Communication Systems

I
INTRODUCTION

Communications Satellite, any earth-orbiting spacecraft that provides communication over long distances by reflecting or relaying radio-frequency signals.

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HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

Some of the first communications satellites were designed to operate in a passive mode. Instead of actively transmitting radio signals, they served merely to reflect signals that were beamed up to them by transmitting stations on the ground. Signals were reflected in all directions, so they could be picked up by receiving stations around the world. Echo 1, launched by the United States in 1960, consisted of an aluminized plastic balloon 30 m (100 ft) in diameter. Launched in 1964, Echo 2 was 41 m (135 ft) in diameter. The capacity of such systems was severely limited by the need for powerful transmitters and large ground antennas. Satellite communications currently make exclusive use of active systems, in which each satellite carries it own equipment for reception and transmission. Score, launched by the United States in 1958, was the first active communications satellite. It was equipped with a tape recorder that stored messages received while passing over a transmitting ground station. These messages were retransmitted when the satellite passed over a receiving station. Telstar 1, launched by American Telephone and Telegraph Company in 1962, provided direct television transmission between the United States, Europe, and Japan and could also relay several hundred voice channels. Launched into an elliptical orbit inclined 45 to the equatorial plane, Telstar could only relay signals between two ground stations for a short period during each revolution, when both stations were in its line of sight. Hundreds of active communications satellites are now in orbit. They receive signals from one ground station, amplify them, and then retransmit them at a different frequency to another station. Satellites use ranges of different frequencies, measured in hertz (Hz) or cycles per second, for receiving and transmitting signals. Many satellites use a band of frequencies of about 6 billion hertz, or 6 gigahertz (GHz) for upward, or uplink, transmission and 4 GHZ for downward, or downlink, transmission. Another band at 14 GHZ (uplink) and 11 or 12 GHZ (downlink) is also much in use, mostly with fixed (nonmobile) ground stations. A band at about 1.5 GHZ (for both uplink and downlink) is used with small, mobile ground stations (ships, land vehicles, and aircraft). Solar energy cells mounted on large panels attached to the satellite provide power for reception and transmission.

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GEOSYNCHRONOUS ORBIT

A satellite in a geosynchronous orbit follows a circular orbit over the equator at an altitude of 35,800 km (22,300 mi), completing one orbit every 24 hours, in the time that it takes the earth to rotate once. Moving in the same direction as the earth's rotation, the satellite remains in a fixed position over a point on the equator, thereby providing uninterrupted contact between ground stations in its line of sight. The first communications satellite to be placed in this type of orbit was Syncom 2, launched by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1963. Most communications satellites that followed were also placed in geosynchronous orbit.

IV

COMMERCIAL COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITES

Deployment and operation of communications satellites on a commercial basis began with the founding of the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) in 1963. When the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) was formed in 1964, COMSAT became the U.S. member. Based in Washington, D.C., INTELSAT is owned by more than 120 nations. Intelsat 1, known as Early Bird, launched in 1965, provided either 240 voice circuits or one two-way television channel between the United States and Europe. During the 1960s and 1970s, message capacity and transmission power of the Intelsat 2, 3, and 4 generations were progressively increased. The first of the Intelsat 4s, launched in 1971, provided 4,000 voice circuits. With the Intelsat 5 series (1980), innovations in signal focusing resulted in additional increases in capacity. A satellite's power could now be concentrated on small regions of the earth, making possible smaller-aperture, lower-cost ground stations. An Intelsat 5 satellite can typically carry 12,000 voice circits. The Intelsat 6 satellites, which entered service in 1989, can carry 24,000 circuits and feature dynamic on-board switching of telephone capacity among six beams, using a technique called SS-TDMA (satellite-switched time division multiple access). In the early 2000s, INTELSAT had 21 satellites in orbit, providing the world's most extensive telecommunications system. Other systems also provide international service in competition with INTELSAT. The growth of international systems has been paralleled by domestic and regional systems, such as the U.S. Telstar, Galaxy, and Spacenet programs and Europe's Eutelsat and Telecom.

SERVICES

Commercial satellites provide a wide range of communications services. Television programs are relayed internationally, giving rise to the phenomenon known as the global village. Satellites also relay programs to cable television systems as well as to homes equipped with dish antennas. In addition, very small aperture terminals (VSATs) relay digital data for a multitude of business services. Intelsat satellites now carry over 100,000 telephone circuits, with growing use of digital transmission. Digital source coding methods (see Telecommunications) have resulted in a ten-fold reduction in the transmission rate needed to carry a voice channel, thus enhancing the capacity of existing facilities and reducing the size of ground stations that provide telephone service.

The International Mobile Satellite Organization (INMARSAT), founded in 1979 as the International Maritime Satellite Organization, is a mobile telecommunications network, providing digital data links, telephone, and facsimile transmission, or fax, service between ships, offshore facilities, and shore-based stations throughout the world. It is also now extending satellite links for voice and fax transmission to aircraft on international routes.

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RECENT TECHNICAL ADVANCES

Communications satellite systems have entered a period of transition from point-to-point high-capacity trunk communications between large, costly ground terminals to multipoint-to-multipoint communications between small, low-cost stations. The development of multiple access methods has both hastened and facilitated this transition. With TDMA, each ground station is assigned a time slot on the same channel for use in transmitting its communications; all other stations monitor these slots and select the communications directed to them. By amplifying a single carrier frequency in each satellite repeater, TDMA ensures the most efficient use of the satellite's onboard power supply. A technique called frequency reuse allows satellites to communicate with a number of ground stations using the same frequency by transmitting in narrow beams pointed toward each of the stations. Beam widths can be adjusted to cover areas as large as the entire United States or as small as a state like Maryland. Two stations far enough apart can receive different messages transmitted on the same frequency. Satellite antennas have been designed to transmit several beams in different directions, using the same reflector. A method for interconnecting many ground stations spread over great distances was demonstrated in 1993 with the launch of NASA's ACTS (Advanced Communications Technology Satellite). The satellite uses what is known as the hopping spot beam technique to combine the advantages of frequency reuse, spot beams, and TDMA. By concentrating the energy of the satellite's transmitted signal, ACTS can use ground stations that have smaller antennas and reduced power requirements. The concept of multiple spot beam communications was successfully demonstrated in 1991 with the launch of Italsat, developed by the Italian Research Council. With six spot beams operating at 30 GHZ (uplink) and 20 GHZ (downlink), the satellite interconnects TDMA transmissions between ground stations in all the major economic centers of Italy. It does this by demodulating uplink signals, routing them between up- and downlink beams, and combining and remodulating them for downlink transmission. Laser beams can also be used to transmit signals between a satellite and the earth, but the rate of transmission is limited because of absorption and scattering by the atmosphere. Lasers operating in the bluegreen wavelength, which penetrates water, have been used for communication between satellites and submarines. The latest development in satellites is the use of networks of small satellites in low earth orbit (2,000 km (1,200 mi) or less) to provide global telephone communication. The Iridium system uses 66 satellites in low earth orbit, while other groups have or are developing similar systems. Special telephones that communicate with these satellites allow users to access the regular telephone network and place calls from anywhere on the

globe. Anticipated customers of these systems include international business travelers and people living or working in remote areas.

