1.

INTRODUCTION

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat panel display, electronic visual display, video display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCs do not emit light directly. They are used in a wide range of applications, including computer monitors, television, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are common in consumer devices such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones. LCDs have displaced cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in most applications. They are usually more compact, lightweight, portable, less expensive, more reliable, and easier on the eye. They are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use phosphors, they cannot suffer image burn-in. Monochrome LCD images usually appear as blue or dark gray images on top of a grayish-white background. Color LCD displays use two basic techniques for producing color: Passive matrix is the less expensive of the two technologies. The other technology, called thin film transistor (TFT) or active-matrix, produces color images that are as sharp as traditional CRT displays, but the technology is expensive. Recent passive-matrix displays using new CSTN and DSTN technologies produce sharp colors rivaling active-matrix displays.

1.1

Basic LCD concepts ( function )

LCD televisions produced a black and colored image by selectively filtering a white light. The light is typically provided by a series of cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFLs) at the back of the screen, although some displays use white or colored LEDs instead. Millions of individual LCD shutters, arranged in a grid, open and close to allow a metered amount of the white light through. Each shutter is paired with a colored filter to remove all but the red, green or blue (RGB) portion of the light from the original white source. Each shutterfilter pair forms a single

sub-pixel. The sub-pixels are so small that when the display is viewed from even a short distance, the individual colors blend together to produce a single spot of color, a pixel. The shade of color is controlled by changing the relative intensity of the light passing through the subpixels. Liquid crystals encompass a wide range of (typically) rod-shaped polymers that naturally form into thin layers, as opposed to the more random alignment of a normal liquid. Some of these, the liquid crystals, also show an alignment effect between the layers. The particular direction of the alignment of a liquid crystal can be set by placing it in contact with an alignment layer or director, which is essentially a material with microscopic grooves in it. When placed on a director, the layer in contact will align itself with the grooves, and the layers above will subsequently align themselves with the layers below, the bulk material taking on the director's alignment. In the case of an LCD, this effect is utilized by using two directors arranged at right angles and placed close together with the liquid crystal between them. This forces the layers to align themselves in two directions, creating a twisted structure with each layer aligned at a slightly different angle to the ones on either side. LCD shutters consist of a stack of three primary elements. On the bottom and top of the shutter are polarizer plates set at right angles. Normally light cannot travel through a pair of polarizers arranged in this fashion, and the display would be black. The polarizers also carry the directors to create the twisted structure aligned with the polarizers on either side. As the light flows out of the rear polarizer, it will naturally follow the liquid crystal's twist, exiting the front of the liquid crystal having been rotated through the correct angle, that allows it to pass through the front polarizer. LCDs are normally transparent. To turn a shutter off, a voltage is applied across it from front to back. the rod-shaped molecules align themselves with the electric field instead of the directors, destroying the twisted structure. The light no longer changes polarization as it flows through the liquid crystal, and can no longer pass through the front polarizer. By controlling the voltage applied across the crystal, the amount of remaining twist can be selected. This allows the transparency of the shutter to be controlled. To improve switching time, the cells are placed under pressure, which increases the force to re-align themselves with the directors when the field is turned off. Several other variations and modifications have been used in order to improve performance in certain applications. In-Plane Switching displays (IPS and S-IPS) offer wider viewing angles and better color reproduction, but are more difficult to construct and have slightly slower response times. IPS displays are used primarily for computer monitors. Vertical Alignment (VA, S-PVA and MVA) offer higher contrast ratios and good response times, but suffer from color shifting when viewed from the side. In general, all of these displays work in a similar fashion by controlling the polarization of the light source.

The surface of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal material are treated so as to align the liquid crystal molecules in a particular direction. This treatment typically consists of a thin polymer layer that is unidirectional rubbed using, for example, a cloth. The direction of the liquid crystal alignment is then defined by the direction of rubbing. Electrodes are made of a transparent conductor called Indium Tin Oxide (ITO). Before applying an electric field, the orientation of the liquid crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted pneumatic device (still the most common liquid crystal device), the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This reduces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears grey. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray. This electric field also controls (reduces) the double refraction properties of the liquid crystal.

