crest curves - not less than 300 m; sag curves - not less than 100 m. Transition curves should be used for design of vertical alignment when the algebraic difference of grades exceeds more than 5% for multi-lane highways, more than 10%, for roads of category III and more than 20% for other roads. In all cases when due to local conditions people or animals can appear on the roadway, the lateral visibility of 25 m from the edge of a roadway should be provided for multi-lane highways and 15 m for other roads. 4.23 If, due to the conditions of an area, it is not possible to meet the requirements, of Par. 4.22, or their implementation is connected with significant volumes of work and cost of road construction, it is permissible to reduce design standards on the basis of technical and economic comparison of alternatives, taking into account the instructions, stated of Par. 2.6. In this case, minimum permissible standards should be adopted according to Table 10, on the basis of the design speeds selected according to road types as per Table 3.

Notes: 1. In instances of sharp changes in alignment of two-lane roads in mountain terrain, it is permissible to use serpentine-type design. 2. In very difficult conditions of mountain terrain (excluding areas with absolute altitude more than 3000 m above sea level), maximum grades can be increased compared to values specified stated in Table 10, but not more than by 20% for sections of the length of up to 500 m. 3. If multi-fane highways in mountain and rugged terrain are designed with separate ascending and descending roadways, grades for descending alignment can be increased compared to grade for ascending alignment, but not more than by 20%. 4. Maximum grade on approach sections to tunnels in mountain area should not exceed 45% over a distance of 250 m from the tunnel portal. 4.24 Transition curves should be used lot horizontal curves with radius, 3000 m and less. Guidelines f the section on "Landscape design" should be followed for design of transition curves. Minimum length of transition curves should be adopted according to Table 8. Maximum grades on sections with horizontal curves of small radii should be decreased according to Table 12, compared to standards given in Table 10. To ensure adequate sight distances on the inner side of horizontal curves, width of forest and bush clearing, magnitude of embankment slope steepening and relocation of structures should be determined by calculation; slopes must be steepened up to the top level of the roadbed edge. Length of a section with prolonged grade in mountain areas is determined based on the magnitude of grade and must not exceed values given in Table 13.

4.25 4.26

4.27

Table 10 Minimum parameters for horizontal and vertical alignment

Minimum curve radii, m Horizontal Vertical alignment alignment Required Sag superelevation, % Crest Basic Mountain 60 40 sections terrain

Design speed, km/h

Max. grades, %

Minimum sight distances

For For approaching overtaking traffic 140 30 280 1250 1500 17000 7200 3600 120 40 250 450 800 750 900 14000 6200 3100 100 50 200 350 680 450 550 9000 4800 2400 80 60 140 250 560 250 300 4500 3200 1600 60 70 85 170 420 150 150 1600 1800 900 50 80 70 130 340 100 100 1100 1400 700 40 90 55 110 290 60 60 700 1000 500 30 100 45 90 230 30 30 500 800 400 Note: 1. The minimum sight distance for stopping should ensure visibility of any object of the height of 0.2 m and greater located in center line of a traffic lane, assuming the height of vehicle operator's eyes 1.2 m from roadway surface. For stopping

Table 11 Longitudinal slope of the roadway edge and centerline on transition sections
Design speed, km/h 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 Slope, % 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36

Table 12 Grade reduction on small radii curve

Curve radii in plan, m 50 45 40 35 30 Decrease in the largest longitudinal grades against 10 15 20 25 30 the standards stated in Table 10, % not less than Note: Serpentine curves radii less than 30 m can only be used on roads of categories IV and V, prohibiting vehicles of length over 11 m.

4.28

On difficult section in mountain areas, prolonged grades (more than 60%) can be permitted with inclusion of sections with decreased longitudinal grades (20% and less) or introduction of areas for vehicle stopping with a spacing between such areas not greater than the lengths of sections, as specified in Table 13. Dimensions of areas for vehicle stopping are determined by calculation, but should be specified for not less than for 3 - 5 trucks. Their location is determined to assure sufficient space for safe parking, excluding a possibility of a talus, rock falls and, as a rule, at locations with water sources.

Irrespective of availability of stopping areas, escape ramps, should be provided on prolonged downgrades exceeding 50%, to be located before sharp curves at the end of a downgrade, as well as on downgrade straight sections every 0.8 -1.0 km. Geometric elements of escape lamps are determined based a safe stopping condition of combination trucks. Table 13 Permissible maximum length of prolonged grades in mountainous terrain
Longitudinal grade, % 60 70 80 90 Permissible max. length, with altitude above sea level, m 1000 2000 3000 4000 2500 2200 1800 1500 2200 1900 1600 1300 2000 1600 1500 1100 1500 1200 1000

4.29

The design standards serpentine-type roads should be adopted according to Table 14. Table 14 Design standards for serpentine type roads
Parameters of serpentine type roads The smallest radius of curves in plan, m Transverse roadway grade on superelevations, % Length of transition curve, m Roadway widening, m The largest longitudinal grade within hairpin curves, % Design standard for serpentine type roads at design speed, km/h 30 20 15 30 20 15 60 30 2.2 30 60 25 3.0 35 60 20 3.5 40

4.30

Distances between the end of one serpentine curve and the beginning of another curve should be selected as large as possible, but not less than 400 m for roads of categories III, 300 m for roads of category IV and 200 m for low volume roads. The travelway on serpentine curves can be widened by 0.5 m using the outside shoulder, and the remaining part of widening should be accomplished at the expense of the inside shoulder and additional roadbed widening. Landscape design Alignment of a highway should be designed as a smooth curve coherent with features of the surrounding landscape and with coordinated horizontal, vertical and cross-section elements, to facilitate their positive impact on traffic conditions and the visual perception of the road. To ensure road smoothness, it is necessary to observe principles of landscape design and to use rational combinations of elements defining horizontal and vertical alignment. Road smoothness should be checked by calculating the visible curvature of the centerline of the road and a visible width of the roadway at an extreme point in the projection plane. To assess the visual clarity of the road, it is recommended to construct a perspective sketch of the road.

4.31

4.32

Combinations of horizontal and vertical curves with grades that create an impression of a fall must be avoided in all cases. 4.33 As a rule, horizontal and vertical curves should be combined. Also, horizontal curves should be 100-150 m longer than vertical curves and a shift of curve peaks should be not greater than 1/4 of the length of the shortest curve. Junctions of end points of horizontal curves with starting points of vertical curves should be avoided. Distances between curves should be not less than 150m. If a horizontal curve is at the end of a downgrade section of a length in excess of 500 m and with a grade more man 30%, its radius should be increased by a factor not less than 1.5 compared to values given in Table 10, matching horizontal curves and sag vertical curves at the end of the downgrade section. 4.34 The length of straight sections should be limited according to Table 15. Similarly, the total length of tangent sections, conjugated by a short horizontal curve, should be limited. Table 15 Maximum length of tangents between curves
Road category Multilane highway Two lane highways Low volume roads Ultimate length of straight line in plan in area, m Flat area Rolling terrain 6000 2000-3000 5000 1500-2000 3500 1500

4.35 4.36 4.37 4.38

Radii of adjacent horizontal curves should differ by a factor of not more than 1.3. Parameters of adjacent transition curves are recommended to be the same. In case of small turn angles in horizontal alignment, it is recommended to use the radii of circular curves according to Table 16. Long straight sections between vertical curves should not be used. Their ultimate lengths are given in Table 17. Introduction of a short tangent section between two horizontal curves of the same direction is not recommended. When its length is 100 m or less, it is desirable to replace both curves by one curve of a larger radius. When the length is 100- 300 m, it is recommended to replace the tangent by a longer transition curve. Tangent section, as an independent element of a horizontal alignment, is permissible on arterial roads (Type I & II) when section length is in excess of 700 m, and or other roads (Type III & IV) when its length is greater than 300m. Table 16 Curve radii for small angle of change in horizontal alignment
Angle of turn, deg Min. curve radius, m 1 30000 2 20000 3 10000 4 6000 5 5000 6 3000 7-8 2000

Table 17 Maximum length of longitudinal straits between vertical curves

Radius of sag vertical curve, m 20 Algebraic difference of longitudinal adjacent grades, % 30 40 50 60 80 100 The longest length of straight section in vertical alignment, m For multi-lane highways 100 50 0 0 0 250 200 170 140 110 500 400 350 250 200 850 700 600 550 900 800 Two-lane highways 100 50 0 0 0 0 440 320 220 140 60 0 680 600 420 300 200 800 600

4000 8000 12000 20000 25000 2000 6000 10000 15000

150 360 680

120 550

Bicycle paths and sidewalks 4.39 Bicycle paths should be designed along constructed or reconstructed roads on sections, where traffic volume is less than 4000 pcu/day, and bicycle or moped traffic volume in one direction for the first five years of road service reaches 400 bicycles (mopeds) per hour or 1000 units per day. As a rule, bicycle paths of the width not less than 2.2 m should be designed for one-way traffic on an independent roadbed, at a foot of the embankment or outside of cut slopes, as well as on berms (in exceptional cases - at a distance not less than 1 m from a roadway edge). Single lane bicycle paths should be located or the windward side of the road (based on prevailing winds in summer time) and two-lane bicycle path - on both sides of the road. In restricted space conditions and on accesses to highway-related structures, bicycle paths can be constructed on shoulders. In these cases, shoulders should b separated from a roadway by a curb of the height of 0.20 - 0.25 m, and the paths should be located at a distance not less than 0.75 m from a vertical face of the curb. 4.40 Pavements tor bicycle paths should be surfaced with binder-stabilized aggregate, as well as crushed stone, gravel aggregates, soil-gravel mix, brickbats or porcelanites. When economicall feasible, asphalt concrete or cement concrete can be used as bicycle path surfacing. On approach to populated areas and on sections within ulated areas where the design traffic volume is 4000 pcu/day and greater, pedestrian sidewalks should be designed, as a rule outside the roadbed. 5. INTERSECTIONS AND JUNCTIONS 5.1 Highway intersections and junctions, as a rule, should be located in free areas and on tangent sections of intersecting or joining roads. Longitudinal grades on approach to intersections and junctions over the length of stopping sight distance (according to Table 10) should not exceed 40% for conventional highway and 30% for expressways.