National Public Radio

National Public Radio (NPR), first noncommercial, satellite-delivered radio system in the world, and a membership organization serving more than 540 member radio stations in the United States. About 60 percent of NPR's operating income comes from member station dues and fees. About 4 percent comes directly from other governmental, tax-funded sources. Corporate, foundation, and individual supporters also provide financial gifts and grants. NPR produces and distributes news and information programs, including Morning Edition, All Things Considered, Weekend Edition, Talk of the Nation, On the Media, and Fresh Air with Terry Gross; and cultural programs such as Performance Today, The Thistle and Shamrock, JazzSet, Car Talk, and NPR Playhouse. More than 18 million people listen to NPR programs each week. NPR was formed in response to the passing of the Public Broadcasting Act by the Congress of the United States in 1967. The act authorized the creation of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB), which was to encourage the growth and development of noncommercial radio and to develop programming that will be responsible to the interests of the people. The CPB set out to foster professionalism in the many small, noncommercial stations. NPR was created to provide national news coverage and to act as the first nationwide connection between the noncommercial stations. Incorporated in 1970 with 90 public radio stations as charter members, NPR transmitted its first program on April 19, 1971. On May 3, 1971, the news program All Things Considered debuted, establishing NPR as a national news and information service. In 1977 NPR merged with the Association of Public Radio Stations. Two years later, NPR established the first nationwide satellitedelivered radio distribution network. Although NPR experienced financial difficulties in the early 1980s, the company had settled its debts by 1986. Financial restructuring finalized that year directed funding from the CPB to member stations rather than to NPR. At the same time, NPR began to cultivate new partnerships with public and private organizations. In 1995 members of the U.S. Congress initiated legislation to eliminate federal funding for public broadcasting. Supporters of public broadcasting objected to this move, and the Congress agreed to explore methods for maintaining public broadcasting while seeking funding from other sources.

Motorola played a leading role in developing the Iridium satellite communications project, a network of 66 low-orbiting satellites designed to permit transmission of voice, data, fax, and paging signals anywhere on Earth. The system became operational in 1998. The fees associated with satellite communications proved prohibitive, however, and the Iridium system was unable to compete with rapidly expanding and inexpensive cellular telephone service. In 1999 Iridium LLC, the company formed to oversee the project, filed for bankruptcy protection. In 2000 the company discontinued its satellite communications service and announced plans to let all 66 satellites disintegrate in space. As Iridiums primary technology partner and largest stakeholder, Motorola incurred costs in excess of $1 billion associated with the failed endeavor and was named in several lawsuits brought by Iridiums creditors. 4

Motorola is developing and building another satellite network, Teledesic, in partnership with other companies. The system, to begin service in 2004, will use several hundred low-orbiting satellites to create a global, high-speed data communications network.

Wireless Communications
I
INTRODUCTION
Wireless Communications, various telecommunications systems that use radio waves to carry signals and messages across distances. Wireless communications systems include cellular telephones, pagers, radio telegraphs, satellite telephones, laptop computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs), shortwave radios, and two-way radios. They are used primarily to transmit private communications. Commercial radio and television are also wireless telecommunications systems, but radio and television are mainly public broadcast services rather than private communications systems (see Radio and Television Broadcasting). This article focuses on wireless communications systems that are used primarily for private communications. Wireless communications allow people greater flexibility while communicating, because they do not need to remain at a fixed location, such as a home or office, but instead can communicate with other people while traveling in a car or walking along a street. Wireless technologies make communications services more readily available than traditional wire-based services (such as ordinary telephones), which require the installation of wires in fixed locations. Wireless communications devices are useful in places where communications services are only temporarily needed, such as at outdoor festivals or large sporting events. These technologies are also useful for communicating in remote locations, such as mountains, jungles, or deserts, where wire-based telephone service might not exist. Police, fire, and other emergency departments use wireless devices, such as two-way radio, to communicate information between vehicles that are already responding to emergency calls. Construction and utility workers frequently use handheld radios for short-range communication and coordination. Many businesspeople use wireless devices, such as cellular radio telephones, also known as cell phones, to stay in contact with colleagues and clients while traveling. Increasingly, people are using wireless devices for a variety of everyday purposes, such as scheduling appointments, arranging meeting places, shopping for food, or agreeing on home video selections while in a video store. All wireless communications devices use radio waves to transmit and receive signals. These devices operate on different radio frequencies so that signals from one device will not overlap and interfere with nearby transmissions from other devices. The number of companies offering wireless communications services has grown steadily in recent years. For example, in 1988 about 500 companies offered cell phone services. By 2001 that number had grown to more than 2,500 companies serving about 120 million subscribers. Currently, telecommunications companies throughout the world are activating more wireless service subscriptions than they are conventional wire-based service subscriptions. Wireless communication is becoming increasingly popular because of the convenience and mobility it affords; the expanded availability of radio frequencies for transmitting, which makes it possible to handle a larger volume of calls; and improvements in technology, which have added other services such as Internet access and improved the clarity of voice transmissions.

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PRINCIPLES OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

Wireless communications begin with a message that is converted into an electronic signal by a device called a transmitter. There are two types of transmitters: analog and digital. An analog transmitter sends electronic signals as modulated radio waves. The analog transmitter modulates the radio wave to carry the electronic signal and then sends the modified radio signal through space. A digital transmitter encodes electronic signals by converting messages into a binary code, the series of zeros and ones that are the basis of all computer programming. The encoded electronic signal is then sent as a radio wave. Devices known as receivers decode or demodulate the radio waves and reproduce the original message over a speaker. Wireless communications provide more flexibility than wire-based means of communication. However, there are some drawbacks. Wireless communications are limited by the range of the transmitter (how far a signal can be sent), and since radio waves travel through the atmosphere they can be disturbed by electrical interferences (such as lightning) that cause static. Wireless communications systems involve either one-way transmissions, in which a person merely receives notice of a message, or two-way transmissions, such as a telephone conversation between two people. An example of a device that only receives one-way transmission is a pager, which is a high-frequency radio receiver. When a person dials a pager number, the pager company sends a radio signal to the desired pager. The encoded signal triggers the pagers circuitry and notifies the customer carrying the pager of the incoming call with a tone or a vibration, and often the telephone number of the caller. Advanced pagers can display short messages from the caller, or provide news updates or sports scores. Two-way transmissions require both a transmitter and a receiver for sending and receiving signals. A device that functions as both a transmitter and a receiver is called a transceiver. Cellular radio telephones and twoway radios use transceivers, so that back-and-forth communication between two people can be maintained. Early transceivers were very large, but they have decreased in size due to advances in technology. Fixed-base transceivers, such as those used at police stations, can fit on a desktop, and hand-held transceivers have shrunk in size as well. Several current models of handheld transceivers weigh less than 0.2 kg (0.5 lb). Some pagers also use transceivers to provide limited response options. These brief return-communication opportunities allow paging users to acknowledge reception of a page and to respond using a limited menu of options.