LCD with top polarizer removed from device and placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers are parallel. The optical effect of a twisted pneumatic device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, these devices are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). These devices can also be operated between parallel polarizers, in which case the bright and dark states are reversed. The voltage-off dark state in this configuration appears blotchy, however, because of small variations of thickness across the device.

Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field). Displays for a small number of individual digits and/or fixed symbols (as in digital watches, pocket calculators etc.) can be implemented with independent electrodes for each segment. In contrast full alphanumeric and/or variable graphics displays are usually implemented with pixels arranged as a matrix consisting of electrically connected rows on one side of the LC layer and columns on the other side which makes it possible to address each pixel at the intersections. The general method of matrix addressing consists of sequentially addressing one side of the matrix, for example by selecting the rows one-by-one and applying the picture information on the other side at the coloums row by row

Figure 1 The block diagram of a typical digital LCD TV

FIGURE 1.1 Full operation of LCD

2.0

COMPLETE SYSTEM LEVEL BLOCK DIAGRAM

A system level block diagram for the project entitled Microcontroller Driven Electroluminescent Display is shown in Figure 1. The inputs from the formula car and the user are sent to the microcontroller. The microcontroller processes the inputs and makes any updates to the electroluminescent display indirectly through the LCD controller. The following sections identify the subsystems shown in Figure 1 as well as their functions.

*
Ignition Signal (RPM) Front Tire Sensor Oil Pressure AMD- 80C31 Microcontroller (Block 1) A 8:15 Decoding Logic (Block 2)
AD & Com

SED -1330 LCD Controller (Block 3)

Electroluminescent Display (Block 4)

Keypad

MM74C923 Keypad Encoder (Block 7)

Decoding Logic

HM62256 Static RAM (Block 5)

Coolant Temperature O 2 Sensor

Signal Conditioning (Block 8)

Conditioned Analog Signals

ADC0808 A/D (Block 6)

Decoding Logic

Figure 2.0 : System Level Block Diagram

2.1

AMDs 80C31 Microcontroller (Block 1)

The 80C31 microcontroller is responsible for deciphering the input signals and updating the LCD Controller accordingly. The microcontroller block includes program memory and data memory. They are interfaced trough the multiplexed data bus with the help of a 74ALS573 latch. The microcontroller can receive and send signals over both digital pins and the address/data bus.

Ignition Signal Front Tire Sensor Oil Pressure

80C31 Microcontroller with External Program Memory, Data Memory, & Latch (Block 1) RD WR

Address Bus

Data Bus

Port 1 & Port 3

Figure 2.1 : AMDs 80C31 Microcontroller Subsystem Block Diagram (Block 1)

Microcontroller Inputs Ignition Signal Front Tire Sensor

Function The frequency of the ignition signal will be used to determine the rotations per minute (RPM) of the engine. The rotational speed of the front tire will be calculated to find the ground speed of the vehicle. This will also be used in conjunction with the ignition signal to find the current gear. Digital input from the engine control unit. It signals low oil pressure. The microcontroller receives up to eight analog inputs from the ADC0808. The ADC0808 is interfaced to the address/ data bus. Individual inputs will be explained in ADC0808 block. The keypad encoder can interpret up to 20 keys. It is interfaced to the address/data bus. When a key is pressed, it places the binary coded key value on the data bus for the microcontroller to read. Table 2.1: Microcontroller Inputs

Digital Inputs from Engine Control Unit Analog Inputs

Keypad Press

Microcontroller Output Digital Outputs Port 1&3

Function All digital outputs on port 1 and port 3 will be used for many miscellaneous tasks handled by the microprocessor. The microcontroller communicates to the LCD controller over the address/data bus. It specifies what pixels need to be on, and the LCD controller takes care of the communication to the display. Table 2.2: Microcontroller Outputs

Output to LCD Controller

2.2

LCD Controller (Block 3)

The LCD Controller subsystem (Figure 3) interfaces microcontroller to the display. It has the capabilities of displaying layered text and graphics, scrolling the display in any direction, and partitioning the screen into multiple screens. It is responsible for continually updating the electroluminescent display and storing the current display in external memory

A0

XD0-XD3 XECL XSCL LP WF YDIS YD YSCL

From Decoder

CS

LCD Controller
(Block 3)

AD[0:7]

RD WR RES

VR/W VCE VA0-VA14 VD0-VD7

Figure 2.2 : LCD Controller Subsystem Block Diagram (Block 3)

Microcontroller Inputs to LCD Controller A0 CS

Function Selects the data type to be displayed. Activates the LCD controller when the microcontroller is accessing external memory that is associated with the LCD controller. The logic decoding hardware handles the memory mapping. The data bus is used to transfer bi-directional data between the microcontroller and the LCD controller Control signal used during read cycles. Control signal used during write cycles. Reset signal to initialize LCD controller.

