ENGINEERED TIMBER

The words 'engineered timber' have become synonymous with the sophisticated art of producing a wide range of structural forms using computer technology to its limits in conjunction with 'state of the art' manufacturing technology. Super-efficient jointing techniques have evolved, the most versatile being effected using a variety of modern adhesive formulations. Engineered Timber is enjoying a new lease of life. Glulam is perhaps the first form to be widely adopted and remains the most versatile.

Contents Preliminary Design Guidance Structural Timber Joint Design Fire Resistance Prevervation Care and Maintenance Site Care Site Advice

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Preliminary Design Guidance

Glulam Glulam has been developed over many years but improvements in manufacturing techniques have reduced costs and increased its viable range. It is the original engineered form of wood and is made by bonding together readily available section sizes maximum 45 mm thick. Glued laminated timber is available in straight or curved profiles Size is limited only by transport considerations and custom made shapes offer unparalleled versatility. Appearance is an important attribute. Continental manufacturers dominate the market but a few specialist British companies have limited capacity mainly used for unusual species (or shapes). Whitewood (spruce) is the preferred material but Redwood is available at a premium. Most beams have 45mm laminae but some 33.3mm multiples are supplied. For curved profiles lamination thicknesses are reduced to facilitate bending say approx R/180 Permissible stresses Comparative values for medium term duration (i.e. roofs) at 300mm deep for conditions below. 18% moisture content: -

Straight Beams Simply supported straight beams are widely used for purlins, lintels, flat roof joists and similar applications. Relatively light weight, combined with ease of fixing, make the use of timber popular with contractors and visually attractive.

Shaped Beams For roofs that are nominally flat a generous fall is strongly recommend. Timber beams can be tapered from one end or both ways from centre.

Simply supported beams are usually deflection governed in design. It follows that beams which are continuous over multiple supports are more efficient with consequent cost savings. Care will, however, be needed to allow for the changed distribution of loading on the support structure.

This can be done with or without a camber which can considerably enhance the appearance of beams which might otherwise look quite deep mid span.

Purlins & Lintels Some alternative locations for local trimming or longer span support. Cantilever Beams It is easy to taper Glulam. Balconies, canopies and larger roofs will look better trimmed to a structurally efficient profile.

Depth ratios are approximate to assist preliminary assessment of proportions.

For breadth (thickness) assume approx H/5.

Post & Beam Simply supported or multiple span beams obviously need support and laminated columns are frequently suitable. Some stiffness can be developed through the joints or knee braces can be added to accommodate greater forces. Laminated beams can also act in combination with other materials and moment connections are quite viable with steel or concrete.

Where some internal members are in compression these will usually be in timber but can still be used in combination with steel tension members. Complete timber trusses will often be chosen for appearance and practical considerations. We would suggest that the number of internal webs be kept to a minimum to reduce assembly costs.

Pyramids Trusses are usually thought of as two-dimensional but the same principles can be employed to form four or more sided pyramids. Where the tension from the reactions at eaves can be accommodated in steel, timber or concrete, appropriate care should be taken to ensure that the centre lines of force are correctly appraised. A laminated structure exerting outward thrust on top of a support frame can result in eccentricity unless due care is paid. Ties need not be limited to acting around the eaves or directly across the void. Some very interesting patterns can be evolved with an internal network of steel or timber.

A Frames & Trusses Trusses can considerably reduce section size compared with simple spans. Rafters can be held together by timber or metal members, whilst in A frame applications a concrete raft might be used to accommodate thrusts. Tie rods will span substantial distances without intermediate support but sag-bars of small diameter can be introduced if necessary with normal cost penalty.

Lifting the tie above eaves reaction points will introduce secondary bending to the rafter extension. This will increase rafter sizes but can have appearance advantages in certain applications.

Arches Where the foundations or structural frame are suitably designed two or three pinned arches are readily formed in Glulam and are very structurally efficient. A circular layout will produce a clear, efficient dome a form which has been used for very large spans in other parts of the world.

Tied Arches Tie rods can also be used to restrain thrust from arches where it is difficult to accommodate in other elements of the structure. In these, as with other applications, the warmth of timber creates a unique environment which would be difficult to reflect with other materials.

Three Pinned Portals Curved laminated three pinned frames will probably be familiar and have considerable versatility from the smallest swimming pool costing a few thousand pounds to larger pools, churches, community centres and industrial applications, both large and small.