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MODES OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

Wireless communications systems have grown and changed as technology has improved. Several different systems are used today, all of which operate on different radio frequencies. New technologies are being developed to provide greater service and reliability.

Sea and Air Transceivers

The first wireless communications devices were radio telegraphs. A telegraph is a device that sends simple electrical pulses along copper wires or through the air as radio waves. The pulses were caused by contact between two metal surfaces, and receivers interpreted these electrical pulses as tones or beeps. A code of long and short signals was developed to represent the letters of the alphabet (see Morse Code, International), and in this way coded messages could be sent between telegraphs. Radio telegraphs used radio waves rather than wire telegraph lines to send and receive messages. Radio telegraphs sent telegraph signals over long distances and were ideal for ship-to-shore communication. Bulky radio telegraphs were installed on ships as early as 1899 and were widely used by 1905. Maritime and aviation telecommunications systems now use high-frequency radios and satellites capable of transmitting speech and text, rather than wireless telegraphy, to send messages. Aircraft pilots use radios to communicate with air traffic controllers at airports and also to communicate with other pilots. Navigation beacons are equipped with transmitters that send automated signals to help ships and aircraft in distress determine their positions. While high-frequency radio can transmit signals over long distances, the quality of these signals can be diminished by bad weather or by electrical interference in the atmosphere, which is often caused by radiation from the Sun.

Handheld Radio Transceivers

Police, fire, and other emergency organizations, as well as the military, have used two-way wireless radio communication since the 1930s. Early vehicle-based radios were large, heavy units. After the invention of the transistor in 1948, radios shrank in size to small handheld radio transceivers. Public two-way radios with several frequency options are widely available as well. Usually limited in range to a few miles, these units are great aids for such mobile professionals as construction workers, film crews, event planners, and security personnel. Simpler two-way radios, called walkie-talkies, have been popular childrens toys for years. Most walkie-talkies broadcast on channel 14 of the citizens band (CB), a range of frequencies grouped into channels and allocated for public use. CB radios can transmit and receive on 40 different channels. An unlicensed radio service, the Family Radio Service, allows individuals to use high-frequency wireless devices with a range of up to 3.2 km (2 mi).

Shortwave Transceivers

Long-range broadcast services and frequencies, in what is known as the shortwave radio band (with frequencies of 3 to 30 megahertz), are available for amateur or ham radio operators. Shortwave radio broadcasts can travel long distances because of the concentration of ionized, or electrically charged, particles in the layer of the atmosphere known as the ionosphere. The ionoshere reflects radio signals, so that signals transmitted upward are reflected back to the surface of Earth. This skipping of waves against the ionosphere can greatly increase the range of the transmitter. These broadcasts can travel thousands of kilometers. Under certain conditions and on special clear channel frequencies, listeners of AM radio can receive a signal from several time zones away. Shortwave radio listeners sometimes can receive signals from the other side of the world. The degree of reflectivity of the ionosphere depends on the time of day. During daylight hours, the ionosphere has the concentration of ions necessary for reflecting radio waves only at the higher frequencies of

the shortwave band. At night, the ionosphere has the concentration necessary for reflecting lower frequencies within the lower parts of the shortwave band. If there is an inadequate concentration of ions, the radio waves simply continue through the ionosphere into space.

Cellular Radio Telephones

Cellular radio telephones, or cell phones, combine their portable radio capability with the wired, or wire-based, telephone network to provide mobile users with access to the rest of the public telephone system used by nonmobile callers. An early form of radio telephone communicated with a single powerful antenna within a given geographic or metropolitan area. This large antenna was wired to the telephone system. With only one antenna for a large metro area, this limited the number of frequencies that could be used, because radio telephone frequencies would often overlap and cause interference. As a result, only a limited number of simultaneous calls could be handled, because only a small block of channels could be generated over the available radio spectrum allocated for the service. Modern cellular telephones use a network of several shortrange antennas known as towers that connect to the telephone system. Because the antennas have a shorter range and cover a smaller area, often as short as 1.5 to 2.4 km (1.0 to 1.5 mi), frequencies can be reused a short distance away without overlapping and causing interference. Cell phone towers pick up requests from cell phones for a dial tone and also deliver inbound calls to the appropriate cell phone or deliver calls to people using regular telephones on the wire-based system. To do any of these things, the cell phone must have a singular identity that can be recognized by computers housed in a central mobile telephone switching office (MTSO). When a cell phone is turned on, it connects by radio waves to the nearest cell tower (tower receiving the strongest signal). The cell towers are spaced so their receiving ranges slightly overlap. This continuous contact makes it possible for the MTSO to transfer a call from tower to tower as a mobile cell phone user (in a moving vehicle, for instance) moves from one cell area to another.

Satellite Communications

Satellite communications services connect users directly to the telephone network from almost anywhere in the world. Special telephones are available to consumers that communicate directly with communications satellites orbiting Earth. The satellites transmit these signals to ground stations that are connected to the telephone system. These satellite services, while more expensive than cellular or other wireless services, give users access to the telephone network in areas of the world where no wired or cellular telephone service exists. Satellite phones are also able to deliver video images through videophones that use tiny cameras and transmit their images via the satellite phone.

Radio Modems

Wi-Fi, an abbreviation for wireless fidelity, is a wireless communication technology that can provide connections between portable computers and wired connections to the Internet. To connect users with the Internet, Wi-Fi devices use low-power transmitters and receivers equipped with special computer chips containing radio modems. The chips can be installed in laptop computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and cellular telephones. Radio modems provide the same functions as modems that operate with conventional wire-based networks: They modulate and demodulate signals to mimic digital bitstreams, the same format used by computers. WiFi-equipped computers, cell phones, and PDAs provide mobile, wireless access to e-mail and Internet sites. The radio modems must be in range of a Wi-Fi device containing a transmitter and receiver that is connected to a landline providing Internet access. Areas within range of a Wi-Fi transmitter and receiver are known as hot spots. Current technical standards limit the range to distances of about 90 m (300 ft). Many transmitters, however, can be linked to cover a wider area, such as an airport or hotel. Current Wi-Fi standards enable data to be sent at high speeds ranging from 11 to 54 megabits per second. This is known as a broadband connection because a vast amount of data can be sent quickly. A new technology known as WiMax promises to extend the range of a transmitter and receiver to about 48 km (30 mi). The WiMax technology also expands the capabilities of broadband connections by enabling users to remain connected to Internet hot spots even when traveling in an automobile or train at speeds up to 250 km/h (155 mph).

