World War I: Big points

Best equipped in 1914 were the Germans, with large advantages in heavy artillery. French depending totally on lan, the offensive spirit. They had great light artillery but in heavy, they were outgunned by the Germans 11:1 65 million served, 10 million killed, 20 million injured. Costs of the war: Allies: minus US US Central Total Mobilized 38 million 4 mil 23 mil 65 mil Killed Wounded 6 mil 51k 4 mil 13 mil 200k 8.5 mil Civilian dead Cost 3 mil 500 3.5 mil 6.6 mil 193 billion 32 bil 86 bil 285 bil

10 mil 22 mil

All armies entered the war with tactics from the Franco-Prussian war but with modern weapons. Tremendous lack of strategic planning. All leaders became myopically focused on western front (particularly after failure of Gallipoli campaign). Severe breakdown in symmetry between development of huge forces but inadequate C3I. Recall, that Cavalry runs the offense, aristocrats run the cavalry, Engineering, signal corps, administration all very middle class. Serious mistrust between NCO enlisted, company grade officer corps, s, general staff.

German plans:
Schlieffen plan: 35 corps (~110 divisions) envelop entire French army who was assumed would immediately try and recapture alcase Lorraine. The French would then be rolled against Switzerland and the German fortified border. In the east, they were to trade land for time. Very destabilizing. Emphasizes preemption, which can make fears of war self-fulfilling. It might have worked, but Moltke (nephew of Bismarck enemy Moltke) s changed the plan. Didn want to violate Dutch neutrality so troops bottled t up in Belgium. Didn want to give up land in east so shifted some of the forces from west t to east. In original plan 90% of Germany forces 2.1 million, would have s swung through the Netherlands and Belgium. In the war that took place, 1,5 million.

 Aims: Greater power in International affairs, expand empire.

French Plans:
Original plan XVI, Michel believed the German attack would come through Belgium so he proposed to attack there. This would have led to a MASSIVE battle in Belgium. Instead, they switch to Plan XVII, which attacked into Alsace-Lorraine. French assumed the Germans would not be able to use reserves, which they were. So instead of the French having an advantage (80% of French men served 3 years active) the Germans had a 3:2 advantage in manpower. Aims: regain Alcase-Loraine. Ends: S plan fails, left with N. France (which they churn into a quagmire) and West Russian dirt.

Russia:
Plans called for immediate attack against both Germany and Austria, not taking into account that their mobilization plans would not be competed until t+3 months. Aims: restore reputation as great power.

Austria:
Planned for are against Serbia, changed their mind and pulled 1/6 out to fight against Russia. Aims: conquer Serbia

Belgium:
Planned for a defensive battle utilizing a series of forts. Protect honor.

War opens:
August 3-20 Belgium overrun.
This was to have taken 2-4 days, took almost 3 weeks of the 6 weeks they had planed to crush France. The Belgians fought very hard and exacted a significant cost, but the biggest penalty was time. It allowed the French to move 2 armies north and to allow the British who had dithered to this point to land an expeditionary force in France.

August 20-25 major battles in N. France.

Germany prevails but at a cost of 1/3 of their forces. Moltke overestimates the size of the victory and detaches two more corps to head east. The French offensive into the Alcase region was shattered, at a cost of 300,000 casualties. But, Germans have bad command and

control and so are not aware of the true situation (they believe they are doing better than they are). The French understand that they had suffered a terrible blow, but now they knew the German plan and were (amazingly) still in high morale.

Battle of Marne,
French counter attack and catch the Germans off guard. The French and BEF pour everything into this battle and manage to win, this is the key battle in the entire war. If Germany wins, they route France, the BEF falls. But they do not. Then the two side try to outflank each other to the NW and end up racing to the sea where the lines stabilize. By November the future for the next 4 years had been set. Casualties to this point (3 months of battles: 2 million for both sides.)

In the east,
initial fighting is indecisive, until the battle of Tannenberg, where the German corps (3, 2 active on reserve) succeed in enveloping the Russian forces. In 5 days the Russian lose (dead) 125,000 men, the Germans lose between 10-15,000.

Austria at the same time is attacking Serbia.

Here, the Serbs, heavily outmanned and gunned fight and slowly withdraw past Belgrade. In December, Serbs counter attack and defeat the Austrians, driving them back to the Austrian border. Austrians lose 227,000 out of 450,000. Serbs lose 170,000 of 400,000. The Austrians also attack into Russian Poland on a broad front. They make the mistake of allowing their forces to be split and the Russians attack thought the center. By Sept 11th the Austrians lose 350,000 men (250,000 of them dead).