Filling in the corners is fairly expensive and the use of a separate column and rafter, both saves money and may lighten the appearance where the member depth could otherwise be quite large.

Framed corners can be economical and have the advantage of fabrication from straight components.

Curved corners may be intrusive the use of finger joints can improve headroom.

Large finger joints are widely used on the continent. The relevant Standard is BS EN 387: 2001

Structural Timber
References The principal standards governing the design and production of structural timber.

BS EN 1995: 2005

Design of timber structures. Part 1.1 General rules and rules for buildings

BS EN 336: 2003

Structural timber, coniferous and poplar. Sizes, permissible deviations.

Solid timber tolerances A limit state code which has now been published and can be used for design on a voluntary basis. Will eventually supersede national codes. BS 5268-2: 2002 Structural use of timber. 1996 Code of practice for permissible stress design, materials and workmanship. BS EN 338: 2003 Structural timber strength Structural timber strength classes

Defines the properties of C and D classifications BS EN 385: 2003 Finger jointed structural timber. Performance requirements and minimum production requirements. Glued laminated timber performance requirements and minimum production requirements

Introduces much of BS EN 1995-1-1 in a permissible stress form as a transitional document. Some new material. Formalises the EN production standards.

BS EN 386: 2001

BS 5268: Part 4 Section 4.1 1978 BS 4978: 1996 + Amd No. 1: BS EN 301: 1992

Recommendation for calculating fire resistance of rs timber members.

Glulam manufacture. Supersedes BS 4169 BS EN 390: 1998 Glued laminated timber - sizes. Permissible deviations

Specification for visual strength grading of softwood.

Glulam Tolerances BS EN 519: 1995 Structural timber Grading requirements for machine strength graded timber and grading machines.

Adhesives, phenolic and aminoplastic, for load bearing tmber structures: classification and performance requirements.

Type 1 adhesives are suitable for exposure to weather and/or high temperature. Phenolic Resins (PRF) are dark coloured. Aminoplastic Resins (MUF) are light.

Joint Design High machining and jointing costs can often be the sum of many apparently small contributions. These pointers to better detailing also cover some performance criteria. Note the pattern of forces The choice of jointing systems should take into account the extremes of loading conditions not just worst cases. Be aware of visual constraints Appearance is often very important and may preclude some types of fastener. Keep machining simple Mixing hole dimensions in the same component risks error and slow drilling timber. Single crosscuts are preferred to double or compound cuts. Notches, grooves & slots add to setting out & processing times. Avoid special fabrications Even the simplest plate or angle can cost far more than its proprietary counterpart and has to drawn, priced etc. Separate the artwork If special fabrications are unavoidable make it easy for the details to be copied for tendering and subsequent processing controls. Standardize the fastenings Using the same bolt with or without connectors can maintain drilling & appearance but take varying loads. Repeat grouping/spacing helps jigging. Keep the steelwork slim Try comparing the bolt shear/hole bearing/timber embedment capacities. Unless tension or buckling govern, thick plates are seldom justified.

Limit plate sizes Space the fastenings to the timber rules. Then keep minimum steel edge distances beyond them (normally 2d). Any more could be asteful and create unnecessary tolerance restrictions. Weight is not free For ease of processing complex or fast track inquiries many fabricators price on weight lone based on experience of the average labour content. Even carefully costed items have a material content. Dont read too much into that disappointing allowance for a weight reduction. Fastener density A greater number of small fastenings tend to be more efficient than fewer large ones per unit area. (E.g. Trussed rafter plates v bolts) Spacing rules are more easily satisfied with smaller units but labour content may rise. Shrinkage Timber moves with variations in moisture content across (but not along) the grain. Varies with species but around 1% size for 5% m.c. Plate sizes & orientation should recognize this and avoid stress concentrations in large sections. Joist hangers, for example, should not be bolted top and bottom. Avoid eccentricity Timber takes load far better to the grain. Make sure centrelines of action intersect.