Ultrawideband (UWB)

Wi-Fi may eventually give way to another radio technology known as ultrawideband (UWB), according to some experts. Unlike Wi-Fi, UWB does not use a single radio frequency but sends its radio signals in short pulses across the entire radio spectrum. This technology reduces interference and enables UWB to send larger amounts of data than Wi-Fi. UWB is expected to be used to connect all types of electronic equipment within a home without the use of wires. For example, stereo speakers could be connected to a high-definition television set, and the television could receive signals from a DVD player, and the DVD player could be connected to a personal computer, and all these connections could be done wirelessly. A single standard for UWB technology was approved in March 2005 by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The single standard was expected to end a standoff between various industry groups and lead to faster implementation of UWB technology. Devices using UWB technology could reach the marketplace by 2006, according to some predictions.

IV

HISTORY

The idea of wireless radio communications arose in the mid-1800s from the theories of two English physicists, Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell. In 1888 German physicist Heinrich Hertz applied these theories to construct a spark-gap transmitter, a device that generated radio waves from an electric spark. In 1895 Italian electrical engineer Guglielmo Marconi extended the range of such transmissions and adapted the technology to send and receive wireless telegraph signals. In 1901 Marconi built the first transoceanic telegraph transmitter, which had a 3,400 km (2,100 mi) link from Poldhu, Cornwall, England, to St. Johns, Newfoundland. Developments in vacuum tube technology in the early 1900s by English physicist and engineer Sir John Ambrose Fleming and American inventor Lee De Forest made it possible to modulate and amplify wireless signals to send voice transmissions. The range and clarity of voice transmissions increased as advancements in technology were made, and in 1915 the American Telephone & Telegraph Company transmitted a voice message by radio between the United States and France. By the 1930s small two-way radio transmitters were in common use among law enforcement and civil emergency authorities. Improvements in technology have made two-way communications systems smaller and lighter, with extended range and capabilities.

Advanced traveler-information systems are currently available in some new automobiles. These are navigational systems into which drivers enter their destination. An electronic map then displays the best route on a small screen, or a synthesized voice provides directions along the route, including directions on when to turn. These systems use a transponder, or a transmitting and receiving device, in the vehicle and a satellite-based global positioning system to pinpoint the exact location of the vehicle along its route. When this navigation system is coupled with cellular-radio technology, it can be used to signal a central dispatcher in case of an emergency.

Global Positioning System

I
INTRODUCTION
Global Positioning System (GPS), space-based radio-navigation system, consisting of 24 satellites and ground support. Operated by the United States military but open to civilian uses, GPS provides users with accurate information about their location and velocity anywhere in the world. GPS is one of three satellite-based radionavigation systems. The Russian Federation operates the Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), which also uses 24 satellites and provides accuracy similar to GPS. The European Union (EU) launched the first satellite in its planned Galileo program, also known as the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), in December 2005.

II

MANAGEMENT AND PURPOSE OF GPS

GPS, formally known as the Navstar Global Positioning System, is operated and maintained by the United States Department of Defense. The National Space-Based Position, Navigation, and Timing Executive

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Committee manages GPS. The deputy secretaries of the Departments of Defense and Transportation lead the committee, which has a permanent staff that is responsible for the development of GPS. GPS was initiated in 1973 to reduce the proliferation of navigation aids. By overcoming the limitations of many existing navigation systems, GPS became attractive to a broad spectrum of users. It was initially used as a navigational aid by military ground, sea, and air forces. In more recent years, GPS has been used by civilians in many new ways, such as in automobile and boat navigation, hiking, emergency rescue, and precision agriculture and mining.

III

HOW GPS WORKS

The GPS system was designed for 24 satellites. Each satellite lasts about ten years. Replacement satellites are placed in orbit regularly to ensure that at least 24 satellites are always functioning. The device that receives the GPS signal is known as a receiver. Handheld or wrist-mounted GPS receivers are available to the civilian population; GPS receivers can also be installed in automobiles and boats. An atomic clock synchronized to GPS is required in order to compute ranges from these three signals. However, by taking a measurement from a fourth satellite, the receiver avoids the need for an atomic clock. Thus, the receiver uses four satellites to compute latitude, longitude, altitude, and velocity.

IV

THE COMPONENTS OF GPS

GPS has three components: the space component, control component, and user component. The space component includes the satellites and the Delta rockets that launch the satellites from Cape Canaveral, in Florida. GPS satellites fly in circular orbits at an altitude of 20,100 km (12,500 mi) and with a period of 12 hours. The orbits are tilted to Earth's equator by 55 degrees to ensure coverage of polar regions. Powered by solar cells, the satellites continuously orient themselves to point their solar panels toward the Sun and their antennas toward Earth. Each satellite contains four atomic clocks. The control component includes the master control station at Falcon Air Force Base in Colorado Springs, Colorado, and monitor stations at Falcon Air Force Base and on Hawaii, Ascension Island in the Atlantic Ocean, Diego Garcia Atoll in the Indian Ocean, and Kwajalein Island in the South Pacific Ocean. These stations monitor the GPS satellites. The control segment uses measurements collected by the monitor stations to predict the behavior of each satellite's orbit and clock. The prediction data is uplinked, or transmitted, to the satellites for transmission to the users. The control segment also ensures that the GPS satellite orbits and clocks remain within acceptable limits. The user component includes the equipment, or receivers, used by military personnel and civilians to receive GPS signals. Military GPS receivers have been integrated into fighter aircraft, bombers, tankers, helicopters, ships, submarines, tanks, jeeps, and soldiers' equipment. In addition to basic navigation activities, military applications of GPS include target designation, close air support, smart weapons, and rendezvous.

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The general population typically uses lightweight, handheld receivers or receivers that have been integrated into automobiles or boats. The general population uses GPS in many different ways. Surveyors use GPS to save time over standard survey methods. GPS is used in aircraft and ships for en route navigation and for airport or harbor approaches. GPS tracking systems are used to route and monitor delivery vans and emergency vehicles. In a method called precision farming, GPS is used to monitor and control the application of agricultural fertilizer and pesticides. GPS is available as an in-car navigation aid and as such, is used by vacationers and businesspeople who make frequent calls on clients or customers. Handheld GPS receivers are often used by hikers and hunters. Rescue crews use GPS to locate persons in emergency situations. A pastime known as caching or geocaching uses GPS to locate objects deliberately concealed in certain locations in an adult version of a childs treasure hunt. GPS is also used on the space shuttle.