AD[0:7] RD WR RES

Table 2.3: Microcontroller Inputs to LCD Controller

External RAM Interface VA0 VA14 VD0 VD7 VR/W VCE

Function Determines which memory address of the external RAM is specified. Reads or writes to the specified address. VRAM R/W Signal Memory Control Signal

Table 2.4: Controller Outputs to External RAM Interface

Electroluminescent Display Interface XD0 XD3

Function X-Driver Data: Data signals to the Electroluminescent Display X-driver enable chain clock Data shift clock to update data at determined time intervals. Latch pulse so screen is not read while being written to. Frame signal. This signal turns off the display if the screen is blanked. Scan start pulse. Y-driver shift clock

XECL XSCL LP WF YDIS YD YSCL

Table 2.5: Controller Outputs to Electroluminescent Display Interface

2.3

Decoding Logic Subsystems (Block 2)

The decoding logic is required to organize all devices using the address/data bus in memory space. The decoding logic subsystem block diagram can be seen in figure 4. Specific memory location are assigned for the LCD controller, A/D write, A/D read, and keypad encoder in the microcontrollers memory map (figure 5) It is also responsible for creating a 500 kHz square wave for the A/D conversion. All output signals are explained with their respective devices.

A (13:15)
RD WR

LCD Controller Chip Select

GAL26CV12B Decoding
(Block 2)

A/D Chip Select/ Control Signals Keypad Chip Select 500 kHz Square Wave for A/D

10 MHz Clock

Figure 2.3: Decoding Logic Subsystem Block Diagram (Block 2)

FFFF A/D C000 A000 9FFF 8000 7FFF Program & Memory Space Keyboard LCD Controller

0000

Figure 2.5:Memory map partitions created by decoding logic (Block 2)

2.4

Electroluminescent Display Subsystem (Block 4)

This subsystem displays data and graphics based on information received from the LCD Controller. The only output is what is displayed on the screen. The signal labeled YDIS, from Table 5, is used to turn off the electroluminescent display when the screen is blank. The voltage regulator maintains a constant voltage for the display and is easily controlled by the YDIS signal. All other inputs and their functions are listed in Table 5. Figure 6 shows the block diagram for this subsystem.

Figure 2.6: Electroluminescent Display Subsystem Block Diagram

2.5

Static RAM Subsystem (Block 5)

The external RAM is used to store text, character codes, and bit-mapped graphics data for the LCD Controller. The LCD Controller determines the address of the desired information and then reads the data. All of the inputs and outputs are described in Table 4, as well as a block diagram in Figure 7.

Figure 2.7: Static RAM Subsystem Block Diagram (32,768-word x 8-bit)

2.6

A/D and Signal Conditioning Subsystems (Block 6 & Block 8)

The A/Ds communication with the microcontroller is broken into two processes. To start the conversion data is written to the memory address that correlates to the A/D and correct analog signal. The signal number is chosen by A10 through A8 as seen in Figure 8. Once the conversion is completed the A/D generates an interrupt with the EOC signal. The microprocessor responds by reading from the memory location associated with the A/D. The data received from the A/D ranges from 00h = 0V to FFh = 5V. All signal conditioning will be done off of the board to add flexibility in choosing analog inputs.
Decoding Logic

OE ALE START CLK Vref+ VrefA B C

Data Bus

+5V 0V

A8 A9 A10 Signal Conditioning (Block 8)

ADC0808 A/D EOC Interrupt Signal (Block 6)

to Microprocessor

Analog Inputs

Conditioned Analog Signal

IN[0:7]

Figure 2.8: Multiplexed Input Analog to Digital Subsystem Block Diagram (Block 6) and

2.7 Inputs

Signal Conditioning Subsystem Diagram (Block 8) Function Signal initiates A/D conversion. Signal to put converted data on the data bus. 500 MHz clock signal. Analog signal select lines. IN0 - O2 sensor signal IN1 Temperature thermocouple signal Table 6: Inputs to A/D converter

