Pharmacy

Pharmacy is the health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical drugs. The word derives from the Greek: (pharmakon), meaning "drug" or "medicine"[1] (the earliest form of the word is the Mycenaean Greek pa-ma-ko, attested in Linear B syllabic script[2]). The scope of pharmacy practice includes more traditional roles such as compounding and dispensing medications, and it also includes more modern services related to health care, including clinical services, reviewing medications for safety and efficacy, and providing drug information. Pharmacists, therefore, are the experts on drug therapy and are the primary health professionals who optimize medication use to provide patients with positive health outcomes. An establishment in which pharmacy (in the first sense) is practiced is called a pharmacy, chemist's or drug store. In the United States and Canada, drug stores commonly sell not only medicines, but also miscellaneous items such as candy (sweets), cosmetics, and magazines, as well as light refreshments or groceries. The word pharmacy is derived from its root word pharma which was a term used since the 15th17th centuries. In addition to pharma responsibilities, the pharma offered general medical advice and a range of services that are now performed solely by other specialist practitioners, such as surgery and midwifery. The pharma (as it was referred to) often operated through a retail shop which, in addition to ingredients for medicines, sold tobacco and patent medicines. The pharmas also used many other herbs not listed. In its investigation of herbal and chemical ingredients, the work of the pharma may be regarded as a precursor of the modern sciences of chemistry and pharmacology, prior to the formulation of the scientific method.

Disciplines
Pharmacy, tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis (XIV century)

The field of Pharmacy can generally be divided into three primary disciplines:

Pharmaceutics Medicinal chemistry and Pharmacognosy Pharmacy practice

The boundaries between these disciplines and with other sciences, such as biochemistry, are not always clear-cut; and often, collaborative teams from various disciplines research together.Pharmacology is sometimes considered a fourth discipline of pharmacy. Although pharmacology is essential to the study of pharmacy, it is not specific to pharmacy. Therefore it is usually considered to be a field of the broader sciences.Pharmacoinformatics is considered another new discipline, for systematic drug discovery and development with efficiency and safety.

Professionals
The World Health Organization estimates there are at least 2.6 million pharmacists and other pharmaceutical personnel worldwide.[3]

Pharmacists
Pharmacists are allied health professionals with specialised education and training who perform various roles to ensure optimal health outcomes for their patients through proper medication use. Many pharmacists are also small-business proprietors, owning the pharmacy in which they practice. Since pharmacists know about the chemical synthesis mode of action of a particular drug, and its metabolism and physiological effects on human body in great detail, they play an important role in optimisation of a drug treatment for an individual. Pharmacists are represented internationally by the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP). They are represented at the national level by professional organisations such as the Royal Pharmaceutical Society in the UK, the Pharmacy Guild of Australia (PGA), the American Pharmacists Association (APhA), and the Pakistan Pharmacists Society (PPS). See also: List of pharmacy associations. In some cases, the representative body is also the registering body, which is responsible for the regulation and ethics of the profession. In the United States, specializations in pharmacy practice recognized by the Board of Pharmaceutical Specialties include: cardiovascular, infectious disease, oncology, pharmacotherapy, nuclear, nutrition, and psychiatry.[4] The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy certifies pharmacists in geriatric pharmacy practice. The American Board of Applied Toxicology certifies pharmacists and other medical professionals in applied toxicology.

Pharmacy technicians
Pharmacy technicians support the work of pharmacists and other health professionals by performing a variety of pharmacy related functions, including dispensing prescription drugs and other medical devices to patients and instructing on their use. They may also perform administrative duties in pharmaceutical practice, such as reviewing prescription requests with doctor's offices and insurance companies to ensure correct medications are provided and payment is received.

Types of pharmacy practice areas

Pharmacists practice in a variety of areas including retail, hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, mental hospitals, and regulatory agencies. Pharmacists can specialize in various areas of practice including but not limited to: hematology/oncology, infectious diseases, ambulatory care, nutrition support, drug information, critical care, pediatrics, etc.
Community pharmacy Hospital pharmacy Clinical pharmacy Compounding pharmacy Consultant pharmacy Internet pharmacy Veterinary pharmacy Military pharmacy Pharmacy informatics

The future of pharmacy

In the coming decades, pharmacists are expected to become more integral within the health care system. Rather than simply dispensing medication, pharmacists are increasingly expected to be compensated for their patient care skills.[13] In particular, Medication Therapy Management (MTM) includes the clinical services that pharmacists can provide for their patients. Such services include the thorough analysis of all medication currently being taken by an individual. The result is a reconciliation of medication and patient education resulting in increased patient health outcomes and decreased costs to the health care system.[14] In the United States, pharmaceutical care or clinical pharmacy has had an evolving influence on the practice of pharmacy.[7] Moreover, the Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm. D.) degree is now required before entering practice and some pharmacists now complete one or two years of residency or fellowship training following graduation. In addition, consultant pharmacists, who traditionally operated primarily in nursing homes are now expanding into direct consultation with patients, under the banner of "senior care pharmacy."