GPS CAPABILITIES

GPS is available in two basic forms: the standard positioning service (SPS), or civilian signal, and the precise positioning service (PPS), or military signal. Prior to 2000 the U.S. military intentionally corrupted or degraded the SPS signal for national security purposes by using a process known as Selective Availability. As a result, the SPS signal was much less accurate than PPS. In May 2000 President Bill Clinton announced that the military would stop Selective Availability. This increased the accuracy and reliability of SPS by a factor of ten. Today, the military and civilian GPS signals are believed to be of the same accuracy. For national security reasons the Defense Department retained the ability to jam the SPS signal on a regional basis if necessary. Both the SPS and the PPS signals provide a horizontal position that is accurate to about 10 m (about 33 ft). Several techniques have been developed to enhance the performance of GPS. One technique, known as differential GPS (DGPS), employs two fixed stations on Earth as well as satellites. DGPS provides a horizontal position accurate to about 3 m (about 10 ft). Another technique, known as WAAS, or Wide Area Augmentation System, was developed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to improve the safety of aircraft navigation. WAAS monitoring stations around the United States catch GPS signals, correct errors, and send out more-accurate signals. A technique involving the use of carrier frequency processing (see Carrier Wave), known as survey grade GPS, was pioneered by surveyors to compute positions to within about 1 cm (about 0.4 in). SPS, DGPS, WAAS, and carrier techniques are accessible to all users.

VI

EUROPEAN RIVALRY AND COOPERATION

The European Union (EU) launched the first satellite in its planned space-based radio-navigation system in December 2005. The EU system will eventually have 30 satellites and is expected to become operational in 2009. It will have an accuracy of 1 m (3.3 ft) and will be operated as a strictly civilian enterprise. Other countries outside the EU, such as China and Israel, are contributing financially to the creation of the system. Known as the Galileo program and also as the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), the system will be compatible with GPS. The United States negotiated an agreement under which satellite signals could be jammed over a battlefield area without shutting down the entire GNSS or GPS system. The two systems, however, were expected to compete for commercial applications.

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Telecommunications
I
INTRODUCTION
Telecommunications, devices and systems that transmit electronic or optical signals across long distances. Telecommunications enables people around the world to contact one another, to access information instantly, and to communicate from remote areas. Telecommunications usually involves a sender of information and one or more recipients linked by a technology, such as a telephone system, that transmits information from one place to another. Telecommunications enables people to send and receive personal messages across town, between countries, and to and from outer space. It also provides the key medium for delivering news, data, information, and entertainment. Telecommunications devices convert different types of information, such as sound and video, into electronic or optical signals. Electronic signals typically travel along a medium such as copper wire or are carried over the air as radio waves. Optical signals typically travel along a medium such as strands of glass fibers. When a signal reaches its destination, the device on the receiving end converts the signal back into an understandable message, such as sound over a telephone, moving images on a television, or words and pictures on a computer screen. Telecommunications messages can be sent in a variety of ways and by a wide range of devices. The messages can be sent from one sender to a single receiver (point-to-point) or from one sender to many receivers (pointto-multipoint). Personal communications, such as a telephone conversation between two people or a facsimile (fax) message (see Facsimile Transmission), usually involve point-to-point transmission. Point-to-multipoint telecommunications, often called broadcasts, provide the basis for commercial radio and television programming.

II

HOW TELECOMMUNICATIONS WORKS

Telecommunications begin with messages that are converted into electronic or optical signals. Some signals, such as those that carry voice or music, are created in an analog or wave format, but may be converted into a digital or mathematical format for faster and more efficient transmission. The signals are then sent over a medium to a receiver, where they are decoded back into a form that the person receiving the message can understand. There are a variety of ways to create and decode signals, and many different ways to transmit signals.

Creating and Receiving the Signal

Devices such as the telegraph and telephone relay messages by creating modulated electrical impulses, or impulses that change in a systematic way. These impulses are then sent along wires, through the air as radio waves, or via other media to a receiver that decodes the modulation. The telegraph, the earliest method of delivering telecommunications, works by converting the contacts (connections between two conductors that permit a flow of current) between a telegraph key and a metal conductor into electrical impulses. These

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impulses are sent along a wire to a receiver, which converts the impulses into short and long bursts of sound or into dots and dashes on a simple printing device. Specific sequences of dots and dashes represent letters of the alphabet. In the early days of the telegraph, these sequences were decoded by telegraph operators (see Morse Code, International). In this way, telegraph operators could transmit and receive letters that spelled words. Later versions of the telegraph could decipher letters and numbers automatically. Telegraphs have been largely replaced by other forms of telecommunications, such as electronic mail (e-mail), but they are still used in some parts of the world to send messages. The telephone uses a diaphragm (small membrane) connected to a magnet and a wire coil to convert sound into an analog or electrical waveform representation of the sound. When a person speaks into the telephones microphone, sound waves created by the voice vibrate the diaphragm, which in turn creates electrical impulses that are sent along a telephone wire. The receivers wire is connected to a speaker, which converts the modulated electrical impulses back into sound. Broadcast radio and cellular radio telephones are examples of devices that create signals by modulating radio waves. A radio wave is one type of electromagnetic radiation, a form of energy that travels in waves. Microwaves are also electromagnetic waves, but with shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies. In telecommunications, a transmitter creates and emits radio waves. The transmitter electronically modulates or encodes sound or other information onto the radio waves by varying either the amplitude (height) of the radio waves, or by varying the frequency (number) of the waves within an established range (see Frequency Modulation). A receiver (tuner) tuned to a specific frequency or range of frequencies will pick up the modulation added to the radio waves. A speaker connected to the tuner converts the modulation back into sound. Broadcast television works in a similar fashion. A television camera takes the light reflected from a scene and converts it into an electronic signal, which is transmitted over high-frequency radio waves. A television set contains a tuner that receives the signal and uses that signal to modulate the images seen on the picture tube. The picture tube contains an electron gun that shoots electrons onto a photo-sensitive display screen. The electrons illuminate the screen wherever they fall, thus creating moving pictures. Telegraphs, telephones, radio, and television all work by modifying electronic signals, making the signals imitate, or reproduce, the original message. This form of transmission is known as analog transmission. Computers and other types of electronic equipment, however, transmit digital information. Digital technologies convert a message into an electronic or optical form first by measuring different qualities of the message, such as the pitch and volume of a voice, many times. These measurements are then encoded into multiple series of binary numbers, or 1s and 0s. Finally, digital technologies create and send impulses that correspond to the series of 1s and 0s. Digital information can be transmitted faster and more clearly than analog signals, because the impulses only need to correspond to two digits and not to the full range of qualities that compose the original message, such as the pitch and volume of a human voice. While digital transmissions can be sent over wires, cables or radio waves, they must be decoded by a digital receiver. New digital telephones and televisions are being developed to make telecommunications more efficient.

