CARTILAGE

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Specialized form of connective tissues Consists of cells : Chondrocytes Extracellular fibers Gel-like Matrix The intercellular components predominates over the cells, which are isolated in small cavities w/in the matrix Has no nerves or blood vessels of its own. Collodial properties of its matrix are important to nutrition to its cells. The matrix is also responsible for its firmness and resilience. Axial and appendicular skeleton is first formed in cartilage models later replaced by bone.

Role of Cartilage in post-natal life o Growth of Long bones o Articular surface Kinds of Cartilage o Hyaline - most common and most characteristic o Elastic o Fibrocartiloage Distinguished on the amount of extracellular matrix, abundance of collagen or elastic fibers. I.HYALINE CARTILAGE A. Sites in adult 1. Ventral ends of ribs, tracheal rings, larynx, joint surfaces of bones. B. Elastic, semitransparent tissue with an opalescent bluish gray tint C. HISTOGENESIS At sites of future cartilage formation in the embryo, mesenchymal cells withdraw their processes and become overcrowded together in dense aggregation called "Protochondral tissues" or centers of chondrofication. Nuclei of the cells are very close together and cell boundaries are indistinct. As the cells enlarge and differentiate, they secrete around themselves in a metachromatic extracellular matrix. D. Chondrocytes Lacuna(e) - space for chondrocytes Elliptical immediately beneath the surface of the perichondrium Semicircular or angular in deeper layers Conform to the shape of the lacunae they occupy. E. Cartlage Matrix In fresh hyaline, matrix is homogeneous. Principal constituents of ECM - type II collagen and proteoglycans Collagen fibrils are thin and lack crossbanding Not organized in bundles but form a loose meshwork throughout the matrix.

Proteoglycans Proteins - forms the backbone Carbohydrates - glycosaminoglycans, radiate from the core protein in a bottle brush configuration. Principal glycosaminoglycans Chondroitin sulfate and keratan sulfate One end of molecule is bound to hyaluronic acid The molecular org of ECM in hydrated state is ideally suited to its function on the weight bearing articular surfaces of bones. F. Secretion of Matrix components Chondrocytes synthesize and secret the collagen and proteoglycans surrounding matrix. II.ELASTIC CARTILAGE A. Sites 1. External ear, walls of the external auditory and eustachian canals, epiglottis. B. General Characteristics: 1. Differs from the hyaline grossly in its yellowish color and its greater opacity and elasticity. 2. Cells are similar to the hyaline. 3. The interstitial substance differs from that hyaline cartilage by being permeated by frequently branching fibers, 4. They form a network that is often so dense that the ground substance is obscured. III.FIBROCARTILAGE A. Sites 1. Intervertebral discs 2. Certain articular surfaces: symphisis pubis 3. Ligamentum teres femoris 4. Attachment of tendons to bones B. General Characterisitcs: 1. Encapulated chondrocytes lie singly or in pairs or aligned in rows between bundles of collagen fibers 2. Matrix is inconspicuous except in immediate vicinity of the cells, where its presence can be inferred from the characteristic form of the lacunae 3. It is clearly assc. w/ the connective tissue of the capsules and ligaments of joints. 4. It is transitional form between cartilage and dense connective tissue and the gradial form one to another IV.Histophysiology Joints - sustain great weight and allow the bone to move easily and smootly against one another. Ear and resp passages - pliable and resistant framework that prevents collapse of the tubular organ Makes possible bone growth in length. V.Some Diseases in Cartilage Deficiency

A. Vitamin C deficiency - Scurvy Apparent in the gums. B. Vitamin D Deficiency - Rickets Epiphyseal cartilages continue to proliferate but fail to calcify and the growing bones become deformed by weight bearing. Its growth in lengths is influenced by growth hormone. BONE
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May contain as many as 3 different regions. A typical long bone has all three: Tubular middle portion (Diaphysis): compact bone Metaphysis is the region where compact bone forms a shell around a mass of spongy or cancellous bone. A long bone typically is capped by an epiphysis. Between the epiphysis and the metaphysis is the epiphyseal plate, where a bone grows in length. Articular Surfaces On the articular surface of a long bone, a thin layer of hyaline cartilage covers the top of the compact bone. Normally, the surfaces of these articular cartilage is extremely slippery. Periosteum and Endosteum Except on the articular surfaces, bone is covered with a dense irregular tissue called the periosteum. The cells of the inner layer of the periosteum, called osteoblasts secret bone constituents, giving the periosteum the ability to form a new bone. Both the marrow cavity and the surfaces on the spicules of spongy bone are lined with a thin layer of cells called endosteum. Like the periosteum, the endosteum has osteogenic potential. The periosteum and endosteum are responsible for growth in diameter of the bone. Variations Not all bones have two epiphysela plates. Ex. Most tarsal bones have a single ossification center. Others have complex ossification centers that reflect complicated final gross morphology.