Fire Resistance
Timber is Predictable The charring rate of timber exposed to fire is predictable. BS 5268 : part 4 sets out the criteria by which the strength of the residual section may be assessed following specified periods of endurance. This enables designers to ensure that the required fire resistance can be achieved. Design Criteria The load bearing capacity of timber beams 70mm thick or greater should be calculated based on the residual section and stresses of *2.25 x long term dry stress (* x 2.00 for members under 70mm). Permissible deflection is relaxed to span/30 and is not normally relevant unless gross distortion might de-stabilise other elements of the structure. Charring Rates For periods of 15 to 90 minutes a charring rate of 20mm in 30 minutes is assumed for beams and columns with one concealed face. This rate relates to most coniferous species (except Western Red Cedar 25mm in 30 mins). The nominal rate for a specified range of Hardwoods is 25% slower at 15mm in 30 mins. When all faces are exposed the charring rate is increased by 25%. Permissible Loads The load to be supported is either the maximum permissible design load or the load which the member is required to support in normal service. It has become custom to interpret this apparent ambiguity to suggest that full snow load would be unlikely under these circumstances and to reduce the imposed load by two thirds accordingly. Effect on Size In practice beams 90mm thick and over will usually endure 30 min fire without modification. Longer periods will probably lead to an increase in thickness although this may be partially offset by a reduction in depth.
90 x 315 mm Glulam After 30 Mins Fire After 60 Mins Fire

Bond Strength The adhesives used in the manufacture of Glulam and LVL comply with Type 1 of BS EN 301, are not flammable and do not lose their integrity when exposed to prolonged elevated temperatures.

Preservation
The European View BS EN 1995-1-1 will increasingly govern the structural use of timber, requires designs to reflect the envi ronmental climatic conditions from a choice of three classes:Service Class 1. Conditions in which most timber will attain an average moisture content not exceeding 12% - corresponding to a temperature of 20oc with relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 65% of a few weeks per year. Service Class 2. Conditions in which most timber will attain an average moisture content not exceeding 20% - corresponding to a temperature of 20oc with relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 85% of a few weeks per year. Service Class 3. Climatic conditions leading to higher moisture contents than in service class 2 but excluding continuous hot and wet conditions such as in cooling towers. The average moisture content of timber (A) likely to be attained in service and (B) which should not be exceeded at the time of erection are defined:Service Environment Class 3 Covered, generally unheated 2 Covered, generally heated 1 Internal, continuously heated (A) (B) Organic solvent based formulations are preferred for Glulam and for joinery since they do not discolour the timber or its finishes. They avoid swelling, shrinkage and similar problems associated with water borne varieties. A protective envelope or shell is provided rather than deep penetration of the component. Treatment of individual laminations prior to bonding is not viable since most would be removed by the planning, which must immediately precede lamination. Glulam is usually made from European Whitewood, which is Restraint to treatment. Where slightly greater risks are envisaged than European Redwood which is Moderately Resistant can be specified but with an increase in cost and extended delivery period. Knots will be more prominent with Redwood. Where a high risk is unavoidable, such as bridges, then pressure impregnation with water borne CC treatment can be applied to laminations (max.33mm) prior to bonding. The salt retention can be specified to suit a desired life in excess of 60 years. The process normally requires use of Redwood for satisfactory penetration and when extra drying and other processing costs are taken into account, involves significant cost increases. CC treated timber is characterised by green colouring which fades to some extent. Some manufactures are able to supply Glulam made from very durable or durable hard wood species and not necessarily from tropical sources. Significant cost increases will, however, be incurred with possible extended delivery.

18% 24% 15% 20% 12% 20%

BS EN 1995-1-1 with support standard EN 335-1 does not require treatment of timber in C1 and most of C2. Although the per capita use of Glulam is far greater in other European countries, the non-essential use of toxic chemicals tends to be avoided. Choice of Preservative If it is still felt that preservative should be applied for reassurance, then for low hazard conditions (say up to cat.2B or C) the industry standard method of applying preservative to Glulam is by flood coating, deluging, spraying etc to the point of refusal. Organic solvent based formulations are preferred for Glulam and for joinery since they do not discolour the timber or its finishes.

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Points to Watch Subjects which merit particular car in building design include: Vapour Barriers DPCS Insulation Flat Roofs Enclosed Valleys Gutters Down Pipes Timber below FFL High Humidity Areas Splash Zones Jointing Steelwork Roof Overhangs Condensation Ventilation Decoration Maintenance

In more hazardous locations, Glulam made from European redwood is better than whitewood. It is more receptive to preservatives, but should still be finished with applied coatings, as recommended for joinery inn similar locations. Most methods of preservation provide a protective envelope of varying depth. Detailing should provide shelter from moisture and allow good ventilation and drainage. Columns should not continue below DPC level and in damp zones, shoes should not enclose the timber, but have open sides or be centrally slotted in the member. End grain is relatively absorbent and extra care should be taken in end sealing or capping with a similar species.