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Personal computers primarily communicate with each other and with larger networks, such as the Internet, by using the ordinary telephone network. Increasing numbers of computers rely on broadband networks provided by telephone and cable television companies to send text, music, and video over the Internet at high speeds. Since the telephone network functions by converting sound into electronic signals, the computer must first convert its digital data into sound. Computers do this with a device called a modem, which is short for modulator/demodulator. A modem converts the stream of 1s and 0s from a computer into an analog signal that can then be transmitted over the telephone network, as a speakers voice would. The modem of the receiving computer demodulates the analog sound signal back into a digital form that the computer can understand.

Transmitting the Signal

Telecommunications systems deliver messages using a number of different transmission media, including copper wires, fiber-optic cables, communication satellites, and microwave radio. One way to categorize telecommunications media is to consider whether or not the media uses wires. Wire-based (or wireline) telecommunications provide the initial link between most telephones and the telephone network and are a reliable means for transmitting messages. Telecommunications without wires, commonly referred to as wireless communications, use technologies such as cordless telephones, cellular radio telephones, pagers, and satellites. Wireless communications offer increased mobility and flexibility. In the future some experts believe that wireless devices will also offer high-speed Internet access.

Wires and Cables

Wires and cables were the original medium for telecommunications and are still the primary means for telephone connections. Wireline transmission evolved from telegraph to telephone service and continues to provide the majority of telecommunications services. Wires connect telephones together within a home or business and also connect these telephones to the nearest telephone switching facility. Other wireline services employ coaxial cable, which is used by cable television to provide hundreds of video channels to subscribers. Much of the content transmitted by the coaxial cable of cable television systems is sent by satellite to a central location known as the headend. Coaxial cables flow from the headend throughout a community and onward to individual residences and, finally, to individual television sets. Because signals weaken as distance from the headend increases, the coaxial cable network includes amplifiers that process and retransmit the television signals.

Fiber-Optic Cables

Fiber-optic cables use specially treated glass that can transmit signals in the form of pulsed beams of laser light. Fiber-optic cables carry many times more information than copper wires can, and they can transmit several television channels or thousands of telephone conversations at the same time. Fiber-optic technology has replaced copper wires for most transoceanic routes and in areas where large amounts of data are sent.

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This technology uses laser transmitters to send pulses of light via hair-thin strands of specially prepared glass fibers. New improvements promise cables that can transmit millions of telephone calls over a single fiber. Already fiber optic cables provide the high capacity, 'backbone' links necessary to carry the enormous and growing volume of telecommunications and Internet traffic.

Radio Waves

Wireless telecommunications use radio waves, sent through space from one antenna to another, as the medium for communication. Radio waves are used for receiving AM and FM radio and for receiving television. Cordless telephones and wireless radio telephone services, such as cellular radio telephones and pagers, also use radio waves. Telephone companies use microwaves to send signals over long distances. Microwaves use higher frequencies than the radio waves used for AM, FM, or cellular telephone transmissions, and they can transmit larger amounts of data more efficiently. Microwaves have characteristics similar to those of visible light waves and transmit pencil-thin beams that can be received using dish-shaped antennas. Such narrow beams can be focused to a particular destination and provide reliable transmissions over short distances on Earth. Even higher and narrower beams provide the high-capacity links to and from satellites. The high frequencies easily penetrate the ionosphere (a layer of Earths atmosphere that blocks low-frequency waves) and provide a high-quality signal.

Communications Satellites

Communications satellites provide a means of transmitting telecommunications all over the globe, without the need for a network of wires and cables. They orbit Earth at a speed that enables them to stay above the same place on Earth at all times. This type of orbit is called geostationary or geosynchronous orbit because the satellites orbital speed operates in synchronicity with Earths rotation. The satellites receive transmissions from Earth and transmit them back to numerous Earth station receivers scattered within the receiving coverage area of the satellite. This relay function makes it possible for satellites to operate as bent pipes that is, wireless transfer stations for point-to-point and point-to-multipoint transmissions. Communications satellites are used by telephone and television companies to transmit signals across great distances. Ship, airplane, and land navigators also receive signals from satellites to determine geographic positions.

III

TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

Individual people, businesses, and governments use many different types of telecommunications systems. Some systems, such as the telephone system, use a network of cables, wires, and switching stations for pointto-point communication. Other systems, such as radio and television, broadcast radio signals over the air that can be received by anyone who has a device to receive them. Some systems make use of several types of

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media to complete a transmission. For example, a telephone call may travel by means of copper wire, fiberoptic cable, and radio waves as the call is sent from sender to receiver. All telecommunications systems are constantly evolving as telecommunications technology improves. Many recent improvements, for example, offer high-speed broadband connections that are needed to send multimedia information over the Internet.

Telegraph

Telegraph services use both wireline and wireless media for transmissions. Soon after the introduction of the telegraph in 1844, telegraph wires spanned the country. Telegraph companies maintained a system of wires and offices located in numerous cities. A message sent by telegraph was called a telegram. Telegrams were printed on paper and delivered to the receiving party by the telegraph company. With the invention of the radio in the early 1900s, telegraph signals could also be sent by radio waves. Wireless telegraphy made it practical for oceangoing ships as well as aircraft to stay in constant contact with land-based stations.

Telephone

The telephone network also uses both wireline and wireless methods to deliver voice communications between people, and data communications between computers and people or other computers. The part of the telephone network that currently serves individual residences and many businesses operates in an analog mode, uses copper wires, and relays electronic signals that are continuous, such as the human voice. Digital transmission via fiber-optic cables is now used in some sections of the telephone network that send large amounts of calls over long distances. However, since the rest of the telephone system is still analog, these digital signals must be converted back to analog before they reach users. The telephone network is stable and reliable, because it uses its own wire system that is powered by low-voltage direct current from the telephone company. Telephone networks modulate voice communications over these wires. A complex system of network switches maintains the telephone links between callers. Telephone networks also use microwave relay stations to send calls from place to place on the ground. Satellites are used by telephone networks to transmit telephone calls across countries and oceans.

Teletype, Telex, and Facsimile Transmission

Teletype, telex, and facsimile transmission are all methods for transmitting text rather than sounds. These text delivery systems evolved from the telegraph. Teletype and telex systems still exist, but they have been largely replaced by facsimile machines, which are inexpensive and better able to operate over the existing telephone network. The Internet increasingly provides an even more inexpensive and convenient option. The teletype, essentially a printing telegraph, is primarily a point-to-multipoint system for sending text. The teletype converts the same pulses used by telegraphs into letters and numbers, and then prints out readable text. It was often used by news media organizations to provide newspaper stories and stock market data to subscribers. Telex is primarily a point-to-point system that uses a keyboard to transmit typed text over telephone lines to similar terminals situated at individual company locations. See also Office Systems: Communications; Telegraph: Modern Telegraph Services.

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Facsimile transmission now provides a cheaper and easier way to transmit text and graphics over distances. Fax machines contain an optical scanner that converts text and graphics into digital, or machine-readable, codes. This coded information is sent over ordinary analog telephone lines through the use of a modem included in the fax machine. The receiving fax machines modem demodulates the signal and sends it to a printer also contained in the fax machine.