4.40

5.2

The number of intersections and junctions or international and regional roads should be as small as possible. As a rule, intersections and junctions on expressways and international highways should be spaced not closer than 10 km outside of urban areas, not closer than 5 km on national roads and, not closer than 2 km on regional roads. At-grade intersections and junctions At-grade intersections outside of urban areas, as a rule, must be designed as unsignalized road crossings and junctions controlled by traffic signs defining the right of way. If traffic volumes on major and minor roads exceed values given in Table 18, the capacity of at-grade intersection should be determined through individual capacity calculations. Table 18 Unsignalized at-grade intersection capacity for uninterrupted flow condition
Road type Two-lane road Minor cross road Multi-lane road Minor cross road Design hourly traffic volume, two-way, vehicles per hour 400 500 650 250 200 100 1000 1500 2000 100 50 25

5.3

5.4

5.5

Traffic channelization by means of safety islands separating traffic streams through at-grade intersections and junctions must be used when the sum of projected traffic volumes exceeds 2000 pcu. Unchannelized at-grade intersections and junctions can be utilized when the total projected traffic volume is less than 2000 pcu. At-grade roundabouts can be used in cases, when traffic volumes on intersecting roads differ by not more than 20%, and the number of left turning vehicles is not less than 40% on intersecting roads.

5.6 5.7

Delineation of traffic lanes on the major roads outside of urban areas should be provided by uncurbed islands, unless pedestrian traffic warrants otherwise. Grade-separated pedestrian crossings (overpasses and underpasses) on multilane highways should be provided when pedestrian traffic is in excess of 200 persons/hr. Pedestrian fences should be provided in places of pedestrian crossings. Entrances and exits of all roads, with the exception of roads of category IV and low volume roads, must be surfaced: over a length of 50 m in case of sand, sandy loam and light loamy soils; over a length of 100 m in case of black earths, clayey, heavy and silty loamy soils. The length of entrances and exits for roads of category IV should be surfaced over half the length specified for roads of higher category. Shoulders on entrances and exits over distances established in this paragraph should be stabilized over a width of not less than 0.5 m.

5.8

5.9

At-grade intersections and junctions, irrespective of intersection schematics, should be arranged at right or close to right angles. When traffic streams do not intersect, but diverge or merge, intersection can be arranged at any angle, provided sight distance requirements are met.

5.10

Minimum radii of transition curves on at-grade intersections or junctions should be chosen according to the type of major road, irrespective of the crossing angle: in case of exits from multi-lane highways not less than 25 m, exits from two-lane road 20 m, and exits from low volume roads 15 m. When design is for regular traffic involving combination trucks (more than 15% in traffic stream), curves of radii 30 m should be used.

5.11

Sight distances on approach to intersections and junctions should assure its visibility over distances given in Table 10. Location of T-junctions on sections of crest vertical curves and on the inner side of horizontal curves should be used as an exception only. Transition curves should be used for design of horizontal alignment on at-grade intersections.

5.12

Speed-change lanes for left and right turns should be provided for at-grade intersections and junctions at exits and entries of conventions highways with traffic volume in excess of 1000 pcu, including entries to adjacent buildings and structures adjacent to the highway: on multi-lane highways with the volume of turning vehicles 50 pcu/day (for acceleration and deceleration lanes respectively); on two-lane roads with traffic volume being 200 pcu/day and greater. Speed-change lanes on conventional highways, with the exception of low volume roads, should be provided at locations of trolley and bus stops, irrespective of the traffic volume and at approach to fueling stations and rest areas when traffic volume exceeds 1000 pcu.

5.13

Length of speed-change lanes for intersections and junctions should be selected according to ble 19. Interchanges Construction of grade-separated intersections and junctions (interchanges) must be consistent with optimization of traffic services for the overall road network, taking into account local community interest and environmental restrictions. Interchanges may be justified for one of the following reasons: To provide access to freeways. To increase capacity of a critical at-grade intersections. To improve conditions of traffic safety by separating movements with high relative speed. To suit particular topography where an interchange can be built at a comparable cost to at-grade intersections. To satisfy planning considerations for tin road network development.

5.14

Table 19 Minimum length of speed change lanes for at-grade intersection

Design speed, km/h Grade, % down up 40 20 0 0 20 40 40 20 0 0 20 40 40 20 0 0 20 40 40 20 0 0 20 40 Length at full width, m for accelaration for deceleration 140 110 160 105 180 100 200 95 230 90 110 85 120 80 130 75 150 70 170 65 75 65 80 60 85 50 90 45 95 30 30 50 35 45 40 40 45 45 50 30 Taper length for accelaration & deceleration, m 80 80 80 80 80 70 70 70 70 70 60 60 60 60 60 40 40 40 40 40

120

100

80

60

5.15

Grade-separated intersections and junction (interchanges) should be adopted, as a rule, on the basis of functional classification of intersecting highways (taking into account the special status of freeways), according to Table 20. Table 20 Intersections and junctions for different functional road classes
Expressway Expressway 1 National (regional) roads 1 Notes: 1. Interchange as a rule. 2. Grade-separation can be provided. National (regional) roads 1 2

5.16

For the purposes of reducing the total area occupied by grade-separations the following ramp design speeds can be used. Right-turn ramps of grade-separated interchange; multi-lane highways should be designed ensuring speeds not less than 60 km/hr and not less than 50 km/hr for two-lane highways. In case of acute angle of road junction, ramps should be designed as a single curve, free of straight sections. Transitions using reverse curves can be used in exceptional cases only. Curve radii of left-turn ramps (loops) of grade-separated interchanges of the "cloverleaf" type should be selected not less than 60 m for interchanges on multilane highways and not less than 50 m for two lane highways. Transition curves should be used on approach to tangent sections. In particularly restricted space conditions at intersections of expressways with regional and local roads, 'partial cloverleaf" can be used with radii of left-turn ramps reduced to 30 m.

5.17

The roadway width over the entire length of left-turning ramps on gradeseparated interchanges should be 5.5 m and 5.0 m on right-turning ramps without additional widening on curves. The width of shoulders on the inner inside of curves should be not less than 1.5 m and 3 m on the outer side of curves. Longitudinal grades on ramps should exceed 40%. Superelevation 20 - 60% should be used or single lane ramps, with design following general principles for superelevated sections. Minimum radii of crest vertical curves on ramp should be selected in accordance with design speeds as per Table 10. Two-lane ramps should be designed based on the condition that every traffic lane is 3.75 m wide, and curve widening according to Table 9 should be used.

5.18

Speed-change lanes for left-turning roadways of cloverleaf type grade separated interchanges should be designed continuous over the length between adjacent ramps, including the section of the grade separation structure. On level tangent sections the length of deceleration lanes should be selected according to Table 21 and the length of acceleration lanes according to Table 22.

5.19

The width of transition lanes should be adopted as equal to the width of the main lanes of the roadway. Lane stabilization on shoulders, adjacent to transition lanes, should be carried out in accordance with Table 4. Bridges and grade-separation structures on all road categories should be designed according to specific standards. Table 21 Minimum length of deceleration lanes on grade-separated intersection
Design speed, km/h 60 80 100 120 140 Taper length, m 55 70 85 95 105 40 70 105 145 180 210 Design speed of exit ramp, km/h 60 80 Lane length, m 80 120 155 185 100

5.20

80 120 150

70 105

Table 22 Minimum length of acceleration lanes on grade-separated intersection

Design speed, km/h 60 80 100 120 140 Taper length, m 55 70 85 95 105 40 Design speed of entrance ramp, km/h 60 80 100 Lane length, m 85 230 425 610

175 330 500 640

70 280 490

150 350

Intersections of highways with railroads and utility lines 5.21 As a rule, highway intersections with railroads should be designed outside of railway stations and shunting tracks, mostly, on tangent sections of intersecting highways. Acute angle between intersecting roads should not be less than 60. Railway intersections with highways of all types, with the exception of category IV and low volume roads, should be grade-separated. To ensure traffic safety, intersections of category IV and low volume roads with railroads should be designed as grade-separated in the following cases: the intersection involves crossing three or more international rail tracks; constructing railroads in excavations and when the standards for sight distances are not according to Par. 5.23; 5.23 On unsignalized at-grade intersections of highways with railroads, sight distances must be such that that the vehicle driver located at a distance equal to the stopping sight distance from the intersection (according to Table 10), could see the approaching train when it is a distance not less than 400 m from the intersection, while the engineer-driver of the approaching train could see the center of the intersection from a distance not less than 1000 m. The roadway width of the highway on at-grace intersections with railroads should be equal to the roadway width on the approach to the intersection, while on low volume roads the width of the intersection should be not less than 6.0 m over a distance of 200 m on both sides of the intersection. A highway at an intersection with a railroad, when the railroad is on a curve and one rail is elevated relative to another, should have a flat surface, a vertical curve of large radius or a slope, starting and ending 2 m from outer rails on both sides of the intersection. Highways on approaches to intersections with railroads should be designed with grades not exceeding 30% over a distance of at least 50 m from the intersection. Guard posts and roadway gate posts on intersections should be installed at a distance not less than 0.75, and clearance gate posts should be installed at a distance not less than 1.75 m from the roadway edge. 5.25 Highway bridges over railroads should be designed satisfying requirements for obstruction-free distance, from railroad tracks as well as the following requirements: ensuring adequate visibility of tracks and railroad signals according to conditions of train operation safety; providing a drainage system taking into account stability of the railroad roadbed. 5.26 Distances from the roadway edge to utility poles and power transmission towers should be not less than their height when utility lines and high voltage power lines intersect the roadway. The minimum distance from the edge of the roadway to supports of utility and high voltage power lines located parallel to the highway should be equal to the support height plus 5m. Supports of aerial power and telephone/telegraph lines can be installed at smaller distances from the road in cases of severe space limitations that may occur in built-up areas, gorges, etc. In this case, the horizontal distance to supports of high voltage power lines should correspond to the following requirements.