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Care & Maintenance

General Routine inspection is recommended. Routine maintenance will normally consist of a systematic inspection at say six or twelve month intervals. Only when exceptional conditions prevail will further action be required. Decoration Structural timberwork needs no special attention. The decoration of structural timberwork can be undertaken to the same programme as other internal refreshing coats. At low levels a wipe clean (stain or gloss) surface may be advisable to extend redecoration intervals. Fire Protection Be aware of special coatings. Special coatings (intumescent) are sometimes specified. It is critical that these are neither removed nor degraded by the application of noncompatible materials. A record should be kept of the exact specification employed and redecoration should comply with the manufactures recommendations. Excess Moisture Look out for roof or plumbing leaks. Care should be taken to ensure that ntreated softwood is not maintained at over 18% moisture content. If a source of moisture such as plumbing or weathering fault had been undetected for some time, the source should be corrected promptly, and the timber allowed to dry out. Checks should then be made for possible start of rot or similar degrade. If in doubt, consult the supplier for appropriate remedial action (repair and/or the application of preservative. Dry Environment Vigorous air conditioning can have side effects For most internally heated conditions timber should stabilize at about 12% moisture content. (Normal Glulam supply level). Timber shrinks when dried. Rapid drying below 12% can lead to some surface splits, and in exceptionally warm dry conditions splits can be expected to occur. They can sometimes look severe but are hardly ever of structural significance. (Grading rules can permit fissures half the width of the member or more). Remedial Do not rush Any cosmetic action should not be undertaken until say 9- 12 months after commissioning central heating. If stopping is judged necessary hard setting varieties should be avoided to allow future movement to occur with generation of secondary stresses. Bolted Joints May need tightening Nuts should be checked for tightness about twelve months after construction. This check should receive particular attention where signs of exceptionally dry conditions have been noted.

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Site Care
Storage Timber structures and components for visually exposed applications should be stored: On level bearers well clear of the ground Use clean dry timber free from girt and of grease, supported high enough to clear rain and mud splashes. With Supports evenly spread Locate bearers at ends and near joints. Ensure self weight is uniformly supported to avoid distortion. Using Strips or blocks between components Spacers help to prevent the trapping of dirt or water between timber faces, but must be in line vertically. Covered with dark sheets Secured against wind. Rain normally does not harm in the short term, but prolonged exposure can lead to swelling and staining. Sun darkens exposed wood quickly. Partial exposure or partial masking can be very difficult to blend in later. With attention to wrapping Transit wrapping products during delivery, handling and erection only. Ideally, if should be removed promptly to avoid moisture traps and ensure even weathering. However, site management will often prefer to retain for protection against wet trades. In this case small holes should be cut in the underside of retained wrapping to drain any water pockets. It is also particularly important to make an keep good any disturbance around joints. Handling When handling and erecting structural timber components for visually exposed use, care should be taken to ensure that they are: Evenly supported Use webbing slings to avoid local bruising. Locate with care to ensure balance support. Control with guy lines. Evenly exposed Mud, plaster, banding, temporary bracing, partial wrapping etc, can all leave light patches when removed or made good. Other materials should be removed promptly. Fixed with rustproof fittings Particularly nails in temporary bracings or nearby timber. Rain can create dark stains from any unprotected ordinary steel. Securely braced Preferably with permanent bracing. Wire guy lines with turnbuckles or timber members may be needed to resist sudden high winds etc. (When delays in permanent framing are unavoidable) Covered if necessary When prolonged exposure is expected close wrapping may be desirable but difficult to secure without water traps. Black polythene can be draped over with a continuous top batten and open soffit.

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Site Advice
Storage Store on level bearers well clear of the ground. Use spacers to help ventilation, avoid moisture traps and provide support (keep in line). Cover with dark sheets to protect from direct sunlight and rain. Handling Lift with webbing slings to avoid bruising. Locate support carefully to ensure safe balanced lift. Remove mud, plaster, partial wrapping etc. quickly will leave light patches if delayed. Use rust proof nails, bolts etc rain off mid steel stains quickly. Brace as you go, preferably with permanent structure or with guy lines/stout timbers triangulated. Transit Wrapping Protects during delivery, handling and erection only. Remove ASAP to avoid moisture traps moisture traps and ensure even weathering. Retain if you have to for protection against wet trades. Cut small holes in underside of retained wrapping to drain any water pockets. Make and keep good any disturbance around joints etc. Sunlight darkens exposed wood quickly partial exposure or partial masking can be very difficult to blend in later. If in doubt - ASK

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