In October, Turkey declares war on the Allies,

and from Nov-Dec they invade the Russian Caucasus. Turkish entrance into war shuts of Russia from supply form the south (British and French). B&F also wanted to regain access to wheat supplies form the Ukraine. Russia was terribly short on materiel but had sufficient grain supplies to trade, but Turkey controlled key shipping route (Dardanelles)

1915:
Spring and summer of 1915, western front:
France and Britain make a strong offensive, but it fails. Germans do likewise, and fail.. Remainder if summer, both sides close to being out

of ammunition so, rather than negotiating, they build additional munitions factories. In May, 1915, Italy declares war on Austria. Similar situation to Western front in France/Belgium. Horrific losses for both sides, but well planned defensive positions enable Austrians to hang on. Interesting note here. Austrians want help from Germans against Italians, but Italians cleverly didn declare war against Germany. This t time around the Germans do not expand their fighting and leave the Austrians to duke it out alone.

Eastern Front, 1915:

End of January, Germans attack towards Warsaw, use poison gas for the first time, but it doesn work in the freezing temps and the t Russians don tell allies (which has costly consequences for French t later on). Both Chlorine and Mustard gas used. Talk about Gulf war syndrome and gases. Russians suffer 200-300,000 losses and Germans advance about 150 miles past Warsaw, but then slow to a stop by fall. Compared to Western front, much more movement. Russians lose 2 million men (KIA and prisoners) Germans and Austrians (1million).

Balkans, 1915:
Rumania and Bulgaria join the war. Bulgaria joins in attack on Serbia, with German and Austrian forces. Remember Clausewitz: the war is never over from 1912-13. By fall 1915, 100,000 KIA for Serbia, 160,000 taken prisoner.

Gallipoli:
Dardanelles is narrow straight splitting Turkey (the Greeks called it Hellespont) Aegean sea/Mediterranean from the Black sea (access to Odessa and Sevastapol). The straight (Dardanelles) is about 30 miles long and 1-5 miles wide. Turks had closed it to shipped with shore guns, mines and antisubmarine nets. The British and French aimed to take it back with an amphibious assault on the Gallipoli peninsula. If they could take the peninsula, this would split Turkey, possibly knock them out of the war, allow them to supply the Russians and open a southern Front against the German/Austrian alliance. Ended in total failure. Two landings attempted. April 25 Heavy losses, but split between commanders and local leaders doom them. The Peninsula is dominated by three large hills. A British division (whose commander is still on a ship) comes close to taking the critical hilltop that commands a view of all the beaches. But the

British, without orders, stop for tea. While brewing up, the Turks fortify the hilltop and end the battle there. In August (hot) they went again with 70,000 men when the planners estimated 150,000 would be necessary. They should have had 300 heavy guns (for the 70k troops) but had 118. Bas intelligence led then to think there would be 40,000 Turks there, there were 60,000. Poor planning meant that they landed facing east at dawn...(sun problems). Really bad planning leads to guns on one ship, ammunition on another. Ran out of water and lack of initiative became a problem (there were plenty of Turkish wells, but the British soldiers wouldn stop what t they were doing so they fought until dehydrated then were forced to drink their own urine.

1916:

Western Front.
Allies and Central powers at about equal strength. France starting feel the pinch of manpower shortage. Britain on the verge of instituting a draft. Unrest in Ireland approaching rebellion. Russia, with plenty of men, has insufficient organization and armaments. February to December: The battle of Verdun: German offensive French switch from lan and the offensive to a new slogan: Ils ne passeront pas!, They shall not Pass! For months the two sides battled back and forth. By the time the offensive was halted, 542,000 French and 434,000 German casualties. Germans introduce Phosgene gas

Verdun

Battle of the Some:

Allied offensive, June - November (Northern area near the North sea). Begins with a 7 day artillery bombardment. Ask what is the most powerful weapon ever used and how big. 200,000 tons of explosives used. (200 kilotons, 10-20 times the size of the bombs dropped on Hiroshima.) On the afternoon of August 1, the British attack. By nightfall, 60,000 are taken out by German defenses, 19,000 dead. In a daring (stupid) night attack, the British break through and send cavalry (with horses) through the line. But reserves do not arrive in time and the horses are mowed down by machine guns. This was the last mounted cavalry charge. The allies make small territorial advances but at a shocking cost: In November when winter sets in, British have lost 420,000; French 195,000; Germans 650,000. In 4 months they gained 8 miles. German losses here gut the non-commissioned officer corps of trained and skilled leaders. The German army was never the same afterwards.

1917

Allies plan is to take the offensive. Coordinated British-French attacks in West, Italian in South, Russian in the East. In 1917, Kaiser grants unlimited authority to military high command for prosecution of war. US
Germans draw the United States into war with unrestricted submarine warfare. February 3, US severs relation with Germany. Zimmerman telegram proves decisive in assisting the Americans into war. In the telegram, Germany proposes alliance with Mexico and with the proviso that Mexico role would be to retake Texas, N. Mexico, s and Arizona. In April the US declares war. Of course we have no real army, they have to build one, Selective Service act passed in May.

France:
Under leadership of Nivelle, prepare for final victory. Nivelle offensive. Attack Germans with 1.2 million men, lose 10% of them in 5 days from April 16-20. April 29-30, French troops mutiny. Pentaine replaces Nivelle. Troops pulled from the front, but, amazingly Germans fail to take notice. British counterattack to cover the French who have stripped the front of troops.