5.22

5.24

a) for intersection, the distance from any part of support to the bottom of embankment or to the outside edge of the roadside ditch: for multi-lane highways - 5 m for, voltage up to 220 kV and 10 m for voltage 330-500 kV. for other highways - 1.5, m for voltage up to 20 kV, 2.5 m - for voltage from 35 to 220 kV and 5 m for voltage 330 - 500 kV. b) for parallel road and power line alignment, the distance between the closest wire in undeviated state and the roadway edge: for voltage up to 20 kV - 2 m, 4 m - for 35 -110 kV, 5m- for 150 kV. 6 m for 220 kV. 8m - for 330 kV; and 10 m for 500 kV. On highways, at locations of intersections with aerial power lines of the voltage 330 kV and higher, no stopping signs should be installed these lines. 5.27 Vertical clearances between aerial telephone/telegraph wirelines and roadway surface should be not less than 5.5 m at locations of their intersection (during the warm season). Elevations of power transmission lines above the roadway surface should be not less than values of Table 23. Table 23 Elevation of power transmission lines above the roadway
Power line voltage, kV <1 110 150 220 330 500 750 Elevation of wires 6.0 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 16.0

5.28

Intersections of highways with pipelines (water supply lines, sewer systems, gas pipelines, combined heat and power generation pipelines, etc.) as well as with communication cables and power lines should be designed according to specific requirements and appropriate standards applicable for these service lines. Crossings of various underground service lines with motor roads should be designed at not less than 600 angle, as a rule. Embankments cannot be constructed along and above service lines. 6 ROADBED

6.1

The highway roadbed must assure pavement stability during its service life in specific hydrogeologic and thermal conditions. The road bed structure should be designed taking into account the following factors: Comply with requirements of Road climatic and geotechnical conditions AZUAGN 2.01.01-2004; geotechnical and geologic conditions alone: the road alignment, as determined by in-situ properties of the soils and geodynamic processes in the region (including the seismic activity); moisture conditions along the alignment of the road, as determined by the type of terrain according to Appendix C, Table C1.

6.2

The roadbed includes the following elements: upper part of road bed (active subgrade layer); embankment body (with slopes) embankment foundation foundation of the cut cut slopes surface drainage facilities drainage facilities for lowering ground water retaining structures or special geotechnical facilities or structures intended for roadbed protection against dangerous geological processes (erosion, scouring, mud flows, avalanches, landslides, etc.)

6.3

Roadbed design can be based upon and should take into account existing local geotechnical practice, justifying adopted design solutions by documented examples of structures proven to be successful in situations analogous to design conditions. Individual design solutions requiring specific justifications or detailed analysis of design solutions dictated by existing practice is required in the following cases: for embankments more than 12 m high; for sections of temporary flooded embankments crossing and sections passing through the permanent reservoirs and streams; for embankments, constructed with peat removal on marshes of depth more than 4 m or with transverse grades of the marsh bottom in excess of 1:10; for embankments, constructed on weak foundations (cf. Par. 6.12); when soils of high moisture content are used in embankments; when elevation of pavement surface over the design water level is less than that specified in Par. 6.9. for cuts with depth more than 12 m in soils and more than 16 m deep cuts in rock soils under favorable geologic conditions; when geotextile Inter-layers are used; when embankment is constructed on compressible foundation; when special-purpose pavement layers (insulating, waterproofing, drainage, capillary-interrupting, reinforcing, etc.) are used for regulation of moisturetemperature regime in the upper part of the roadbed and in the pavement structure; for cuts in bedded formations with inclination of strata towards the roadway; for cuts in water-bearing strata; for cuts in silty soils located in areas of excessive moisture and in clayey soils and soft rocks reducing strength and stability of slopes with time or as a result weather and climatic conditions; for excavations in swelling soils under unfavorable moisture conditions;

for embankments and cuts in difficult soil and geological conditions such as: on construction on slopes steeper than 1:3, on sections with history of landslides and rockslides, in gulches, karst zones, taluses, snow avalanches, icing, permafrost, etc.

Highway components to be designed individually include drainage facilities, retaining structures and other protective facilities ensuring stability of the roadbed in difficult conditions. Design groundwater level 6.4 The design ground water level should be selected as the maximum level during fall conditions (before freezing) over the period equal to the expected life of the road surfacing prior to overlaying. In areas where the depth of frost penetration is less than the pavement thickness, the greatest seasonal groundwater level with the specified probability of being exceeded during the period of its seasonal maximum must be taken as the design groundwater level. The design groundwater level should be determined using results of short, onetime measurements and from forecasts of seasonal and long-term groundwater table fluctuations. In the absence of such data or in case of perched water table, the level determined by the upper line of soil gleying can be taken as the design level. Soils 6.5 6.6 The soils used for road construction are classified according to Appendix C, taking into account their specific function within the road structure. Cohesive soils, which have the in-situ shear strength of less than 0.075 MPa (when tested using shear vane) are referred to as soft soils. In instances when soil strength test data are not available, peat and soils containing peat, mud, clayey soils with moisture content over 0.5, wet salty soils should be considered as soft soils. 6.7 6.8 Soils with permeability not less than 0.5 m/day at maximum standard density should be considered as free-draining soils. Assessment of stability and deformations of the roadbed must be carried out on the basis of geotechnical engineering principles utilizing strength and deformation parameters. Mechanical characteristics should preferably be determined for soils with intact in-situ structure, design density and moisture content. Active subgrade layer 6.9 Active subgrade layer is the upper part of the roadbed from the lowest elevation of the pavement structure to 2/3 of the frost penetration depth but not less than 1.5 m from the pavement surface. To provide the necessary resistance and stability of the active subgrade layer, the minimum rise of the pavement surface above the design groundwater level, or above the earth surface at locations where surface run-off is inhibited, must be selected according to Table 24.

Table 24 Minimum pavement elevation above ground water

Soil of the active subgrade layer Fine sand, lightweight sandy loam Silty sand, silty sandy loam Lightweight loam, heavy loam, clays Heavy silty sandy loam, lightweight silty loam, heavy silty loam Minimum rise of the pavement surface, m by climatic zones IB IIA IIB III 1.1 0.9 0.75 0.5 0.9 0.7 0.55 0.3 1.5 1.2 1.1 0.8 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.5 2.2 1.8 1.5 1.1 1.6 1.4 1.1 0.8 2.4 2.1 1.8 1.2 1.8 1.5 1.3 0.8

Note: 1. Above the dash: rise of the pavement surface above the groundwater table, perched water table or standing surface water level (for more than 30 days); under the dash: rise of the pavement surface above the earth surface at locations where surface run-off is inhibited or above standing surface water level (for less than 30 days). 2. In permanently irrigated regions the rise of the pavement surface above the winter and spring ground water levels should by increased by 0.4 m for climatic zones III and by 0.2 m for the climatic zone II.

6.10

Soils f elevated moisture content (Appendix C, Table C7) and type I and II coarse-fragmented hydrolabile soils (Appendix C, Table C6) should not be used in the active subgrade layer without detailed technical analysis. If is impossible or impractical to use non-frost-susceptible or weakly frostsusceptible soils (Appendix C, Table C8 & C9), special measures for ensuring strength and stability of the active subgrade layer or pavement strengthening should be provided. Embankments Embankment parameters should be determined taking into account the bearing capacity of the foundation. Foundations are subdivided into strong and weak if they consist of compressible and non-compressible soils respectively. A foundation soil is considered to be weak if within the zone of embankment influence there soft layers greater than 0.5 m thick. The zone of the embankment influence should be determined by analysis or approximately taken to be as equal to the embankment width at the foundation level. Natural foundations containing clayey soils with relative compression more than 0.01 should be classified as weak.

6.11

6.12

6.13

Soils of normal moisture content and environmentally safe industrial wastes retaining strength over time and under the influence of weather and climatic factors can be used for embankment construction without limitations. Soils, as well as industrial wastes that change strength and stability over time or due to weather and climatic factors can be used for embankment construction when stabilization measures are feasible.

6.14

Embankment height for roads passing through open terrain must be selected to provide protection of the roadway against drifting snow. The rise of the pavement edge above the expected level of the snow cover must be adopted not less than: multi-lane highways excluding roads of category II Category II Category III 1.2 m 0.7 m 0.6 m

Category IV low volume roads 6.15

0.5 m 0.2m-0.4m

Embankments and dikes near and at approach to medium and large bridges as well as embankments across flood plains should be not less than 0.5 m higher, and the top edge of flood protection structures and berms not less than by 0.25 m higher, than the design water horizon, taking into account the wave height. Degree of compaction for sandy, loessy and clayey soils in embankments should be specified in terms of a compaction factor reflecting a fraction (or percentage) of standard maximum density and selected according to Table 25. Table 25 Minimum soil compaction coefficient
Depth of the layer from the pavement surface, cm <150 150-600 >600 150-600 >600 <120 <80 Minimum soil compaction factor for types of pavement structures High Intermediate and low By climatic zones I 98/96 95/93 95 96/95 96 II 100/98 95 98 98/95 98 95 III 98/95 95 95 95/98 I 98/93 93 93 95/93 95 II 98/95 95 95 95 95 95/92 III 95 90 90 95 95 90

6.16

Roadbed elements

Active subgrade layer Part of the embankment not affected by flooding Part of the embankment affected by flooding Active subgrade layer below seasonal frost line in a cut

95/92

Notes: 1. Soil compaction percentages indicated above the dash are used for cement concrete pavements and pavements with cement-stabilized bases as well as for intermediate pavements; values indicated under the dash are used in all other cases. 2. In irrigated areas where soils bsorption moisture, soil compaction requirements for all types of pavements should be as for climatic zones II. 3. For roadbeds constructed in areas where spot permafrost is encountered at positive temperatures, the compaction factors should be taken as indicated in road-climatic zone.

6.17

At junctions with bridges embankments should be constructed using non-heaving draining soils over a length at the embankment top not less than the embankment height (from the base) plus 2 m, and not less than 2 m at the foundation level. When embankments a constructed in winter conditions, only rockfills, sandy soils, or thawed clayey soils of normal moisture content and plasticity index not exceeding 12 can be used. Non-sumberged embankments of height less that 12 m constructed of soils with normal moisture content and founded on strong, non-compressible foundations should have seeded slopes not steeper than those given in Table 26. To ensure traversability of embankment slopes by vehicles leaving the roadway in emergency situations, slopes should be selected: 1:6 for expressways, 1:4 for other multi-lane highways and, depending on the embankment height, according to data in Table 27 for all other road types. In instances when it appears impossible or economically not feasible to comply with recommendations of Par. 6.19, special traffic safety measures should be provided according to guidelines of Par. 9.10.

6.18

6.19

6.20

6.21

Table 26 Maximum embankment slope

Type of fill soil Clumps of weakly weathered rocks Large fragmented and sandy (except for fine silty and uniformly graded sands) Fine silty sands, clay and loess soils Maximum steepness at the fill slope height Upto 12 m Upto 6 m Lower part (0-6m) Top part (6-12m) 1:1-1:3 1:1.3-1:1.5 1:1.3-1:1.5

1:1.5 1:1.5 1:1.75

1:1.5 1:1.75 1.2

1:1.5 1:1.5 1:1.75

Table 27 Maximum embankment slope to assure traversability

Height of embankment, m <1 1-2 2-3 3-5 >5 Embankment slope 1:1.5 1:1.5-1:2 1:2.5-1:2 1:2.5-1:3 1:3

6.22

Slopes of cuts excavated in not waterbearing layers and in stable soils (which retain strength under the action of weather and climatic factors) should be selected according to Table 28. Cuts of depth less than 1 m should be excavated either with slopes from 1:5 to 1:10 or finished for embankments to provide protection against drifting snow. Cuts with depth from 1 m to 6 m in areas of drifting snow should have slopes not steeper than 1:2. In this case, not less than 4 m wide berms should be provided. Table 28 Cut slopes
Soil type Rock: Weakly weathered Readily weathered Non-softening Softening Coarse fragmented Sandy or clayey, homogenous, hard, firm or low plasticity Dune sands Loess
No 1. 2. 3. 4.