I.Microscopic Structures of Bones A. General Appearance 1. A section of bone reveals a large amount of mineralized ECM arranged in lamellae or plates. 2. W/in the lammelae exist small lacunae and anastomosing network of miniature canaliculi. The lacunae are occupied by living osteocytes and delicate cell processes from these osteocytes called the canaliculi. 3. The mineralized matrix prevents free diffusion so that the osteocytes are connected to the blood vessels in the bone via the canaliculi. B. Lamellar Patterns - bone lamallae in compact bones are arrg in 3 different compartments. 1. Along the periosteal and endosteal surfaces of a long bone there are circumferential lamellae.

Throughout the mass of the compact bone, lamellae are arrangement in 4-20 concentric layers around a vascular space. These cylindrical units called Haversian Systems run parallel to the long axis of the bone. 3. Interstitial Systems are irregular arrgangements of lamellae. These often are roughly triangular or quadrangular. C. Vascular Channels 1. Haversian Canals a. Always surrounded by concentrically arranged lamellae, where the long axis of the cylinder of lamellae is parallel to the long axis of the blood vessel. Even in cases where the Haversian Canals branch into Y-Shaped Haversian Systems, lamellae maintain their concentric arrangement. 2. Volkmann's Canals a. Occur where blood vessels form the periosteum penetrate compact bone, crossing Haversian Systems in their descent into it. Therefore, Volkmann's Canals have their long axis perpendicular, or nearly perpendicular, to the lamellae of the Haversian Systems. Cancellous bone is composed of small numbers of lamellae w/c are not closely arranged into form like Haversian Systems. Instead, lamellae lie close to blood vessels and the endosteum, and they receive their nutrition by direct diffusion. D. Periosteal Variations 1. While a bone growth in diameter, the inner layer of the periosteum is cuboidal layer of cells loosely arranged in a sheet. These osteoblasts are active in bone formation; they secrete uncalcified fiber and amorphous matrix, w/c subsequently calcify to form compact bone. 2. Once a bone reaches its full diameter, osteoblasts become quiescent and are indistinguishable from the other densely packed fibroblasts that comprise the periosteum. 3. Dense bundles of collagen fibers become incarcerated in the bony matrix of a growing bone. These Sharpey's fibers anchor the periosteum firmly to the underlying bone. The endosteum is similar to the layer of osteoblasts but is somewhat thinner. Like osteoblasts, the cells of endosteum can secrete bone. II.Cytologic Structure of Bone A. Cell Types in Growing Bone 1. Osteoprogenitor Cells a. Relatively undifferentiated cells that commonly undergo mitosis. b. Has a pale staining oval nucleu and an acidophillic or faintly basophillic cytoplasm. c. Found near all free surfaces of bone including periosteum and endosteum. They ling Haversian Canals and are found on trabeculae of degenerating cartilage at the epiphyseal plate of a growing bone. 2. Pseoblasts a. Avtively secret bone matrix. Typical of cells that make collagen for export, they have a large amount of rough ER and therefor basophillic cytoplasm.

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The nucleus of the osteoblasts is prominent and contain a large basophillic nucleolus. c. The Golgi Apparatus is well developed. 3. Osteocytes a. Somewhat similar to osteoblasts. Becaus it is less active in matrix secretion. Its RER and GA are less prominent than those of osteoblast b. Although less active, they are not inert. They respond rapidly to parathyroid hormone during regulation of serum calcium concentration and they can secret matrix. c. Occupy lacunae in the solid matrix. 4. Osteoclasts a. Large multinuclear cells formed by the fusion of mononuclear cells. b. Numerous mitochondria and prominent GA. c. Secrete acid hydrolases and certain ions that cause the breakdown of bone. Interconversion of Cell Types. 1. Osteoprogenitor cells can differentiate into osteoblasts. 2. Osteoblasts can also differentiate into osteocytes. Chemical Composition of Bone 1. Inorganic Salts - complex calcium phosphate. Other components of the mineral are calcium carbonate, citrate, flouride, magnesium and sodium. Bone also contains such glycosaminoglycans as Keratan Sulfate, Chondroitin Sulfate and Hyaluronic Acid. Bone contains Type I Collagen

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III.Formation of Bone A. Intramembranous Ossification - calcification of mesenchymal tissue. Flate bones of the skull; condensations of mesenchymal cells occur near blood vessels. Osteoblasts secret ostoid that mineralize. B. Endochondral ossification Long bones in the extremities, bones in the pelvis, vertebral column, base of the skull. C. Osteoblasts secrete bone organic matrix w/c later is mineralized. IV.Function of Bone A. Calcium Storage 1. Calcium is essential for cell adhesion, membrane permeability, muscle contraction and blood clotting. 2. Hormones that affect Calcium exchange between blood and bone: a. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) i. Breaks down bone for circulation b. Calcitonin i. Depresses bone resorption and is antagonistic to the effects of PTH 3. Regulation of Maturation and Growth: a. Gonadal hormones i. Female - ovaries ii. Male - Testis

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Growth hormones i. Secreted by anterior pituitary gland