Radio

Radios transmit and receive communications at various preset frequencies. Radio waves carry the signals heard on AM and FM radio, as well as the signals seen on a television set receiving broadcasts from an antenna. Radio is used mostly as a public medium, sending commercial broadcasts from a transmitter to anyone with a radio receiver within its range, so it is known as a point-to-multipoint medium. However, radio can also be used for private point-to-point transmissions. Two-way radios, cordless telephones, and cellular radio telephones are common examples of transceivers, which are devices that can both transmit and receive point-to-point messages. Personal radio communication is generally limited to short distances (usually a few kilometers), but powerful transmitters can send broadcast radio signals hundreds of kilometers. Shortwave radio, popular with amateur radio enthusiasts, uses a range of radio frequencies that are able to bounce off the ionosphere. This electrically charged layer of the atmosphere reflects certain frequencies of radio waves, such as shortwave frequencies, while allowing higher-frequency waves, such as microwaves, to pass through it. Amateur radio operators use the ionosphere to bounce their radio signals to other radio operators thousands of kilometers away.

Television

Television is primarily a public broadcasting medium, using point-to-multipoint technology that is broadcast to any user within range of the transmitter. Televisions transmit news and information, as well as entertainment. Commercial television is broadcast over very high frequency (VHF) and ultrahigh frequency (UHF) radio waves and can be received by any television set within range of the transmitter. Televisions have also been used for point-to-point, two-way telecommunications. Teleconferencing, in which a television picture links two physically separated parties, is a convenient way for businesspeople to meet and communicate without the expense or inconvenience of travel. Video cameras on computers now allow personal computer users to teleconference over the Internet. Videophones, which use tiny video cameras and rely on satellite technology, can also send private or public television images and have been used in news reporting in remote locations. Cable television is a commercial service that links televisions to a source of many different types of video programming using coaxial cable. The cable provider obtains coded, or scrambled, programming from a communications satellite, as well as from terrestrial links, including broadcast television stations. The signal may be scrambled to prevent unpaid access to the programming. The cable provider electronically unscrambles the signal and supplies the decoded signals by cable to subscribers. Television users with personal satellite dishes can access satellite programming directly without a cable installation. Personal

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satellite dishes are also a subscriber service. Fees are paid to the network operator in return for access to the satellite channels. Most television sets outside of the United States that receive programming use different types of standards for receiving video signals. The European Phase Alternative Line standard generates a higher-resolution picture than the sets used in the United States, but these television sets are more expensive. Manufacturers now offer digital video and audio signal processing, which features even higher picture resolution and sound quality. The shape of the television screen is changing as well, reflecting the aspect ratio (ratio of image height to width) used for movie presentation.

Global Positioning and Navigation Systems

The United States Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Russian Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) are networks of satellites that provide highly accurate positioning information from anywhere on Earth. Both systems use a group of satellites that orbit around the north and south poles at an altitude of 17,500 km (10,900 mi). These satellites constantly broadcast the time and their location above Earth. A GPS receiver picks up broadcasts from these satellites and determines its position through the process of triangulation. Using the time information from each satellite, the receiver calculates the time the signal takes to reach it. Factoring in this time with the speed at which radio signals travel, the receiver calculates its distance from the satellite. Finally, using the location of three satellites and its distance from each satellite, the receiver determines its position. GPS services, originally designed for military use, are now available to civilians. Handheld GPS receivers allow users to pinpoint their location on Earth to within a few meters. One type of navigational tool used in automobiles integrates a GPS receiver with an intelligent compact disc player capable of displaying road maps and other graphical information. Upon receiving the GPS location data, the CD player can pinpoint the location visually on one of the road maps contained on disc.

Personal Computers

Personal computers use telecommunications to provide a transmission link for the delivery of audio, video, text, software, and multimedia services. Many experts believe that the convergence of these services will generate consumer demand for new generations of high-speed, broadband networks. Currently, the delivery of most of these audio, video, and text services occurs over existing telephone connections using the Internet. Some computers connect directly to the digital portion of the telephone network using the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) or Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL), but this requires special equipment at user locations. Telephone and cable television companies must also make upgrades to their lines so that they can handle high-speed data transmission. In many locations companies and individuals with high-speed data requirements now have the option of securing DSL service from telephone companies and cable modem service from cable television companies.

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Electronic mail, or e-mail, is a key attraction of the Internet and a common form of computer telecommunications. E-mail is a text-based message delivery system that allows information such as typed messages and multimedia to be sent to individual computer users. Local e-mail messages (within a building or a company) typically reach addressees by traveling through wire-based internal networks. E-mail that must travel across town or across a country to reach the final destination usually travels through the telephone network. Instant messaging is another key feature of computer telecommunications and involves sending text, audio, or video data in real time. Other computer telecommunications technologies that businesses frequently use include automated banking terminals and devices for credit card or debit card transactions. These transactions either bill charges directly to a customers credit card account or automatically deduct money from a customers bank account.

Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP)

Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP) is a method for making telephone calls over the Internet by sending voice data in separate packets, just as e-mail is sent. Each packet is assigned a code for its destination, and the packets are then reassembled in the correct order at the receiving end. Recent technological improvements have made VOIP almost as seamless and smooth as a regular telephone call. In February 2004 the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) ruled that VOIP, like e-mail and instant messaging, is free of government regulation as long as it involves communication from one computer to another. The FCC did not rule on whether VOIP software that sends voice data from a computer directly to a regular telephone should be regulated. Such services became available in the early part of the 21st century and are expected to become widely available. They require a broadband connection to the Internet but can reduce telephone charges significantly while also offering for free additional services such as call waiting, caller identification, voice mail, and the ability to call from your home telephone number wherever you travel.

IV

HISTORY

Communicating over long distances has been a challenge throughout history. In ancient times, runners were used to carry important messages between rulers or other important people. Other forms of long-distance communication included smoke signals, chains of searchlights and flags to send a message from one tower to another, carrier pigeons, and horses. Modern telecommunications began in the 1800s with the discovery that electricity can be used to transmit a signal. For the first time, a signal could be sent faster than any other mode of transportation. The first practical telecommunications device to make use of this discovery was the telegraph.

The Telegraph

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Beginning in the mid-1800s, the telegraph delivered the first intercity, transcontinental, and transoceanic messages in the world. The telegraph revolutionized the way people communicated by providing messages faster than any other means provided at the time. American art professor Samuel F. B. Morse pursued an interest in electromagnetism to create a practical electromagnetic telegraph in 1837. Morse partnered with Alfred Vail and was able to commercialize the technology with financial support from the U.S. government. In 1843 Morse built a demonstration telegraph link between Washington, D.C., and Baltimore, Maryland. On May 24, 1844, the network was inaugurated for commercial use with the message, What hath God wrought! Telegraph use quickly spread; the first transcontinental link was completed in 1861 between San Francisco, California, and Washington, D.C.Railroad companies and newspapers were the first major telegraphy users. Telegraph lines were constructed parallel to railroad beds. Telegraphy helped the railroads manage traffic and allowed news organizations to distribute stories quickly to local newspapers. Within a few years, several telegraph companies were in operation, each with its own network of telegraph wires. Consolidation occurred in the telegraph industry (as it has in numerous telecommunications industries), and by the 1870s the Western Union Telegraph Company emerged as the dominant operator.