6.23

Max. cut depth, m <16 <16 <16 6-12 <12 <12 <2 2-12 <12

Max. slopes 1 : 0.2 1 : 0.5 1 : 1.5 1:1 1 : 1.5 1 : 1 1: 1.5 1 : 1.5 1 : 10 1:2 1 : 0.1 1 : 0.5 1 : 0.5 1 : 1.5

tes: Above the dash: arid zone; under the dash: other zones. Vertical faces can be used for weakly weathered rock slopes. In areas of sandy soils covered by vegetation maximum slo of 1:2 can be used for slope heights up to 2 m. The height of the cut is determined as the difference between elevations of the upper and the lower edges of the slope.

6.24

Cuts over 2 m deep excavated in fine and silty sands or in wet silty clays (moisture content in excess of 0.3) as well as in easily weathered or fractured rocks should be designed with serrated slopes. As a rule, the width of serrations should be 1 m for less than 12 m high slopes in fine and silty sands and 2 m for rock slopes less than 16 m high. Drainage facilities The roadbed must be protected against water infiltration and erosion by means of a drainage system designed to collect and remove surface runoff (roadside channels, flumes, chutes, evaporation basins', discharge wells, etc). The probability of exceeding design discharge of a drainage system should be adopted according to Table 29. Table 29 Probabilities exceeding design discharge through drainage structures
Class of the road Expressway Regional road Local road Probability of exceeding the design discharges in one year Roadside and Other water diversion intercepting drains ditches 2 3 3 5 5 10

6.25

6.26

Roadside drainage channels should be provided on both sides of the roadbed except in instances when transverse terrain gradients and embankment heights assure natural surface runoff. Maximum gradient of the drainage channels should be selected based on admissible flow rates that depend on the soil type and adopted erosion protection measures for channel bottom and slopes. Roadside channels should have a longitudinal gradient not less than 5% and, in exceptional cases not less than 3 %. Chutes should be provided in areas of steep gradients and grade control structures can be used to allow milder slopes elsewhere. Water from roadside channels should be diverted, when their design capacity is reached. In instances when it is not possible to divert water into natural channels and areas with lower elevation, roadside ditches should be enlarged or a parallel auxiliary diversion channel should be provided. Slopes of drainage channels should be protected to ensure their local stability taking into account constructional details of the roadbed, properties of soils, weather and climatic factors and water flow regimes.

6.27

6.28

6.29

6.30 The fill slopes affected by flooding shall be protected from waves with the appropriate type of pitching works using concrete, reinforced concrete or asphalt concrete industrial products or monolithic slabs depending on the hydrological regime of the river or basin. When embankment is constructed by hydraulic filling, instead of stabilization, slopes can be flattened to values given in the Table 30. Table 30 Allowable slope for embankments constructed by hydraulic filling
Soil of the fill slope Fine sand Light sandy loam Embankment slope at the non-incoming wave height of 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 1:5 1:8 1:10 1:15 1:20 1:25 1:4 1:7 1:10 1:15 1:20 1:20

Roadbed in difficult conditions

6.31 6.32 6.33 To assure stability, embankments over 12 m high, as a rule, should be constructed using separate levels laterally supported by berms. Roadbed and dam slopes on the water side should be design assuming rapid drawdown and lack of drainage from the roadbed or dam body. Estimation of general and local stability of the slopes shall be given for the cuttings made under complicated conditions and measures to provide their stability shall be taken (appropriate cross-section, drain systems, protective courses, slope protection, etc). Cuts should be used terrain with favorable soil and hydrologic conditions in relation to freezing (rock or gravelly soils) and in the absence of ice lenses and ice intercalations. If cuts are unavoidable in difficult ground-freezing and hydrologic conditions (strata of different structure and condition, varying elevations of water-bearing horizons, frost-related strength degradation, highly compressible soils), the following measures should be provided: Insulation of slopes, geotextile layers, replacement of wet silty clays with granular or other good quality materials, frost protection layers at the base of the pavement structure, provision of reliable drainage from the cut. Shallow cuts should be completed open or finished for embankments. 6.35 A complex of slope stabilization measures may be necessary to improve stability of the roadbed and the slope (drainage structures, surface drainage, retaining structures, slope grading, etc.) The following requirements should be satisfies for embankments constructed on weak foundations: there should be no lateral flow of foundation soil at the embankment base during construction and in service condition; primary settlement should be completed prior to placing rigid pavement layers; Note: Primary settlement is considered to be completed if not less than 90% of the design ultimate settlement has been completed. 6.37 Roadbed design on marshes should be based on technical and economic assessment of alternatives that must consider a possibility of removing marshy soils (including by blasting) or their utilization as an embankment base, taking special measures, when necessary, to ensure stability by reducing and accelerating settlement. In case of designs using peat removal, the required volume of soil for the embankment should be specified taking into account compensation for lateral deformations of walls of the peat removal trench determined by calculation. Submerged lower part of embankments installed on marshes, as a rule, should be constructed using draining soils. The thickness of the draining soil layer should be selected taking into account settlement in such a way that the elevation of the draining layer is not less than 0.5 m higher than the marsh surface. If marshy soils are used for construction of the embankment base, requirements of Par. 6.36 for embankments on weak foundations, should be met along with the general requirements for roadbeds.

6.34

6.36

To reduce traffic-induced elastic vibrations of the embankment on peat foundation, its height should be not less than the allowable value for a given type of road surfacing (Table 31). Table 31 Allowable embankment height to prevent traffic-induced vibrations
Initial thickness of weak layer 2 4 6 <8 Minimum height of embankment for different pavement structures to prevent unacceptable elastic vibrations High Intermediate Low 2.5 2.0 1.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 4.0 3.5 3.0 4.5 4.0 3.5

Note: If the weak layer is beneath the layer a strong soil, the minimum embankment height can be reduced by the thickness of the strong layer.

6.38

In areas with saline soils roadbed should be constructed taking into account the degree of salinity according to the classification system described in Table C3. Appendix C. Weakly and medium saline soils can be used for embankment construction, including in the active subgrade layer, provided the standard stability and settlement criteria for non-saline soils can be met. Strongly saline soils can be used as an embankments material in type I terrain according to moisture condition, including also as a material for the active subgrade layer, provided that measures preventing its further salinization are adopted. Utilization of excessively saline soils requires detailed justification through special studies and adoption of measures to mitigate negative impacts of these soils on roadbed and pavement. When roadbed is constructed on wet saline soils, performance requirements for embankments on weak foundations must be met.

6.39

Roadbeds on irrigated lands should be constructed, as a rule, in the form of an embankment taking into account the impact of the irrigation system, on embankments, thermal and water regime. Distances between edges of irrigation channels and borrow or water diversion ditches should be no less than 5 m. Karst void and other subterranean forms within the road area must be examined for stability. Unstable of potentially unstable voids which can reach critical size within the road design period should be eliminated by grouting or controlled caving of the cavity roof. In regions of active kart processes the road bed should be constructed, as a rule, in the form of an embankment, taking into account the depth of the karst rocks and geological conditions of karst development. Roadside borrow pits cannot be used in karst areas. Embankments should be designed to assure stability of subterranean karst formations under the load of the entire road structure. The road bed structure in permafrost areas (I road climatic zone) should be selected taking into account the thermal regime of natural foundation strata and their mechanical properties which determine the magnitude of the embankment base settlement as a result of thawing in operating conditions. As rule, the roadbed is designed using thermo-mechanical calculations utilizing controlled adjustment of the upper permafrost horizon within the embankment foundation during the period of road operation. The following two methods of utilizing foundation soils should be followed:

6.40

6.41

the first method to raise the upper permafrost horizon not lower than the embankment base and to maintain it at that level during the entire period of the road operation (the foundation soil is considered to be in frozen condition); the second method - to permit thawing of the embankment base soil during the road service period allowing permissible settlement of the pavement (the foundation soil is thawed condition to some depth). The first method is to be followed when the roadbed is constructed in the areas of low-temperature permafrost comprised of highly compressible soils and clayey soils at moisture content over the liquid limit when thawed. This method should be adopted when foundation soils can be maintained in frozen condition at an economically justifiable cost. If design according to the first method is selected, the location of the upper permafrost horizon within the embankment base should be controlled by selecting an appropriate embankment height using traditional road construction materials as well as utilizing special layers of insulating materials (peat, foam plastic, slag, etc.) in the base. When embankment is designed according to the second method, its height should be determined from thermo-mechanical calculations of total settlement, including settlement of the embankment base and of compressible embankment layers, not to exceed the allowable settlement of Table 32. 6.42 Depending on the topography, hydrological and ground freezing conditions, the surface and above-permafrost ground waters must be drained from the road through water diversion channels, permafrost catch ridges and drainage berms. The roadbed structure constructed in drifting sand (Appendix C, Table C15) should be designed to minimize sand loss and accumulation due to wind action. On overgrown or sparsely overgrown sands, 0.5 m high embankments should primarily be constructed from local borrows 0.2 m deep. Higher embankments should be constructed using sand from the cuts or borrow pits. Cuts excavated in uncovered and sparsely grown dune sands shall have slopes that provide protection from drifting. To provide protection against sand loss and accumulation, leveled strips 15 to 40 m wide on each side of the road should be provided and shifting landforms be fixed over a width of 200 m beyond the rightof-way. Roadbed construction in overgrown sands should be carried out with minimum disturbance of the flora and natural contours of the adjacent terrain. Table 32 Allowable settlement of embankment and compressible embankment layers
Pavement structure type and construction conditions High pavement Continuously placed reinforced concrete slabs Asphalt concrete pavement constructed the same year as the roadbed Intermediate pavement Low pavements Required thickness of stable embankment layers for expected in-service settlement of the subgrade and of compressible embankment layers, m 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2 4 6 10

6.43

4 6 8

8 12 16

12 18 24

20 30 40

6.44

Landslide protection structures directly supporting earth pressure (retaining walls on piled foundation, cantilever sheetpile walls, anchored sheetpile walls and combined structures) should be designed both to withstand landslide pressure individually as well as to provide stability to a combined "slope-road structure" system. 7. PAVEMENT STRUCTURE Pavements must be designed to support traffic operations at selected design speed, level of safety and ride comfort over the specified design life and reliability level. In general, pavements consist of structural' layers that' include' surfacing, base and subbase layers). The pavement structure and the surfacing type must correspond to the functional classification of the road, taking into account traffic volume, traffic composition, climatic and hydrologic conditions of the area, and environmental requirements. Pavement classification Pavement structural types include three main categories: high, intermediate and low. High-type pavements include structural layers and surfacing made of cement concrete and asphalt concrete. Intermediate-type pavements include surfacing made of asphalt concrete and binder-stabilized aggregate and soils. Low-type pavements include surfacing made of binder-stabilized aggregate and soils as well as unstabilized aggregate and gravel.