DRUG
The word DRUG is derived from French word DROUGE The drug is any substance or product that is used or intended to be used to modify or explore physiological system or pathological states for the benefit of recipient.

Sources of Drugs:Drugs are discovered from a variety of natural sources or created synthetically in the laboratory as result of many years of tireless research. The sources of drugs include plant origin drugs, animalorigin drugs, synthetic drugs, human gene therapy, and biotechnology.

Need for conversion of drug into medicine

Drugs are rarely administered sololy as pure chemical substances, but are always given in formulated preparations for the following reasons:1.) Many drugs have an unpleasant,odour ,flovour and colours. 2.) Many drugs have a bitter taste and this result in poor compliance. 3.) A single dose of many drugs is in milligrams range from about 0.25-250 mg. It is very difficult to weigh and handle such small quantity. 4.) When the drug is taken directly , it is absorbed in a small ares in the gastro intestinal tract , leading to gastric irritation. 5.) The drug substance has to protected from atmospheric oxygen and humidity.

FORMULATION OF DRUGS
There are three main stages in the use of drugs as medicine :a.) The discovery of the drug b.) The manufacture of drug in bulk form. c.) The formulation of a drug into different dosage forms like tablet, capsule, syrup , injection , cream etc.

Dosage
A dosage form (DF) is the physical form of a dose of a chemical compound used as a drug or medication intended for administration or consumption. Common dosage forms include pill, tablet, or capsule, drink or syrup, aerosol or inhaler, liquid injection, pure powder or solidcrystal (e.g., via oralingestion or freebasesmoking), and natural or herbal form such as plant or food of sorts.

Types
Oral

Pill, tablet, or capsule Specialty tablet like buccal, sublingual, or orally-disintegrating Thin film (e.g., Listerine PocketPaks) Liquidsolution or suspension (e.g., drink or syrup) Powder or liquid or solidcrystals

Inhalational

Aerosol Inhaler Nebulizer Vaporizer

Parenteral Injection

Intradermal (ID) Intramuscular (IM) Intraosseous (IR) Intraperitoneal (IP) Intravenous (IV) Subcutaneous (SC)

Topical

Cream, gel, liniment or balm, lotion, or ointment, etc Ear drops (otic) Eye drops (ophthalmic)

SOLID DOSAGE FORMS

Solid dosage forms include; powders, granules, tablets,
capsules and suppositories (suppositories may be also classified as semi-solid dosage form)

Advantages of solid dosage forms

1. More stable than liquids, with longer expiration dates. 2. Easy shipping and handling. 3. Less needed shelf space. 4. No preservation requirements. 5. Accurate dosage (single dose). 6. Suitable for sustained release preparation. Disadvantages of solid dosage forms Their preparation needs complicated and expensive machines. Examples of solid dosage form: Powders, granules, tablets, capsules etc.. 1.) Powders: Pharmaceutical powder is a mixture of finely divided drugs and/or chemicals in a dry form that may be intended for internal (oral powders) or external (topical or dusting powder) use. 2.) Granules: Granules are prepared aggregates of powdered materials to form a larger particle (2-4 mm). Granules may be used as such (granules of medicinal value) or in making tablets and capsules. 3.) Tablets: Tablets are solid preparations each
containing a single dose of one or more active ingredients and usually obtained by compressing uniform volume of particles, some are prepared by molding.

4.) Capsules: Capsules are solid dosage forms in which medicinal agents are enclosed within
hard or soft soluble shell. The shells are generally formed from gelatin.

TABLETS
INTRODUCTION
It is a solid dosage form each containing a unit dose of one or more medicament/s. Tablets are solid, flat or biconvex discs prepared by compressing a drug or a mixture of drugs with or without suitable excipients. Tablets may be swallowed whole or being chewed. Some are dissolved or dispersed in water before administration. Some are put in oral cavity, where the active ingredient is liberated at a predetermined rate. Implants or passeries may also be presented in form of tablet.