ALE & START OE CLOCK A8-A10 Analog Inputs

Outputs AD[0:7] EOC

Function Outputs digital value of analog signal to data bus. End of calculations signal. Causes interrupt to handle reading the data bus. Table 7: Outputs to A/D converter

2.8

Keypad Encoder Subsystems (Block 7)

When a key is pressed the encoder uses the row and column inputs to decipher what key was pressed. The encoder then enables the DAV signal, which generates an interrupt signal on the microcontroller. The microcontroller responds by reading from the memory location associated with the keypad encoder. The binary key value is placed on AD[0:4] for the microprocessor to read.

KEYPAD CHIP SELECT

OE
AD[0:4]

ROW COLUMN

Keypad Encoder MM74C923

(Block 7) OSC KBC DAV

0.1uF

1uF

Figure 2.9: Keypad Encoder Subsystem Block Diagram (Block 7)

Inputs OE ROW COLUMN OSC KBC

Function Signal to enable key value on the data bus. Signal to tell encoder what row was pressed. Signal to tell encoder what column was pressed. Capacitor value sets polling frequency. Capacitor value sets key debounce period. Table 2.8: Inputs to keypad encoder

Outputs AD[0:4] DAV

Function Outputs digital value of key pressed to data bus. Data available signal. Causes interrupt to handle reading the data bus Table 2.9:Outputs to keypad encoder

3.0

BASICS LCD OPERATION

Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) are a passive display technology. This means they do not emit light; instead, they use the ambient light in the environment. By manipulating this light, they display images using very little power. This has made LCDs the preferred technology whenever low power consumption and compact size are critical. Liquid crystal (LC) is an organic substance that has both a liquid form and a crystal molecular structure. In this liquid, the rod-shaped molecules are normally in a parallel array, and an electric field can be used to control the molecules. Most LCDs today use a type of liquid crystal called Twisted Nematic (TN).

A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) consists of two substrates that form a "flat bottle" that contains the liquid crystal mixture. The inside surfaces of the bottle or cell are coated with a polymer that is buffed to align the molecules of liquid crystal. The liquid crystal molecules align on the surfaces in the direction of the buffing. For Twisted Nematic devices, the two surfaces are buffed orthogonal to one another, forming a 90 degree twist from one surface to the other, see figure below.

This helical structure has the ability to control light. A polarizer is applied to the front and an analyzer/reflector is applied to the back of the cell. When randomly polarized light passes through the front polarizer it becomes linearly polarized. It then passes through the front glass and is rotated by the liquid crystal molecules and passes through the rear glass. If the analyzer is

rotated 90 degrees to the polarizer, the light will pass through the analyzer and be reflected back through the cell. The observer will see the background of the display, which in this case is the silver gray of the reflector. The LCD glass has transparent electrical conductors plated onto each side of the glass in contact with the liquid crystal fluid and they are used as electrodes. These electrodes are made of Indium-Tin Oxide (ITO). When an appropriate drive signal is applied to the cell electrodes, an electric field is set up across the cell. The liquid crystal molecules will rotate in the direction of the electric field. The incoming linearly polarized light passes through the cell unaffected and is absorbed by the rear analyzer. The observer sees a black character on a sliver gray background, see figure 2. When the electric field is turned off, the molecules relax back to their 90 degree twist structure. This is referred to as a positive image, reflective viewing mode. Carrying this basic technology further, an LCD having multiple selectable electrodes and selectively applying voltage to the electrodes, a variety of patterns can be achieved.

Many advances in TN LCDs have been produced. Super Twisted Nematic (STN) Liquid Crystal material offers a higher twist angle (>=200 vs. 90) that provides higher contrast and a better viewing angle. However, one negative feature is the birefringence effect, which shifts the background color to yellow-green and the character color to blue. This background color can be changed to a gray by using a special filter. The most recent advance has been the introduction of Film compensated Super Twisted Nematic (FSTN) displays. This adds a retardation film to the STN display that compensates for the color added by the birefringence effect. This allows a black and white display to be produced.

6.0
i.