7.1

7.2 7.3

7.4

7.5

According to response to traffic load and reaction to environmental factors pavements are subdivided into rigid and flexible. Rigid pavements include structural systems consisting of cement concrete surfacing or cement concrete base and asphalt concrete surfacing. Flexible pavements include structural systems consisting of asphalt concrete layers; aggregate and soil layers stabilized with organic and organic binders as well as unstabilized aggregate and gravel layers. Performance requirements for pavement surfacing

7.6

To support safe and comfortable traffic operations at design speed, pavement surfacing must have stable properties characterized by adequate surface roughness and necessary skid resistance. Roughness and skid resistance requirements for newly constructed pavements prior to opening the road to traffic are given in the Table 33. General design principles

7.7

The total pavement thickness and thicknesses of individual layers should be determined in the course of pavement structural design and must ensure adequate strength and frost resistance of the entire structure

Table 33 Roughness and skid resistance requirements for pavement surfacing

Standard test Performance requirement All roads except roads of Roads of category IV category IV and low volume and low volume roads roads Not less than 95 % of Not less than 90% of measurements should be measurements should below 5mm and the rest be below 10mm and under 7mm rest under 15 mm

Clearance under a 3m Surface roughness of pavements Algebraic difference in elevations between two points spaced at 5,10 and 20m

14, 20, 25 mm

16, 25, 30 mm

Skid resistance coefficient Note:

Normal 0.45

Rode conditions Difficult 0.5

Dangerous 0.6

The required skid resistance coefficient should be assigned depending on road conditions as follows: (a) Normal travel conditions: represented by straight or curved road sections with curve radii of 1000m and over, superelevation or grade not more than 30%, involving cross section elements satisfying requirements of Table 4 and operating at levels of service according to Table 2. (b) Difficult travel conditions: represented by road sections with horizontal curve radii from 250 m to 1000 m, superelevation from 30% to 60% as well as sections with reduced roadway width (when under reconstruction) and sections that satisfy requirements of normal conditions but operating at reduced level of service, but not lower than level D. (c) Dangerous travel conditions: represented by road sections with lower sight distances and steeper grades compared to minimum values in Table 10, sections near at-grade intersections as well as section that satisfy requirements of normal conditions but operating at levels of service, E or F. The lane distribution factor to determine traffic volume per lane should be assumed 1.0 for one-lane roadways; 0.5 for two and three lanes; 0.35 for four lanes and 0.3 of six lanes.

7.8

Pavement structural design should be carried out for the projected number of repeated applications of the standard single axle since wheel load, selected as specified in Par. 4.4, and cumulatively acting over the design period specified in Par. 1.13. Cumulative effects of axle leads both higher and lower than the standard load must be expressed in terms of the equivalent number of applications of the standard load using appropriate load equivalency factors. For design purposes traffic loading on pavements should be represented by the repeated action of a single wheel single axle load characterized by a constant average pressure acting over an equivalent circular area of a moving or standing vehicle and by the number of repetitions of the standard load.

7.9

7.10

For multi-lane highways pavement structure of all lanes should be designed for the same maximum standard load and the same number of repetitions of the standard load.

7.11

The strength of flexible pavements within traffic lanes and of stabilized shoulders should be adequate to support multiple repetitions of short-term vehicle loads. The stabilized portion of shoulders should be designed for 1/3 of traffic volume used for design of traffic lanes. Design of pavements on approaches to and at public transportation stops as well as at approaches to railway crossings should take into account both the repetitive nature of the traffic load and its duration. The duration of traffic load should be adopted in accordance with Table 34. Table 34 Duration of design load
Element of the road surface Traffic lanes and stabilized shoulders Parking places, verges, public transport stops and access to them, cross roads and railway crossing Design time of load action 0.1 sec 10 min

Flexible pavements 7.12 Design of flexible pavements for short-term loading should be carried out by limiting accumulation of permanent deformations in pavement layers over the design period. Permanent deformations should be limited on every standard load cycle by imposing limits on: 7.13 deflection of the entire structure; flexural tensile strain in asphalt concrete and in aggregate and soil layers stabilized with organic and inorganic binders. vertical strain in granular courses and in sub-grade.

Stresses and deformations of flexible pavement layers and of the roadbed under the design load should be determined using the methods of the theory of elasticity for layered half-space, using the most unfavorable conditions at the interface between layers. Resilient moduli of pavement layers and of the roadbed should be determined taking into account their seasonal variation in specific climatic and hydrologic conditions of the area. Design of flexible pavements for long-term loading should be carried out on the basis of shear strength of subgrade and granular courses. Rigid pavements Thickness design of cast-in-place and pre-fabricated cement-concrete surfacing should be carried out on the basis of flexural tensile strength taking into account the magnitude and the repeated nature of combined vehicle and temperatureinduced stresses. Thickness design for bases of rigid pavements with cast-in-place and prefabricated cement-concrete surfacing should be based on the condition of shearinduced limiting equilibrium in granular layers and subgrade and prevention of accumulated permanent deformations in these layers.

7.14

7.15

7.16

7.17

Thickness design for asphalt-concrete pavements on cement-concrete bases should be carried out to satisfy two conditions:

resistance to cracking of the asphalt-concrete surfacing in the coldest month of the year; strength - i.e. ultimate resistance of the pavement and of its base to action of repeated design load under the most unfavorable combination of pavement temperature and soil bearing capacity.

7.18

In order to assure temperature crack-resistance, transverse and longitudinal joints must be provided in cast-in-place cement-concrete pavements and bases. The joint spacing must be determined as part of design. Additional pavement layers To assure frost-resistance of pavements in regions with adverse hydrologic and climatic conditions, additional layers (drainage, frost-resistant, capillaryinterrupting) should be provided. Layer thicknesses must be determined as part of design. Surfacing within the stabilized portion of shoulders should be constructed of cement concrete, asphalt concrete or bitumen-stabilized aggregate. Surfacing in the remaining part of the shoulders should be constructed taking into account traffic volume and composition, roadbed soils and specific climatic conditions. To protect shoulders and embankment slopes against erosion at road sections with longitudinal grades more than 30%, embankment heights in excess of 4 m and in sag areas of vertical curves facilities should be provided to collect and remove water draining from the roadway.

7.19

7.20

7.21 8.1

Medians should be stabilized by seeding. 8. BRIDGES, CULVERTS AND TUNNELS Highway bridges, overpasses, viaducts and culverts should be designed in accordance with the requirements of CNR 32.02.03 Highway bridges design standard. The projected period for highway tunnels should be selected not less than 30 years. Bridges and tunnels on motor roads, as well as sections of accesses to them should be designed observing the requirements of uniformity of the traffic conditions on roads. On sections of accesses to tunnels, the roadway should be distinguished by marking in the form of solid line at the distance of not less than 250 m from their portals made at the roadway edge. 9. HIGHWAY HARDWARE AND PROTECTION STRUCTRES General provisions

8.2 8.4

8.5

9.1

Highway hardware includes means of directing and controlling highway traffic (guard structures fences, signs, markings, delineations, lighting, traffic lights, automated traffic management systems), landscaping, highway related areas The roadside is a part of the right-of-way beyond the limits of the roadway and shoulders. Installation of highway hardware should be carried out with the view of traffic safety issues, taking into account that stationary objects on the roadside, including facilities, referred to in Par. 9.1. are sources of increased danger for errant vehicles leaving the roadway in emergency situations or as a result of an accident.

9.2

9.3

To reduce the severity of highway accidents, the objective of roadside design is to provide conditions whereby errant vehicles leaving the roadway in emergency situations have a reasonable chance to come to a safe stop or recover if traffic Irrespective of road accident causes, the risk of severe consequences is reduced through the following measures:

9.4

adopting embankment slopes in accordance with the recommendations of Par. 6.19. providing possibility for safe crossing roadside drainage systems: ditches, flumes, chutes, etc. total absence or reduction to an unavoidable minimum the number of stationary items in the roadside.

9.5 9.6

Approximate width of a free roadside, which functionally meets the criterion of Par. 9.3, is given in reference Appendix I). Roadside width according to the requirements of Par. 9.5 is considered to be desirable and its provision should be subject to a study of economic environmental feasibility which should take into consideration the following factors:

for construction of new roads and reconstruction of existing highway facilities: environmental restrictions and actual possibilities of increasing the right-ofway under specific conditions, cost of additional measures compared to the compulsory requirements of the standard, and a corresponding potential decrease in economic losses due to road accidents; when carrying out traffic safety improvements: posed by stationary objects within the roadside, develop necessary measures for their elimination or relocation, particularly objects closest to the roadway.

If specific data on the degree of danger of various stationary objects is not available, the priority of works for their elimination, relocation or reconstruction should be specified in the following sequence:

Trees and bushes Communication and utility poles Pipes and roadside ditches

9.7

If it is not possible to eliminate, relocate or reconstruct a stationary object, consideration should be given to installation of a guard barrier if its presence results in improvements according to a principle of Par. 9.7. Apart from compulsory conditions for installation of traffic barriers according to minimum criteria of Par. 9.10, their installation in all other instances is warranted if shielding the stationary object reduces accident severity compared to the danger posed by the traffic barrier itself. Traffic barriers According to performance functions, guard structures are subdivided into two groups: Guard structures of the first group include barriers (height of not less than 0.75 m) and parapets (height of not less than 0.6 m) intended to prevent an errant vehicle leaving the roadway on difficult road sections, from bridges and overpasses, as well as a result traffic accidents.