Tablet may vary in shape and differ greatly in size and weight depending on the amount of medicinal substance and the intended mode of administration.

Advantages and disadvantages of tablet as a dosage form

Tablets are simple and convenient to use. They provide an accurately measured dosage of the active ingredient in a convenient portable package, and can be designed to protect unstable .

medications or disguise unpalatable ingredients. Colored coatings, embossed markings and printing can be used to aid tablet recognition. Manufacturing processes and techniques can provide tablets special properties, for example, sustained release or fast dissolving formulations.

Some drugs may be unsuitable for administration by the oral route. For example, protein drugs such as insulin may be denatured by stomach acids. Such drugs cannot be made into tablets. Some drugs may be deactivated by the liver when they are carried there from the gastrointestinal tract by the hepatic portal vein (the "first pass effect"), making them unsuitable for oral use. Drugs which can be taken sublingually are absorbed through the oral mucosae, so that they bypass the liver and are less susceptible to the first pass effect. The oral bioavailability of some drugs may be low due to poor absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. Such drugs may need to be given in very high doses or by injection. For drugs that need to have rapid onset, or that have severe side effects, the oral route may not be suitable. For example salbutamol, used to treat problems in the pulmonary system, can have effects on the heart and circulation if taken orally; these effects are greatly reduced by inhaling smaller doses direct to the required site of action.

Tablet properties:
Tablets can be made in virtually any shape, although requirements of patients and tableting machines mean that most are round, oval or capsule shaped. More unsusual shapes have been manufactured but patients find these harder to swallow, and they are more vulnerable to chipping or manufacturing problems.

Types of Tablets:
1. Oral tablets for ingestion 2. Tablets used in the oral cavity 3. Tablets administered by other routes 4. Tablets used to prepare solution

FORMULATION OF TABLETS

FLOW DIAGRAM OF PRODUCTION OF TABLETS 1. Receiving the ingredients The company's suppliers deliver the ingredients to the factory. The ingredients are usually powders, although they can be crystals or very small, spherical granules. 2. Checking ingredients. The ingredients for the tablets are checked very carefully: active ingredients are identified chemically some ingredients are weighed the ingredients are analysed to check they match the specification the solid ingredients are passed through a sieve to check nothing unwanted has got in. 3. Mixing and Granulation. The powdered ingredients are then placed inside a mixer like a large food mixer. They are mixed to ensure that the active elements are combined uniformly with the excipients. Unless this process happens thoroughly, one tablet may have too much activity and another none at all. Water is then added to granulate the mixture. The water binds the powders together to form granules (like instant coffee). This stops the powders from separating (or demixing) whenever the mixture is moved.

CONTROL POINT: The progress of this process is monitored by checking on the current drawn by the motor that powers the mixing blade, or impeller. This gives a measure of the amount of turning force (torque) it is using to mix and granulate the ingredients. When the process is nearing its end, the ingredients are uniformly mixed and have formed into granules. The torque required to turn the granules is greater, and the motor draws a bigger current. An average time for this part of the process is 10 minutes. 4. Drying. The granules are dried in a fluid bed drier. This has a large fan facing upwards. It creates giant currents of heated air. The air picks up the granules and carries them up in a warm flow. The granules fall down and are picked up by more hot air. The granules pass from the fluid bed drier through a sieve. This breaks up the oversized granules and ensures the size is uniform. The powder of fine granules is then ready to be pressed into tablets.

5. Pressing. The tablet press is a high-speed mechanical device. It 'squeezes' the ingredients into the required tablet shape with extreme precision. It can make the tablet in many shapes, although they are usually round or oval. Also, it can press the name of the manufacturer or the product into the top of the tablet. Each tablet is made by pressing the granules inside a die made of hardened steel. The die is a disc shape with a hole cut through its centre. The powder is compressed in the centre of the die by two hardened steel punches that fit into the top and bottom of the die. The punches and dies are fixed to a turret that spins round. As it spins, the punches are driven together by two fixed cams - an upper cam and lower cam. The top of the upper punch (the punch head) sits on the upper cam edgeThe bottom of the lower punch sits on the lower cam edge. The shapes of the two cams determine the sequence of movements of the two punches. This sequence is repeated over and over because the turret is spinning round. The force exerted on the ingredients in the dies is very carefully controlled. This ensures that each tablet is perfectly formed. The turret holds up to 75 dies and pairs of punches. It spins extremely fast and can produce up to 600, 000 tablets per hour. Because of the high speeds, they need very sophisticated lubrication systems. The lubricating oil is recycled and filtered to ensure a continuous supply.