Commercial Growth of the Telephone

In 1876 American inventor Alexander Graham Bell ushered in a new era of voice and sound telecommunication when he uttered to his assistant the words, Mr. Watson, come here; I want you, using a prototype telephone. Bell received the patent for the first telephone, but he had to fight numerous legal challenges to his patent from other inventors with similar devices. Bell was able to make his prototype telephone work, and this enabled him to attract financial backers, and his company grew. The telephone was a vast improvement over the telegraph system, which could only transmit coded words and numbers, not the sound of a human voice. Telegraph messages had to be deciphered by trained operators, written down, and then delivered by hand to the receiving party, all of which took time. The telephone transmitted actual sound messages and made telecommunication immediate. Improved switching technology (used to transfer calls from one local network to another) meant individual telephones could be connected for personal conversations. The first commercial telephone line was installed in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1877. Early telephones required direct connections to other telephones, but this problem was solved with telephone exchange switches, the first of which was installed in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1878. A telephone exchange linked telephones in a given area together, so a connection between the telephone and the exchange was all that was needed. Telephones were much more convenient and personal than telegrams, and their use quickly spread. By 1913 telephone lines from New York City to San Francisco had been established, and by 1930 radio signals could transmit telephone calls between New York and London, England. Eventually, long-distance telephone service in the United States was consolidated into one company, the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (now known as AT&T, Inc.), which was a regulated monopoly.

The Emergence of Broadcasting

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Telephones and telegraphs are primarily private means of communications, sending signals from one point to another, but with the invention of the radio, public communications, or point-to-multipoint signals, could be sent through a central transmitter to be received by anyone possessing a receiver. Italian inventor and electrical engineer Guglielmo Marconi transmitted a Morse-code telegraph signal by radio in 1895. This began a revolution in wireless telegraphy that would later result in broadcast radios that could transmit actual voice and music. Radio and wireless telegraph communication played an important role during World War I (19141918), allowing military personnel to communicate instantly with troops in remote locations. United States president Woodrow Wilson was impressed with the ability of radio, but he was fearful of its potential for espionage use. He banned nonmilitary radio use in the United States as the nation entered World War I in 1917, and this stifled commercial development of the medium. After the war, however, commercial radio stations began to broadcast. By the mid-1920s, millions of radio listeners tuned in to music, news, and entertainment programming. Television got its start as a mass-communication medium shortly after World War II (1939-1945). The expense of television transmission prevented its use as a two-way medium, but radio broadcasters quickly saw the potential for television to provide a new way of bringing news and entertainment programming to people. For more information on the development of radio and television, see Radio and Television Broadcasting.

Government Regulation

The number of radio broadcasts grew quickly in the 1920s, but there was no regulation of frequency use or transmitter strength. The result was a crowded radio band of overlapping signals. To remedy this, the U.S. government created the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in 1934 to regulate the spreading use of the broadcast spectrum. The FCC licenses broadcasters and regulates the location and transmitting strength, or range, stations have in an effort to prevent interference from nearby signals. The FCC and the U.S. government have also assumed roles in limiting the types of business practices in which telecommunications companies can engage. The U.S. Department of Justice filed an antitrust lawsuit against AT&T Corp., arguing that the company used its monopoly position to stifle competition, particularly through its control over local telephone service facilities. The lawsuit was settled in 1982, and AT&T agreed to disperse its local telephone companies, thereby creating seven new independent companies. In 1996 the U.S. government enacted the Telecommunications Reform Act to further encourage competition in the telecommunications marketplace. This legislation removed government rules preventing local and longdistance phone companies, cable television operators, broadcasters, and wireless services from directly competing with one another. The act spurred consolidation in the industry, as regional companies joined forces to create telecommunications giants that provided telephone, wireless, cable, and Internet services. Deregulation, however, also led to overproduction of fiber optic cable and a steep decline in the fortunes of the telecommunications industry beginning in 2000. The increased competition provided the backdrop for the bankruptcy of a leading telecommunications company, WorldCom, Inc., in 2002, when it admitted to the largest accounting fraud in the history of U.S. business.

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International Telecommunications Networks

In order to provide overseas telecommunications, people had to develop networks that could link widely separated nations. The first networks to provide such linkage were telegraph networks that used undersea cables, but these networks could provide channels for only a few simultaneous communications. Shortwave radio also made it possible for wireless transmissions of both telegraphy and voice over very long distances. To take advantage of the wideband capability of satellites to provide telecommunications service, companies from all over the world pooled resources and shared risks by creating a cooperative known as the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization, or Intelsat, in 1964. Transoceanic satellite telecommunications first became possible in 1965 with the successful launch of Early Bird, also known as Intelsat 1. Intelsat 1 provided the first international television transmission and had the capacity to handle one television channel or 240 simultaneous telephone calls. Intelsat later expanded and diversified to meet the global and regional satellite requirements of more than 200 nations and territories. In response to private satellite ventures entering the market, the managers of Intelsat converted the cooperative into a private corporation better able to compete with these emerging companies. The International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) primarily provided service to oceangoing vessels when it first formed as a cooperative in 1979, but it later expanded operations to include service to airplanes and users in remote land areas not served by cellular radio or wireline services. Inmarsat became a privatized, commercial venture in 1999.

Current Developments

Personal computers have pushed the limits of the telephone system as more and more complex computer messages are being sent over telephone lines, and at rapidly increasing speeds. This need for speed has encouraged the development of digital transmission technology. The growing use of personal computers for telecommunications has increased the need for innovations in fiber-optic technology. Telecommunications and information technologies are merging and converging. This means that many of the devices now associated with only one function may evolve into more versatile equipment. This convergence is already happening in various fields. Some telephones and pagers are able to store not only phone numbers but also names and personal information about callers. Wireless phones with keyboards and small screens can access the Internet and send and receive e-mail messages. Personal computers can now access information and video entertainment and are in effect becoming a combined television set and computer terminal. Television sets can access the Internet through add-on appliances. Future modifications and technology innovations may blur the distinctions between appliances even more. Convergence of telecommunications technologies may also trigger a change in the kind of content available. Both television and personal computers are likely to incorporate new multimedia, interactive, and digital features. However, in the near term, before the actualization of a fully digital telecommunications world,

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devices such as modems will still be necessary to provide an essential link between the old analog world and the upcoming digital one.

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