REFFERENCES
Jonathan W. Steed and Jerry L. Atwood (2009). Supramolecular Chemistry (2nd ed.). John Wiley and Sons. p. 844. ISBN 9780470512340. http://books.google.com/?id=Jt1I74g6_28C&pg=PA844&dq=liquidcrystal+1888&q=liquid-crystal%201888. Tim Sluckin: Ueber die Natur der kristallinischen Flssigkeiten und flssigen Kristalle (About the Nature of Crystallised Liquids and Liquid Crystals), Bunsen-Magazin, 7.Jahrgang, 5/2005 Gray, George W.; Kelly, Stephen M. (1999). "Liquid crystals for twisted nematic display devices". Journal of Materials Chemistry 9: 2037. doi:10.1039/a902682g. R. Williams, Domains in liquid crystals, J. Phys. Chem., vol. 39, pp. 382388, July 1963 Castellano, Joseph A. (2006). "Modifying Light". American Scientist 94 (5): 438445. Heilmeier, George; Castellano, Joseph; Zanoni, Louis (1969). "Guest-Host Interactions in Nematic Liquid Crystals". Molecular Crystals and Liquid Crystals 8: 293. doi:10.1080/15421406908084910. G. H. Heilmeier, L. A. Zanoni, and L. A. Barton, Dynamic scattering: A new electrooptic effect in certain classes of nematic liquid crystals, Proc. IEEE, vol. 56, pp. 11621171, July 1968 http://www.invent.org/2009induction/1_3_09_induction_heilmeier.asp "Milestones:Liquid Crystal Display, 1968". IEEE Global History Network. IEEE. http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Liquid_Crystal_Display,_1968. Retrieved 4 August 2011. "Modifying Light". American Scientist Online. http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/53321/page/4;jsessionid=a aa6J-GFIciRx2%3Ci%3ELive. Brody, T.P., "Birth of the Active Matrix", Information Display, Vol. 13, No. 10, 1997, pp. 28-32. European Patent No. EP 0131216: Amstutz H., Heimgartner D., Kaufmann M.,Scheffer T.J., "Flssigkristallanzeige," Oct. 28, 1987. T.J. Scheffer and J. Nehring,"A new highly multiplexable LCD," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 48, no. 10, pp. 1021-1023, Nov. 1984. Patent No. US 3834794: R. Soref, Liquid crystal electric field sensing measurement and display device, filed June 28, 1973. Patent No. US 5576867: G. Baur, W. Fehrenbach, B. Staudacher, F. Windscheid, R. Kiefer, Liquid crystal switching elements having a parallel electric field and beta o which is not 0 or 90 degrees, filed Jan. 9, 1990.

ii.

iii. iv. v. vi.

vii.

viii. ix.

x.

xi. xii. xiii. xiv. xv.

7.0

CONCLUSION

LCDs are more energy efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically modulated optical device made up of any number of segments filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in colour or monochrome. The most flexible ones use an array of small pixels. Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. With no actual liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. In most of the cases the liquid crystal has double refraction. Short for liquid crystal display, a type of display used in digital watches and many portable computers. LCD displays utilize two sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution between them. An electric current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass through them. Each crystal, therefore, is like a shutter, either allowing light to pass through or blocking the light.

4.0

DISCUSSION

A cross sectional view of a liquid crystal display is shown below in Figure 1. As can be seen in the diagram, the display is simply two pieces of extremely flat glass, over coated with a number of chemical layers, and filled with liquid crystal fluid. some perspective, the bottom and top glass substrates are typically .043" thick each. The thin film coatings, SiO2, ITO, and PI, are each a few hundred angstroms thick. The space between the glass marked "LC Fluid" is about 5 microns thick and is adjusted slightly to match the characteristics of the chosen fluid. If this drawing was made to scale, it would be very difficult to see any detail at all between the glass plates. A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric, in this case the liquid crystal fluid, between the plates. First we select glass coated with a transparent metal coating for the electrodes of the display. The glass is usually made of soda lime, but in some instances it can be a more expensive borosilicate, or because few manufacturers provide borosilicate any more without a fight, aluminasilicate type. The transparent metal coating can be any thin layer of conductive material, such as gold, silver or tin. In order to keep the cost down and have a reasonable process window with a highly transparent coating, the industry has been using indium-tin oxide (ITO) as the preferred electrode material.