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5.Coating: Some tablets are then coated. The coating performs a number of jobs. For example it can be to:

prevent the tablets cracking or breaking in transit allow the controlled release of the active ingredient over a longer time than simply allowing the tablet to dissolve

mask the taste

prevent the tablet from breaking up make the tablet easier to swallow. The coating machine is like a tumble drier with nozzles suspended across the width of the drum. The batch of tablets is rotated in the drum and the nozzles spray on the coating. Baffles attached to the inside of the drum ensure that every tablet is coated properly.

Once again, the coating process is very carefully controlled. This is to ensure that the coating on every tablet is even and is the correct thickness. There could be half a million tablets in the coating machine. So an error could be extremely expensive.

A coating machine: 6. Packaging: Pharmaceutical manufacturers have to package their medicines before they can be sent out for distribution. The type of packaging will depend on the formulation of the medicine.'Blister packs' are a common form of packaging used for a wide variety of products. They are safe and easy to use and they allow the consumer to see the contents without opening the pack.Many pharmaceutical companies use a standard size of blister pack. This saves the cost of having to make different tools and of having to change the production machinery between products. Capsules can also be packaged in a similar way. Sometimes the pack will be perforated so that individual tablets can be detached. This means that the expiry date and the name of the product have to be printed on each part of the package. The blister pack itself must remain absolutely flat as it travels through the packaging processes, especially when it is inserted into a carton. This poses interesting problems for the designers. Extra ribs are added to the blister pack to improve its stiffness.

Stages in the packaging process : The packaging takes place in a sequence like a production line. Tablets are taken in at one end and boxed up cartons of blister-packed tablets pass out at the other end. There are some extra inputs to the system along the way. These are shown as letters in the sequence

LIQUID DOSAGE FORM

Dosage forms prepared by dissolving the active ingredients in an aqueous or nonaqueous solvent. Liquid dosage forms classified as follows:1.) Oral syrups elixirs ,drops 2.) In mouth and throat:-Mouth washes,gargles, throat sprays. 3.) In body cavities: -Douches, enemas, ear drops nasals sprays. 4.) On body surface: -Collodions, lotions.

LIQUID ORAL DOSAGE FORM

The use of the liquid oral dosage is justified on the basis of ease of administration and rapid absorption , for those individuals who cannot swallow solid dosage forms . Drugs are absorbed more rapid in their dissolve state . Oral Liquids are homogeneous preparations containing one or more active ingredients dissolved or suspended in a suitable vehicle. Elixirs, linctuss, mixtures, oral drops, oral emulsions, oral solutions and oral suspensions are included in the general category of oral liquids.

SYRUP
Introduction Syrup is monophasic system which is characterized by presence of single homogeneous concentrated, viscous aqueous preparation of medicinal substances with sugar or sugar substitute with or without flavoring agents. Syrups are particularly effective in the administration of drugs for pediatric patients, as it provides a pleasant mean of administering a liquid form of a disagreeable tasting drug .Any water soluble drug that is stable in aqueous solution may be added to flavored syrup.Syrup offer a pleasant means of administering disagreeable tasting drug .

Types of syrups 1.) Simple syrup 2.) Medicated syrup 3.) Flavored syrup

Simple syrup
Simple Syrup is a thick, viscous liquid consisting primarily of a solutionof sugar in water, containing a large amount of dissolved sugars but showing little tendency to deposit crystals. The viscosity arises from the multiple hydrogen bonds between the dissolved sugar, which has many hydroxyl (OH) groups, and the water.

Medicated syrup
When the aqueous preparation contains some added medicinal substance.

Flavored syrup
This contains aromatic or pleasantly flavored substances and is intended to be used as a vehicle or flavor of prescription .

Advantages of syrup
1.) Easier to swallow therefore easier for children , old age , unconscious people. 2.) More effective than tablets and capsules. 3.) Homogeneous therefore give uniform dose . 4.) Dilute irritant action of some drugs (asprin , KI , KBr ) minimize adverse effects in the GIT like KCl. 5.) Syrups offers a pleasant means of administering disagreeable tasting drugs.