9.8

Guard structures of the second group include meshes, fences, etc. (height of 0.8 -15m) intended to control pedestrian traffic and to prevent animals from appearing on the roadway. 9.9 9.10 Design traffic for installation of guard structures should be taken as projected volume for 5 year period. Guard structures of the first group should be installed on shoulders of highway sections: when embankment slopes are steeper than 1:3 and for embankment heights in excess of values indicated in Table 35 depending on embankment slope; when highways are located parallel to railway lines, marshes and water stream 0.75 m deep and higher, gulches and mountain gorges closer than 25 m from the roadway edge when the traffic volume is in excess of 2000 vpd and up to 15 m when the traffic volume is less than 2000 vpd. in sloping terrain steeper than 1:3 (on the side of the slope) when traffic volume is in excess of 2000 vpd; near complex grade-separated interchanges and junctions; at locations of sharp changes in horizontal alignment when sight distances are restricted. near bridge abutments and overpasses, single and multi-mount supports of road signs, utility poles, located at a distance less than 4 m from the roadway edge. Guard structures of the first group should be located on shoulders at a distance not less than 0.5 m and not more than 0.85 m from the roadbed edge, depending on the stiffness of guard rails. 9.11 9.12 9.13 Recommended types of guard barriers for different functional road classes are given in Table 36. Deviation of a traffic barrier from a tangent alignment should be carried over a transition distance using a taper not less than 10:1. Transition between guardrails and bridge guard structures should be achieved by gradually reducing spacing of guardrail posts to 1 m. The length of a section with equal spacing of posts should be not less than 8 m. Table 35 Criteria for installation of traffic barriers
Highway sections Grade, % Projected traffic volume, vpd 2000 1000 2000 1000 2000 1000 2000 1000 2000 1000 Embankment height, m, for different slope 1:3 Tangents and horizontal curves of radius grater than 600 m and on grades on the inner side of horizontal curves of radius less t5han 600m Same On grades and on the outer side of horizontal curves of radius less than 600m On sag vertical curves with algebraic difference between grades of 50% and greater On grades and on the outer side of horizontal curves of radius less than 600m <40 40 <40 3.0 4.0 2.5 3.5 2.5 3.5 2.5 3.5 2.0 3.0 1:2 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 1:11/2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

40

Note: Barriers located on transition slabs at junctions between bridges and embankments should be of the same design as barriers within bridge spans.

9.14

Connections between two single-sided parallel guardrails on a median or on shoulders allocations of intersections and junctions should be arranged as an arc of a radius not less than 1 m. Barriers of the parapet type must not be constructed as separately standing blocks. Barriers of the second group should be: installed in the median of category I roads, opposite bus stops with pedestrian crossings (including underground and above ground) within the entire length of the bus stop and beyond, over a length of not less than 20 m on both sides; located parallel to the centerline of the median at a distance not closer than 1 m to the edge of the travel lane. Table 36 Recommended shoulder barrier types
Road functional classification Expressway Regional Local Shoulder width 3.75 3.5 3.5 2.5 1.5 2.5 1.5 Maximum deflection 1.5 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 Index of the traffic barrier type Horizontal curves of radius Tangents and less than 600m horizontal curves of radius Outside of Inside of more than 600m curve curve 2.5 2,3,5 4,6 5 2 4 2.5 2,3,5 4,6 2,3,5,6,8 3.6 4,6,9 6.8 7 8 2,3,5 3,6 4,6 8,9 7 8

9.15 9.16

(1) Structural plate-beam, single-sided guardrail,1 m metal post spacing (2) Structural plate-beam, single-sided guardrail, 2 m metal post spacing (3) Structural plate-beam, single-sided guardrail, 3 m metal post spacing (4) Structural plate-beam, single-sided guardrail, 4 m metal post spacing (5) Structural plate-beam, strong, 2m metal post spacing (6) Structural plate-beam, single-sided guardrail strong reinforced concrete posts spacing (7) Reinforced concrete plate barrier, reinforced, 1.25 m concrete posts spacing (8) Reinforced concrete plate barrier, reinforced, 2.5 m concrete posts spacing (9) Cable barrier, single-sided, 2.5m post spacing.

Median barriers 9.17 9.18 Guard structures of the first group must be installed in medians of multi-lane highway when conditions specified in Table 37 are satisfied. Median barriers of the first group should be located along the median axis and, in presence of dangerous obstacles, parallel to the median axis at a distance not less than 1 m from the roadway edge.
Number of traffic lanes 4 6 Obstacle on the median Absent Present Absent Present Design traffic volume, vpd, when median is not less then, m 6 10 30000 40000 20000 30000 40000 60000 30000 50000

9.19

For medians 3 m and wider it is recommended to use dual-sided blocked-out guardrails while for medians less than 3 m wide reinforced concrete parapet-type with a special profile facilitating vehicle redirection are recommended. Guide posts Guide posts, 0.75 - 0.8 m high, reflectors, must be installed on all multi-lane highways and on difficult sections of other highways when artificial lighting and installation of guard structures of the first group is not required. On two-lane highways guide posts should be installed: on vertical curves and on approaches to vertical curves (three posts each side) with spacing specified in Table 38, when the embankment height is not less than 2 m; on horizontal curves and on approaches to horizontal curves (three posts each side) with spacing specified in Table 39, when the embankment height is not less than 1 m; on tangent sections with spacing every 50 m, when the height of embankment is not less than 2 m; on roads closer than 15 m to marshes and water reservoirs less than 2 m deep. Within at-grade intersections and junctions, with spacing according Table 39 for inside of horizontal curves; on bridges, with spacing every 10 m, 3 posts before and after the structure, on both sides of the road, at culverts, 2 posts on every side of the road.

9.20

9.21

9.22

On multi-lane highways, guide posts should be installed: between interchanges, with spacing 50 m along the entire length of sections where guard structures are not installed; on both sides of curved sections of ramps with spacing specified in Table 39 Guideposts should be installed on the unstabilized part of shoulders at a distance of 0.35 m from the roadbed edge. Road signs and markings

9.23

Road signs should be according to MNS 4597-2003 or standard for Road signs. Technical Specifications. Utilization of road signs should conform to requirements of MNS 4596-2007 or standard for Use of road signs, road markings, traffic lights, railings and delineators. Road markings should be done according to MNS 4759-2003 or standard for Road markings, Technical Specifications (MNS 4980-2005 Traffic lights, General features). Protection structures Design of vegetation, plantings and of other aspects of visual road appearance should be carried out for highways of all types, taking into account principles of landscape design and environmental protection, providing natural road ventilation, protecting abutting property from noise, preserving natural, economic, historical and cultural features of lands adjacent to the road.

9.24

9.25

Table 38 Spacing between guideposts on vertical curves

Vertical curve radius, m 200 300 400 500 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 8000 Within the range of curve 7 9 11 12 17 25 31 35 40 45 50 Distance between posts, m On accesses to curve From the beginning From the first to to the first the second 12 23 15 30 17 33 19 37 27 50 40 50 47 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

From the second to the third 47 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

9.26

Highway design must incorporate measures to protect road sections, passing through open territories against snowdrifts. Snow protection measures are not required: when the annual snow accumulation is less than 25 m3 per 1 m of a road located on irrigated or reclaimed land, within plowed fields, on lands occupied by perennial fertile plantings and in vineyards; when roads are built on embankments with the height of the roadbed edge exceeding the design level of snow cover as specified in Par. 6.14, and for roads in cuts if snow retention capacity of cut slopes is more than the volume of snow accumulation; when roads are passing through continuous forests. Table 39 Spacing between guideposts on vertical curves
Distance between posts, m Radius of curve in plan, m 20 30 40 50 100 200 300 400 500 600 Within the curve On external side 3 3 4 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 On internal side 6 6 8 10 20 30 40 50 50 50 At approach to curve From the beginning to the first 6 7 9 12 25 30 36 50 50 50 From the first to the second 10 11 15 20 42 45 50 50 50 50 From the second to the third 20 21 31 40 50 50 50 50 50 50

9.27

Protection measures against snow drift should be implemented:

using snow protection forest plantings, portable shields, meshes or permanent fences on all roads other than low volume roads and roads of category IV; embankment and stone riprap should be provided on all paved roads against snow drift. by snow protection forest plantings or temporary protection facilities (snow banks, trenches) on low volume roads of category IV. The width of snow protection forest plantings on each side of the road and distances from the roadbed edge to these plantings should be adopted according to standards given in Table 40. 9.28 Permanent snow protection fences should be designed in one or several rows of, height of 3 - 5 m, allowing for retention of maximum design annual volume of snow with return frequency of 15 years, and in highly drifted, sparsely populated areas with return period of 20 years. Permanent fence should be located at a distance from the edge of the cut slope equal to 15-25 times the fence height, at the location of its maximum depth, and, in case of an embankment, from the roadbed edge. If necessary, (as substantiated by calculations), additional rows of fences with distances between them equal to 30 times the fence height can be constructed. Permanent fences on roads with no restrictions on access should be constructed with gaps allowing normal vehicle access. 9.29 Protection of roads and road structures from effects of adjacent gulches, landslide areas, stream washouts and sand drifts should be carried out by special plantings, combined with a complex of geotechnical measures, adopted as part of roadbed design, taking into account local experience. The following measures should be used for protection of mountain roads against snow avalanches: construction of galleries and sheds, avalanche-breakers, avalanche guiding dikes; retention of snow on slopes by means of various facilities preventing snow movement and shift; installation of snow protection shields, retaining fences and walls in front of avalanche catchment areas to decrease accumulation of snow. Table 40 Width of snow protection plantings
Design annual snow 3 supply, m /m 10-25 25-50 50-75 75-100 100-125 125-150 150-200 200-250 Width of snow protection planting, m 4 9 12 14 17 19 22 28 Distance from the roadway edge, m 15-25 30 40 50 60 65 70 50

9.30

10 ROAD SERVICE FACILITIES 10.1 Road service facilities are established to provide safe and convenient travel and include periodically spaced rest areas, scenic overlooks, gas stations and service centers. Service centers 10.2 10. Service centers must include gas stations, parking, toilets, first aid facilities and where feasible, food and automotive repair services. To minimize the number of access points to expressways and to promote efficient uses of the right-of-way, consideration should be given to providing commercial services in rest areas, typical of service centers, through joint public/private development projects or through concessions. Road service facilities should be located on the roadside on sections with grade not exceeding 4%, on tangent sections or on horizontal curves of a radius greater than 1000 m, on crest vertical curves of a radius exceeding 10,000 m, not closer than 250 m from railway crossings, not closer than 1000 m from bridges, on sections with embankment height not exceeding 2 m and not less than 50 m from road centerline. Entrances, exits and sight distances must be compatible with the design speed of the highway. Rest areas 10.5 Rest areas are mandatory on all arterial roads and should include some or all of the following amenities: parking areas for cars, trucks and other vehicles; shop, canteen; toilets and service centers; public telephones; information facilities; lighting and other amenities. As a rule, rest areas should be spaced at intervals 50-80km. For purposes of spacing rest areas a service center is considered to be equivalent to a rest area. 10.6 Access to rest areas and service centers located on expressways must be only from expressways and international roads using deceleration and acceleration lanes designed according to requirements of Par. 5.13. Note: Access for suppliers and service personnel can be arranged through the other roads. 10.7 The number of parking spaces provided in rest areas should be based on a demand study utilizing projected design hourly traffic volume as per Par. 1.4. In instances when demand patterns cannot be established due to lack of statistical information, it can be assumed that 12% of drivers would require a 20 min rest over a length of 80 km on expressways with design speed in excess of 100 km/hr. For other roads the demand can be estimated assuming 8% of drivers requiring a 15 min over 80 km stretch of a highway. 10.8 Technical guidelines for formulating policies on issuing permits for construction and operation of fueling stations and related amenities should include the following considerations: No fueling facility shall be permitted on road sections where present conditions of traffic safety are unsatisfactory or in an unsatisfactory condition may arise as a result of a new fueling station.