Fig. 1. Photoresist is then put on top of the ITO coating and a photolithographic process is used to image the pattern. The exposed patterns are then developed and the glass is sent through an acid bath where the excess ITO is removed, similar to the way a PC board is made. The remaining photoresist is then stripped away and the patterned segment and common plane electrodes remain on the glass.

The next layer to be applied is the liquid crystal alignment layer. This is usually a polyimide type material and has been chosen for its environmental stability in high moisture and heat. More importantly is its ability to cause the molecules of liquid crystal to align their long axis in the direction in which the polymer has been buffed. We rub the two halves of the display at right angles to one another and since the liquid crystal molecules like to arrange themselves parallel to one another, we cause a helical structure to be formed between the two electrode faces, see Fig 2 below. This helical structure forms a 90o rotation of the liquid crystal molecules from the top of the display to the bottom. After the polymer is rubbed, a thermoplastic seal is printed along the perimeter of one piece of glass. This is a resin based material with a high curing temperature, about 200oC, that creates an extremely durable barrier to outside moisture and contamination. Some manufacturers use a UV cured material for this seal as it speeds up the manufacturing process. We then apply a crossover dot, usually a small spot of silver, to connect the common plane electrode on the top piece of glass to the segment plane which is on the bottom piece of glass. This is somewhat analogous to a plated thru hole on a PC board. To make the display uniform in appearance, spacers are then applied. These are usually glass or plastic spheres that have the desired diameter to produce a fixed gap between the glass plates. Depending on the liquid crystal used, this gap can be between 4 and 8 microns. The two halves of the display are then aligned, usually with a three point camera alignment system for accuracy, and brought together. A very thin, uniform, flat and empty bottle has been formed with the thermoplastic seal essentially "gluing" the two pieces of glass together. A liquid crystal is put inside this bottle by using a vacuum filling technique. The liquid crystal (the dielectric material of our capacitor) is selected for it's various physical properties. The application may call for a liquid crystal fluid that has a very low operating voltage or the display may be used outdoors and require a very wide temperature range. Display manufacturers have developed several liquid crystal mixtures to fulfill most applications. Once the liquid crystal has been put inside the display and the port opening has been sealed, a polarizer is put on the front of the top glass and a second polarizer is put on the back of the bottom glass to make sure that the light reaching the eye of the observer is oriented along the correct axis. II. Operation of a liquid crystal display

The liquid crystal molecules are long and thin as shown in Figure 2 on the right. On the bottom glass substrate, the PI layer has been rubbed from back to front, and the molecules are aligned in that direction. Remember, the direction of this orientation determines the viewing angle of the part. Because the PI layer of the top glass has been rubbed from right to left, the molecules attached to the top piece of glass are oriented perpendicular to the ones at the bottom. This 90o rotation is the Fig. 2 "twist" in a twisted nematic display. The liquid crystal molecules between the top and bottom glass form a spiral structure that will twist light as it goes through the cell. As can been seen in Figure 3 on the left, a beam of light entering from above passes through the top polarizer along the axis of polarization. The light beam goes through the cell and is twisted as it goes in the same direction as the twist of the LC fluid. Fig. 3 The light exits the display, and passes through the polarizer on the bottom glass which is oriented perpendicular to the polarizer on the top.

When a drive signal is applied to the cell electrodes, an electric field is set up across the cell. The liquid crystal molecules will "stand up" to align themselves in the direction of the electric field. When the molecules "stand up" the helical structure is disrupted, and the incoming linearly polarized light does not "twist" like it did when the molecules were at rest. The light is instead blocked by the rear polarizer. The observer therefore sees a black segment Fig. 4 on the clear background. When the electric field is turned off, the molecules relax back to the 90o twist structure, light entering the cell is again twisted 90o and the display returns to a transparent state. This is referred to as a positive image, transmissive viewing mode. The electro-optic response characteristic of our standard TN cell is asymmetric because only the "turn-on" state can be activated by an electric field. When the RMS voltage goes to zero, the twisted structure, which provides the "twist" of the incident light, is restored by the elastic torques within the LC fluid. We can therefore speed up the "turn-on" time of our display by increasing the drive voltage waveform (over a very limited range), but the "turnoff" time is fixed by the relaxation characteristics of the LC fluid.