Disadvantages of syrups
1.) Bulky therefore difficult to transport and store. 2.) Unpleasant taste or odours are difficult to mask .

3.) Needs an accurate spoon to measure the dose . 4.) Less state the solid dosage form. 5.) Major sign of instability: a. colour change b. precipitation c. microbial growth d. chemical gas formation

Contenets of syrup: Most syrups contain The therapeutic agent in addition to purified water which have pharmacological action. Excipients Which have no pharmalogical action. o Sugar like Sucrose. o Antimicrobial reservatives Sodium Benzoate ,Bronopol , Methyl Paraben Sodium, Propyl Paraben Sodium. o Viscosity reagent Sorbitol glycerol. o Antioxidents - . Butylated hydroxytolune . Soduim metabisulfite. o Acids Citric acid. o Buffering agents. o Chelating agents Sodium Ethylenediamine Tetra Acetate(EDTA). o Flavoring agent Pineapple Cardamom,Orange Choclate,Cinnamon o Colouring agents. o Sweetners Sodium Saccrine,Aspartame,Neotame. o For maintaining pH - . Citric acid . Sodium hydroxide o Ethyl alcohol or Chlorophenylamine Malet (CPM)

PROCEDURE OF PRODUCTION OF SYRUP

1.) Preparation of formula:

The preparation of formula is the main step of syrup production. It is calculated according to the label claim. Example of APETIN SYRUP (Cyproheptadine Hydrochloride and Tricholine Citrate Syrup) Label Claim: In each 5 ml Cyproheptadine Hydrochloride Tricholine Citrate Sodium Benzoate Methyl Paraben sodium Nipasol Sodium Bronopol EDTA Glycerin Propyl Glycol Sodium Saccarine Aspardane NaCl 2 mg 275 mg 0.125 gm 0.025 gm 0.0125gm 0.1 gm

0.004gm 0.05gm 0.216gm 0.025gm 0.02gm 0.075gm

Calculations:Ingredients Label claim Quantity % Required in used Kg (for 500 lit) 0.2 27.5 1.25 0.25 0.125 0.1 0.4 50 21.6 0.25 0.02 0.75 12.5 62 0.25 0.05 0.25 0.002 0.08 10 4.3 0.05 0.004 0.15 Quantity used in (in kg)

Cyproheptadine Hydrochloride 2 mg Tricholine Citrate Sodium Benzoate Methyl Paraben sodium Nipasol Sodium Bronopol EDTA Glycerin Propyl Glycol Sodium Saccarine Aspardane NaCl Purified water 275mg 0.125gm 0.025gm 0.0125gm 0.1gm 0.004gm 0.05gm 0.216gm 0.025gm 0.02gm 0.075gm

0.225 44.285 1.25 0.25 0.125 0.1 0.4 50 22.5 0.25 0.02 0.75 For making up to 1 lit.

2. Dispensing of raw material

Test the raw materials in quality control lab. After passing the raw material form quality control then weigh the active ingredients and excipients from raw material section to production area.

3. Preparation of sugar solution:

The 200 lit stainless steel tank. Take 1oo liter demineralized water and 175 kg sugar commonly used sucrose . Dissolve the sucrose by heating form inverted sugar solution . Cool the sugar solution and transfer the sugar solution into 500 liter stainless steel tank. During transfer the sugar solution filtration also done , in sucrose some impurities are present these are removed by filtration This sugar solution not kept for long time because fungus infect the sugar solution.

4. Preparation of preservative solution:

After the preparation of sugar solution rapidly prepares the preservative solution in demineralized water in separate stainless steel tank which is suitable for the active drugs. Preservatives like Sodium Benzoate, Bronopol and Nipasol etc. Sodium Benzoate =0.2% Methyl paraben sodium= 0.2% Nipasol(propyl paraben sodium)=0.05% Bronopol =0.02%

These solutions of preservatives add to the sugar solution and stir the mixture to become to a homogeneous solution.

5. Cooling:
This step is very important because some chemicals like all vitamins require temperature below 40 degree centigrade they get destroyed above 40 degree. Check the temperature time to time.