British:
In June the British set out to begin the breakout in Flanders. A 17 day artillery barrage begins. Then the British place a 1 kilo-ton series of mines in tunnel dug under the German lines to open a gap in German lines. This leads to the 3rd battle for Ypres, in low-wet land. July 31November 10. British inch forward against sever counterattacks. German introduce mustard gas here. The British move the line 5 miles. At a cost of 300,000 British casualties. Germans lose 260,000

Russia:
March 12, beginnings of Russian Revolution and civil war. Mutiny in the Petrograd garrison. The Czar abdicates and Bolshevik dominated Petrograd Soviet (Council of workers and SoldiersDeputies) declares itself in charge. The Soviets fear a counterrevolution led by the officer corps, so what do they do?

 Issue Order No. 1. Declares that officers have no disciplinary authority of enlisted. This leads to total breakdown of discipline in the army. Mutinous soldiers and sailors murder countless officers, By mid-April 50% of officer corps had been eliminated. Germans smuggle in Lenin and other Bolshevik agitators to help destabilize situation. Germans halt attacks on Russia. In Caucasus (Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan declare their independence. Bolsheviks try to retain areas of oil fields, leads to local resentment then revolt. June, 100,000 Czech POW from war with Austria seize the Transs Siberian railway when the Soviets block the Czechs repatriation. June - August, Britain-French-American expeditionary force lands in Murmansk (200 miles NORTH of the Arctic circle, off the Barents Sea) and move south to Archangel. Plan to get back equipment given to czarist government. True plan was to fight south and link up with Czech forces in Urals (about 1000 miles to the south). This would lead to a white-counterrevolution and topple the Bolsheviks. Americans fight Bolsheviks for a year and get as far south as Vologda river (about 600 miles SE of Murmansk. November, in Siberia, Navy seizes control of anti-Bolshevik government and allies with Czechs. In Moscow (July), Bolsheviks not in control yet, under pressure from Allies, Russia try one more series of offensives which are turned back. The Germans renew the attacks on Russia to drive them out of the war and succeed in doing so by September. In November, Lenin and Trotsky seize control (Bolshevik Revolution) and begin negotiation with Germany which culminate in Brest-Litovsk armistice.

1918:
US:
Army swells from 200,000 to 4 million starting from May 19, 1917. Pershing in charge. US is not technically an ally. France and Britain want to use the Americans as replacements (which we do w/ Blacks). Several issues in mobilization: Severe shortage of trained officers, but many with experienced blacks in reserves...officers totally ignored.

 African-Americans in World War I Southern senators vehemently opposed to mobilization of blacks in America. Initially planned to mobilize 900,000, then later down to 400,000. Of those (10% of force) few were allowed to go into infantry. Vast majority used as laborers. Foch willing to take 2 divisions worth in June 1918, thinks will bail him out. Pershing thinks the trench warfare mentality will only cost Americans their lives. Allies go over Pershing head to Wilson who uphold him. s

In January, Wilson lays down the 14 points, things the US wants for Peace:
1. Open covenants, openly arrived at 2. freedom of seas in war and peace 3. removal of trade barriers 4. national armaments reductions 5. impartial adjustment of colonial claims 6. evacuation of Russia and independent solution of Russia s problems 7. Evacuation and restoration of Belgium 8. Evacuation and restoration of all occupied French terrain to include Alsace and Lorraine. 9. Readjustment of Italian borders to put them in line with nationalities. 10. Autonomy for Austrian-Hungarian people. 11. Evacuation of Rumania, Serbia and Montenegro 12. Secure Turkish sovereignty, but non-Turk areas turned over to ethnic nationalists 13. Independence of Poland to include territories with predominance of Polish speakers. 14. Formation of an association of nations ensuring liberty and territorial integrity.

Germany:
Somme offensive: Create a 40 mile deep salient, but ground had been so destroyed, and with inadequate supplied the Germans could not take advantage. Another 400,000 lost. A series of German offensives through the summer shift the lines marginally towards the coast and

Paris. The Germans mane to get within 60 miles of Paris and begin a bombardment of it with a special artillery piece with a range of 80 miles.

Allies:
July counter-attack. Succeed in taking back much of the German gains. The Americans are arriving at a rate of 300,000 per month. In August, the Germansmorale is broken in large part. Americans and French attack further southern the western part of the Ardennes forests. Pershing moves 1,000,000 men into area and is able to constantly replace troops with fresh ones and grind Germans down slowly, the wooded mountainous territory. In north, attacks in Flounders continue, but (as always, going is slow).

Germans:
End is in sight as US is able to maintain tempo of war that had not been seen in years. German plan to fall back to borders and then defend until winter and then hopefully negotiate through winter. Front lines begin to crumble and Germans contact Wilson to negotiate a peace settlement based on the 14 points. Wilson replies that he won negotiate with the t military dictatorship. Ludendorff resigns, Mutiny in high seas fleet October 29 Revolution in Germany. Socialists proclaim republic, the Kaiser flees to Holland. Armistice Nov 11.