10.4

On highways with restricted or partially restricted access fueling stations can only be permitted as part of a rest area or a service center, provided there is strict compliance with requirements of Par. 10.6 on access to these facilities. Preferred general locations for fueling stations on non-expressways are the fringes of built-up areas around intersections of these highways with expressways and particularly near access points to highways with restricted or partially restricted access. Except where positive need is established based on absence of fueling stations over considerable distances, they should not be permitted in open country on grounds of traffic safety and environmental concerns. Lack of fueling stations over distances 20-30 km on divided highways should serve as an indication of a positive need. Fueling stations must be equipped with sanitary facilities, public telephones and should preferably be combined with automotive repair facilities. Border crossing facilities

10.9

Border crossings on international highways should be equipped {with necessary facilities, particularly areas for vehicle checks. It is desirable to separate commercial and passenger vehicles at a common border crossing.

APPENDIX A Glossary

General concepts Highway (motorway, carriageway) Complex of engineering structures, intended to ensure convenient, uninterrupted and safe vehicle traffic with established speeds and provided for vehicles with specified overall dimensions, axis loads and gross mass. Expressway Highway facility accommodating movements of large traffic volumes with safe, comfortable and smooth driving designed as a divided highway along its entire length with access by means of grade-separation structures or through at-grade intersections such that preference is given to through traffic. Public roads Highways that can be used by all vehicle owners provided technical characteristics of vehicles (dimensions, number of axles, axle loads, gross weight) are within legal limits. International highway Highways servicing traffic between different countries and included into the international highway network. Regional roads Provide direct traffic service between regional centers, smaller towns and villages. Regional roads generally form an integrated network through developed areas, collect local traffic feeding it to higher volume roads and arterials as well as distribute traffic in the reverse sequence. Local roads Provide access to land adjacent to the regional roads and serve travel over relatively short distances. Traffic volumes on local roads are generally low. Transport facilities Transport facilities include the following vehicles: passenger cars and trucks, trailers, tractor semi trailers, combination trucks, buses and trolleys. Road access Possibility for a transport facility to enter or exit the highways; type of intersection through which entry or exit is permitted. Roads with restricted access Highways with access connections by means of grade-separated interchanges with a limited number of selected public roads. Roads with partially restricted access Highways with access connections achieved either by means of grade-separation structures or through at-grade intersection such that preference is given to through traffic. Grade-separated railway crossings are mandatory as part of partial access control. Conventional highways Highways with no restrictions on access in most cases. Low volume roads Primarily serve traffic to and from isolated communities, recreational sites and resource development areas.

Traffic volume The number of vehicles traveling both ways through the road section per unit time (per day vpd, per hour - vph). Design traffic volume Average Annual Daily Traffic or Design Hour Volume that are used in design calculations and economic analysis. Reduced traffic volume Traffic volume in case of mixed traffic, expressed in terms of passenger car units (pcu). Projected traffic volume Project traffic volume expected by the end of the road design period. Road category A characteristic determining technical parameters of conventional highways. Highway classifications Subdivision of highways into types and categories according to technical characteristics and parameters. Highway classifications technical Subdivisions of highways into types and categories according to technical characteristics and parameters. Highway classifications functional Subdivision of highways into classes according to the nature of transportation and land services highways provide. Highway capacity Maximum number of vehicles that can travel through a highway section or highway as a whole, per unit time. Road network Interconnected set of all roads including public and enterprise roads. Highway congestion level Ratio of the highway service flow volume t highway capacity. Level of service Level of service is a qualitative index reflecting general operating conditions within a traffic stream defining safety, comfort, lack of traffic interruptions and determined primarily by congestion level.

APPENDIX B Width of clear roadside zone

Table B1 Width of clear roadside for traffic volume greater than 6000 vpd
Cross section type 1:3 1:4 Cut 1:5 sections 1:6 1:10 Flat 1:10 1:6 Fill 1:5 sections 1:4 1:3 60 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.5 4.8 5.1 5.7 70 4.2 4.8 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.7 6.3 7.5 13.8 80 4.8 5.4 5.7 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.6 7.2 8.7 15.7 Design speed, km/hr 90 100 110 5.7 6.3 7.2 6.6 7.8 8.4 7.2 8.4 9.0 7.5 8.7 9.3 8.1 9.3 10.2 8.4 9.6 10.5 8.4 9.6 10.5 9.3 10.8 11.7 10.5 11.7 12.9 12.3 14.1 15.6 28.2 32.1 35.5 120 7.9 9.4 10.0 10.3 11.3 11.6 11.6 12.6 14.1 17.3 39.2 130 8.7 10.3 10.9 11.2 12.4 12.7 12.6 13.5 15.3 19.0 42.9 140 9.4 11.2 11.8 12.1 13.4 13.7 13.7 14.4 16.5 20.6 46.5

Table B2 Correction coefficient for width of clear roadside for ranges of traffic volumes Traffic volume, vpd Correction coefficient <750 0.6 750-1500 0.8 Table B3 Correction coefficient for clear roadside width depending on horizontal curve radius and design speed
Horizontal curve radius, m 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 900 700 600 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 Design speed 60 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.04 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.08 1.09 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.15 1.18 1.21 1.26 1.35 70 1.04 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.06 1.08 1.09 1.11 1.13 1.15 1.17 1.19 1.22 1.26 1.30 1.38 80 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.11 1.12 1.15 1.18 1.21 1.24 1.27 1.30 1.35 90 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.20 1.23 1.28 1.31 1.35 100 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.13 1.15 1.18 1.20 1.26 1.30 1.36 110 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.16 1.19 1.23 1.25 1.33 120 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.21 1.24 1.29 130 1.18 1.20 1.22 1.25 140 1.22 1.24

1500-1600 0.9

>6000 1.0

APPENDIX C Climatic factors and geotechnical properties of soils

Table 1 Terrain classification according to moisture condition in various road-climatic zones. Terrain type 1 Zone I. Surface run-off is not inhibited; ground water does not affect moisture conditions in the upper strata; thickness of the active layer is more than 2.5 m in case of noncompressible soils of moisture content not less than 0.7 Wl. Zone II. Surface run-off is not inhibited; ground water does not affect moisture conditions in the upper strata; soils are lightly and medium podsolic, tree of swam features. Zone III. Surface run-off is not inhibited; ground water does not affect moisture conditions of the upper strata; grey, slightly-podsolic forest soils; dark-grey wood soils and podosolized and leached black soils in the northern part of the zone. Zone IV. Surface run-off is not inhibited; ground water does not affect moisture conditions of the upper strata; rich or thick black soils; south black earths, dark-chestnut and chestnut soils in the southern part of the zone. Zone V. Ground water does not affect moisture conditions; brown soils in the northern part, light brown and grey earths in the southern part. Terrain Type 2 Zone I. Surface run-off is inhibited; ground water does not affect moisture conditions of the upper strata; tundra soils with pronounced swam features; thickness of seasonally thawing layer from 1.0 to 2.5 m with availability of clayey compressible soils of moisture content in excess of 0.8 Wl. Zone II. Surface run-off is inhibited, ground water does not effect moisture conditions of the upper strata; medium or highly podsolic and semi-boggy soils with swamping features. Zone III. Surface run-off is inhibited; ground water does not effect moisture conditions of the upper strata; podsolic or semi-boggy soils with swamp features; meadow-black earth soils, saltern and malts in the southern part of the zone. Zone IV. Ground water does not affect moisture conditions of the upper strata; soils: salterns, takyrs, solonchak salterns and less commonly solonchaks. Zone V. Surface run-off is inhibited; ground water does not effect the moisture of the upper strata; highly saltern black soils, salterns and malts. Terrain type 3 Zone I. Ground water or surface water standing for a significant time period (more than 30 days) affect moisture conditions of the upper strata; tundra and boggy soils, peat bogs; thickness of seasonally thawing layer is up to 1m with presence of highly compressible clayey soils, containing ice lenses of the thickness more than 10 cm within the thickness of seasonal thawing layer. Zone II. Ground water or surface water standing for a significant time period (more than 30 days affect moisture conditions of the upper strata; peaty boggy or semi-boggy soils. Zone III. Ground water or surface water standing for a significant time period (more than 30 days) affect moisture conditions of the upper strata; peaty boggy or semi-boggy soils. Zone IV. Ground water or surface water standing for a significant time period (more than 30 days) affect moisture conditions of the upper strata; semi-boggy or boggy soils, solonchaks or solonchak salterns.