6. Filtration:
Filter this mixture and mix the mixture homogeneously.

7. Addition of Viscosity controlling agents:

Now check the density of the syrup if density is less then add viscosity controlling agents like sorbitol solution. Sorbitol = 10%

8. Addition of flavours:
In the syrup according to the ingredients flavours added in a particular percentage. Pineapple =0.2% Cardamom =0.1% Chocolate =0.025% 9. Addition of Sweeteners: According to product like cough syrup , Calcium iron syrup , Multivitamin syrup, multimineral syrup , sweetening adjusted by sweeteners like Sorbitol, Glucose solution etc. 10. Filtration: Filtration is very important step in formation of syrup because various impurities are in sweeteners and flavours hence with the help of filtration these impurities removed.

11. Addition of demineralized water: For making up proper volume of syrup the demineralized water is used.

12. Adjust pH: Now check the pH of syrup according to requirement and target organ like pH of stomach is slight acidic and pH of intestine is slight basic, adjust the pH by citric acid and sodium hydroxide. 13. Washing of bottles: Bottles are washed and dried by washing instrument. Wash the bottles and dry them. 14. Filling: Syrup is filled in Bottles with the help of filling machine Filling machine is automatically adjusted by computer. 15. Sealing: Now filled bottles are capped and sealed by sealing machine. 16. Checking: The checking is done under an instrument which contain white and black strips .heavyparticalscrystals impurities are checked out. 17. Washing : Now checked bottles are washing and wipe. 18. Labeling: This process isdone in labeling machine. Labels are sticked on the bottles with the help of machine

19. Packing:
This process is done under two steps Inner Packing: Bottles are pack in small boxes. Shipper Packing: Small boxes are pack in cartoons. 20. Storing: The finished goods store in storage area.

EQUIPMENTS:

Stainless steel mixing tank

Bottle washing machine

Syrup filling machine

Sealing Machine

Visual checking Machine

Labeling Machine

Quality Control

A major part of the quality assurance is the Quality Control defined by ISO as "the operational techniques and activities that are used to satisfy quality requirements. " An important part of the quality control is the Quality Assessment: the system of activities to verify if the quality control activities are effective, in other words: an evaluation of the products themselves. Quality control is primarily aimed at the prevention of errors. Yet, despite all efforts, it remains inevitable that errors are be made. Therefore, the control system should have checks to detect them. When errors or mistakes are suspected or discovered it is essential that the "Five Ws" are trailed:

APPRATESMelting point:

Melting Point: Determines the melting point of different types of substances - up to 400C The Melting Point is a standard parameter to determine the sample purification, to identify and describe products or to measure mixture contents. This analytical method is widely established and a measures basic characteristic of every chemical compound. Buchi offers you solutions to determine your melting and boiling points with high accuracy,

visual or automatic determination and optional qualification packages meeting highest regulatory standards.

With an integrated calibration kit based on WHO standards, your instrument has constantly high precision which can be proven by a verification kit. You can trust in your results - it is too important to be unsure!

bulk density:

Engaged in offering pharmacy equipment with following features: LYZER BULK DENSITY APPARATUS: Specially designed to study, the packing down of powder beds of different pharmaceuticals and chemicals in the process of tablet manufacturing, capsule filling & cosmetics. Installed with an automatic device for preset of strokes Gear driven Noiseless and strudy motor, also provided with an electronic timer. Elegantly designed for smooth operation electrically operated on 230v AC, 50 Hz. digital display model.

ph meter:

A pH meter is an electronic instrument used to measure the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of a liquid (though special probes are sometimes used to measure the pH of semi-solid substances). A typical pH meter consists of a special measuring probe (a glass electrode) connected to an electronic meter that measures and displays the pH reading.

The meter: The meter circuit is no more than a voltmeter that displays measurements in pH units instead of volts. The input impedance of the meter must be very high because of the high resistance approximately 20 to 1000 M of the glass electrode probes typically used with pH meters. The circuit of a simple pH meter usually consists of operational amplifiers in an inverting configuration, with a total voltage gain of about -17. The inverting amplifier converts the small voltage produced by the probe (+0.059 volt/pH) into pH units, which are then offset by seven volts to give a reading on the pH scale. For example: At neutral pH (pH 7) the voltage at the probe's output is 0 volts. 0 * 17 + 7 = 7. At basic pH, the voltage at the probe's output ranges from +0 to +0.41 volts (7 * 0.059 = 0.41). So for a sample of pH 10 (3 pH units above neutral), 3 * 0.059 = 0.18 volts), the output of the meter's amplifier is 0.18 * 17 + 7 = 10.

TABLET DISINTEGRATION TEST APPRATUS

Available in SINGLE BASKET ,TWO BASKET, FOUR BASKET Used for determination of disintegration of time of Tablets. The test equipment consist of 1 litre Beaker, tablet can be tested simultaneously through motorized shaft moves up and down direction of 28 to 32 R.P.M approx.; carrying a rigid basket rack assembly. On the upper end of the shaft is fitted a horizontal strip to support cylindrical standard size glass tubes with stainless steel wire gauge bottom. Cylindrical basket moves up and down with standard perforated made of acrylic sheet inside in one litre glass beaker of distilled water. Unit having hot plate rating 65 watts fixed on the top for BEAKER . Temperature can be maintained by thermostat in between 35 C to 37 C . Digital timer can be fixed with the machine.

DISSOLUTION RATE TEST APPARATUS

For (1) SINGLE TEST (2) THREE TEST (3) SIX TEST Used for tablet to dermine th durability at the time of production .. The apparatus consists of the following: Transparent plastic perpex Bath with cover. 1000 cc vessel made from Corning Glass. Bath is fitted with 500 Watts heater. A F.H.P. ELECTRIC MOTOR provided with electronic speed regulator which varied from 25 R.P.M TO 250 R.P.M approx. A stainless Steel stirring Rod fitted with Electic Motor to rotate smooth and without any perceptible wobble in the vessel. A thermostat is provided to maintain water temperature at 37C only distilled water should be filled in Bath before operation. Complete unit supplied with 3 core and plug to work on 220 Volt A.C. Also Available in AUTOMATIC LIFTING SYSTEM, Digital R.P.M /Digital temperature controller can be uses.

TABLET FRIABILITY TEST APPRATUS

Used for tablets to determine the determine the durability at the time of production. A transparent plastic Perspex drum 300 mm Dia x 35 mm deep with cover approx.: also a shaped radial fixed blades which the tablets along with it up to the central height and lets them off while drum is rotation, thus the tablet rub against each other without any hard impact. The drum rotates at a fix speed of 30 R.P.M by geared motor. Electric timer in between 1 to 5 R. P.M/ Digital revolution counter(preset counter) The motor unit is covered in steel cabinet controls the rotation period and shaft extended on one side which the plastic drum rotate. Tablets are weighed before and after the test and the difference is weight for a particular time perior indication the rate of abrasion.

Quality control testing of Tablets:

Disintegration test: The disintegration test is performed to find out the time it takes for
a solid oral dosage form like a tablet or capsule to completely disintegrate. The time of disintegration is a measure of the quality. This is because, for example, if the disintegration time is too high; it means that the tablet is too highly compressed or the capsule shell gelatin is not of pharmacopoeial quality or it may imply several other reasons. And also if the disintegration time is not uniform in a set of samples being analysed, it indicates batch inconsistency and lack of batch uniformity.

Dissolution test:

Dissolution is pharmaceutically defined as the rate of mass transfer from a solid surface into the dissolution medium or solvent under standardized conditions of liquid/solid interface, temperature and solvent composition. It is a dynamic property that changes with time and explains the process by which a homogenous mixture of a solid or a liquid can be obtained in a solvent. It happens to chemically occur by the crystal break down into individual ions, atoms or molecules and their transport into the solvent.

Quality control testing of syrups

The raw material and the product tested in Quality Control lab Raw material testing: 1.) Physical testing of raw material o Physical appearance of raw material Colour Appearance Solubility: Category of solubility 1gm solute dissolve in vol.(ml)of solvent Very soluble Freely soluble Soluble Sparingly soluble Slightly soluble Very soluble insoluble Less than 1ml solvent 1 to 10 ml solvent 10to 30 ml solvent 30 to 100 ml solvent 100 to 1000 ml solvent 1liter to 10 liter solvent More than 10 liter solvent

2.)Chemical testing of raw material: Moisture absorbance test: in this test we can find out the amount of moisture which absorbed by raw material. weight in per ml

Product testing: 1.)Physical testing of product: appearance flavor colour 2.)Chemical testing of product: Weight variation test: This test done by calculating weight variation of twenty empty bottles and twenty filled bottles. The limit of variation is 5%. Weight per ml: ingredients are tested according to test written in I.P (Indian pharmacopoeia.) Claim test: all ingredients are in amount of claim on label of product