Zone V. Ground water or surface water standing for a significant time period (more than 30 days) affect moisture conditions of the upper strata; soils: solonchaks, solonchak salterns; continuously irrigated territories. Notes: 1. The areas with sandy and sandy gravel soils of thickness more than 5 m (excluding fine silty sands) and ground water level at a depth of 3 m and deeper in Zones II, III and deeper than 2 m in Zones IV, V are classified as type 1 terrain, irrespective of the surface run-off (if there is no surface water standing for a significant period of time). 2. Ground water do not affect moisture conditions of the upper soil strata, if in the pre-frost period the ground water level is: 2.0 m and deeper than the depth of frost penetration in clays, heavy silty clay: and heavy loams; 1.5 m and deeper in light silty clays and light loams, heavy silty sandy and silly sandy loams; 1.0 m and deeper in light sandy loams, light coarse sandy loams and silty sands. 3. The surface run-off is considered to uninhibited when the ground surface slope within limits of the right-of-way is more than 2%. Table C2 Types and sub-types of a clayey soil
Soils types sub-types Light coarse Light Silty Heavy silty Light Light silty Heavy Heavy silty Sandy Silty Rich Indices sand content, % by plasticity index lp mass >50 1-7 >50 1-7 50-20 1-7 <20 1-7 >40 7-12 <40 7-12 >4 12-17 <40 12-17 >40 17-27 <40 17-27 Not controlled >27

Sandy loam

Loam

Clay Note:

1. Sand content of particles of sizes 2-0.25 mm is taken into account for light coarse sandy loams and 2-00.5 mm for other soils. 2. If soil contains 25-50 % (by mass) of particles larger than 2 mm, the gravelly (with rounded particles) or stony (with angular particles) is added to the name of clay soils.

Table C3 Classification of soils according to salinity

Types of soils Slightly salinized Medium salinized Highly salinized Excessively salinized Total content of readily soluble salts, % of mass of dry soil Chloride, sulfate-chloride Sulfate, sulfate-chloride salinization salinization 0.5-2.0 0.5-1.0 0.3-1.0 0.3-0.5 2.0-5.0 1.0-3.0 1.0-5.0 0.5-2.0 5.0-10.0 3.0-8.0 5.0-8.0 2.0-5.0 >10.0 >8.0 >8.0 >5.0

Note: Values for road climatic zone V are given above the line, values for the rest road climatic zones are given under the line.

Table C4 Classification of soils according to swelling potential

Variety of soils With moisture content 0.5 W 0 Non-swelling Slightly swelling Medium swelling Highly swelling Relative heave, % of thickness of wetted layer <2 2-4 5-10 >10

Table C5 Classification of soils by compressibility

Variety of soils Non-compressible Slightly compressible Compressible Highway compressible Note: Compressibility coefficient >0.92 0.85-0.91 0.80-0.84 <0.79 Relative compression, % of the thickness of wetted layer <2 2-7 8-12 >12

The classification doesnt cover water-tight rocks and soils, excluding water insoluble cementing substances, the compressibility of which is assessed according to laboratory tests.

Table C6 Classification of coarse soils by skeleton type

Description Unstructured Weak skeleton Strong skeleton Coarse reaction content (greater than 2 mm), % <15 16-65 > 65

Table C7 Varieties of soils according to moisture content

Soils Moisture content Reduced moisture content <0.9 W 0 Normal moisture content 0.9 W 0 W adm Elevated moisture content Wadm-W Excessive moisture content >W max Note: W max maximum possible moisture content for compaction coefficient of 0.9.

Table C8 Classification of soils according to heave under freezing

Soil group Degree of heaving Relative frost heaving of sample, % I Non-heaving <1 II Lightly heaving >1-4 III Heaving >4-7 IV Highly heaving <7-10 V Excessively heaving >10 Note: Frost heave shall be determined by laboratory tests. Frost heave group can be assigned according to table C9.

Table C9 Soil type according to frost heave potential

Soil Group Coarse and medium sized gravelly sand with the content of particles smaller I than 0.5 mm equal to 2% Coarse and medium sized gravelly sand with content of particles smaller than II 0.05 mm equal to 15%, fine gravelly sand with the content of particles smaller than 0.05 mm equal to 15%, light coarse sandy loam Light sandy loam light and heavy loam; clays III Silty sand, silty sandy loam; heavy silty loam IV Heavy silty sandy loam; light silty loam V Note: the value of coefficient of frost heaving of crushed stone sand, gravely sand with the content of particles less than 0.05 mm over 15% is approximately adopted as for silty sand and is tested in laboratory.

Table C10 Magnitude of frost heave

Working course soil Coarse and medium sized gravelly sand with content of particles smaller than 0.05 mm equal to 2% Coarse and medium sized gravelly sand with content of particles smaller than 0.05 mm equal to 15% and fine gravelly sand with the content of particles smaller than 0.05 mm equal to 2% Fina sand with the content of particles smaller than 0.05 mm less than 15% light coarse sandy loam Average value of relative frost heaving with freezing 1.5m, % 1 1

1-2

1-2 2-4 2-4 Silty sand; silty sandy loam; heavy silty loam 7-10 1-2 Light sandy loam 4-7 4-7 Heavy silty sandy loam; light silty loam 10 2-4 Light and heavy loam; clays 4-7 Notes: above the line: in case of terrain type 1 with respect to moisture conditions according to nd rd Table C1; under the line: in case of the 2 and 3 types.

Table C11 Type of area according to moisture and specific features of frozen ground
Type of area 1 Soil moisture conditions Permafrost processes and phenomena No Swam formation; frost heave (formation of seasonal frost heave hills) Swamp formation; frost heave (formation of seasonal frost heave hills); thermokrast relief, soliflucation Soils Type Coarse fragmented; sand Characteristics Uniform texture; noncompressible or thawed Uniform and stratified textures; lightly icy and lightly compressible Stratified and reticulate textures; icy and highly icy, compressible, highly compressible and excessively compressible

Dry sites Wet sites. Excessive wetting of soils in seasonally thawed layer by surface moisture is possible in summer time Damp sites. Constant excessive soil moisture in seasonally thawed layer from surface and above permafrost waters.

Sand; clay

Clayey; possible formation of ice lenses

Table C12 Classification of soils according to iciness and compressibility in road climatic zone I
Types of soil according to compressibility under thawing Noncompressible Iciness of permafrost 1 soil Total moisture content of seasonally thawing layer Silty sands, Fine sands light sandy Sandy loams Peat loams

Free of ice inclusions (0>0.18 <0.2 <0.2 0.1) Slightly Lightly icy 0.18-0.25 0.2-0.4 0.2-0.4 <2 compressible (0.01-0.1) Compressible Icy (0.1-0.4) >0.25 >0.4 >0.4-1.1 2-12 Highly Highly icy >1.1 >12 compressible (0.4-0.6) With large icy Excessively inclusions >1.1 >12 compressible (0.6-1.0) 1 ratio of the volume of ice layers to the volume of frozen soil (taking into account inclusions of ice particles)

Table C13 Values of factors of relative compaction

Required soil compaction coefficient 1.00 0.95 0.90 Sands, sandy loams, silty loams 1.10 1.05 1.00 Relative compaction factors for soils Rocks developed with bulk Loesses, Loams, 3 density, g/cm loess-like clays soils 1.9-2.2 2.2-2.4 2.4-2.7 1.05 1.30 0.95 0.89 0.84 1.00 1.15 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.95 1.10 0.85 0.80 0.76 Slags, industrial wastes 1.26-1.47 1.20-1.40 1.13-1.33

Table C14 Admissible moisture content for compaction

Soils Admissible moisture content as a fraction of optimum moisture content for the required soil compaction coefficient >1.0 1.0-0.98 0.95-0.90 <0.90

Silty sands; light coarse sandy 1.30 1.35 1.60 1.60 loams Light and silty sandy loams 1.20 1.25 1.35 1.60 Heavy silty sandy loams; light 1.10 1.15 1.30 1.50 and light sandy loams Heavy loams and heavy silty 1.0 1.05 1.20 1.30 loams, clays Note: 1. When embankments are constructed using non-silty sands, the admissible moisture content is not limited in summer conditions. 2. The present restrictions do not cover the embankments constructed by hydraulic filling. 3. Embankment construction in winter conditions as a rule, the moisture content should not be more than 1.3 w0 in case of sand and non-silty sandy loam soils; 1.2 w0 in case of sand and non-silty sandy loam soils; 1.2 w0 in case of silty loam soils and light loams and 1.14 w0 for other cohesive soils.

Table C15 Classification of area according to sand mobility

Degree of sand surface stabilization by vegetation Non-overgrown surface Slightly overgrown Semi-overgrown Overgrown Area covered with vegetation <5 From 5 to 15 >15 to 35 >35 Degree of sand mobility Very mobile Mobile Slightly Immobile

Moisture conditions in active subgrade layer for roadbed design 1st scheme of active subgrade layer moistening Source of moisture in active subgrade layer: Atmospheric precipitation. For embankment sections in type 1 terrain according to moisture condition (Table C1) For embankment sections in type 2 and 3 terrains according to moisture condition, when the pavement surface is above the design level of ground or surface water, or above the ground surface, by a distance 1.5 times exceeding the distance required according to Table 24. For embankment sections in type 2 terrain when the distance of the pavement surface from the top elevation of surface water (absent during not less than 2/3 of summer period) is more than 5-10 m in case of sandy loams; 2 - 5 m in case of light silty loams and 2 m in case of heavy silty loams and clays (smaller values should be used for soils with higher plasticity index). In cuts in sand and clay soils with road-side ditch slopes in excess of 20% (in road climatic zones I -III) and when the pavement surface is above the design groundwater level by a distance 1.5 times exceeding the distance required according to Table 24. When special methods of regulating moisture and thermal regime are adopted using specialized design (layers interrupting capillary rise, waterproofing, insulating and reinforcing layers, drainage, etc). 2nd scheme of active subgrade layer moistening Source of moisture in active subgrade layer: Surface waters standing tor a short time (up to 30 days), atmospheric precipitation For embankment sections in type 2 terrain according to moisture condition, when the pavement surface is above the design groundwater level according to the requirements of Table 24 or exceeding these requirements by a factor not greater than 1.5, and when embankment slopes are not steeper than 1:1.5 for a simple cross section (without a berm). For embankment sections in type 3 terrain according to moisture condition when specially designed methods of protection from groundwater intrusion are used (layers interrupting capillary rise, waterproofing, drainage) and fulfillment of other conditions specified in the previous section. In cuts in sand and clay soils with d-side ditch slopes in excess of 20% (in road climatic zones I - IIA) and when the pavement surface is above the design groundwater level by a distance 1.5 times exceeding the distance required according to Table 24.

Moisture conditions in active subgrade layer for roadbed design 3rd scheme of active subgrade layer moistening Source of moisture in active subgrade layer Groundwater or standing surface water (longer that 30 days); atmospheric precipitation. For embankment sections in type 3 terrain according to moisture condition (Table C1), when the pavement surface is above the design groundwater level according to requirements of Table 24 or exceeding these requirements by a factor not greater than 1.5. The same as above for cuts with groundwater level at the base at a depth according to requirements of Table 24 or exceeding these requirements by a factor not greater than 1.5.