DKE202 App

Appendix
The techniques used throughout this book require physical properties and techni-
cal data in the form of mathematical equations instead of tabulated or graphical
format. Thus, the purpose of this appendix is to provide the appropriate equations
for the most common thermophysical properties and technical data required in
food process design. The proposed equations have been fitted to the available data
retrieved from the related literature. In all figures throughout this Appendix, the
real data from the literature are presented with points, while the fitted equations
are presented with continuous curves.
The data for the properties of water, steam and air (Section II) are retrieved
mainly from Pakowski et al. (1991), Perry and Green (1997) and Saravacos and
Maroulis (2001). The thermal properties of major food components (Section III)
are based on the work of Choi and Okos (1983). The transport properties of se-
lected foods (Section IV) are from Saravacos and Maroulis (2001). The fluid flow
and convection heat transfer analysis (Sections V and VI, respectively) can be
found in textbooks on fluid flow and heat transfer, such as McCabe et al. (2001)
and Levenspiel (1986).
Copyright © 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

478 Appendix
I. CONVERSION FACTORS TO SI UNITS
From To (SI) Units Multiply by

atm (760 Torr) bar 1.013
bar Pa IxlO 5
Btu kJ 1.055
Btu/h ft °F W/mK 1.729
Btu/hft 2 W/m2 3.154
Btu/h ftz°F W/m2 5.678
Btu/h W 0.293
Btu/lb kJ/kg 2.326
cP Pas 0.001
cuft m3 0.0284
cuft/lb m3/kg 0.0624
cuft/min (CFM) m3/s 0.5x1 0"3
ftlb J 1.355
ft of water Pa 2990
ft m 0.305
ft/min (FPM) m/s 0.0051
gallons (Imperial) m3 4.543x1 0"3
gallons (US) m3 3.785xlO"3
gallons/min (GPM) m3/s 0.063x1 0"3
HP (boiler) kW 9.80
HP kW 0.745
in (inches) m 0.0254
in Hg Pa 3386
kcal kJ 4.18
kg force (kp) N 9.81
L (lit, It, 1) m3 0.001
Ib force N 4.45
Ib mass kg 0.454
Ib/cuft kg/m3 16.02
Ib/fts Pas 1.488
Ib/ft2 Pa 47.9
Ib/inch2(psi) Pa 6894
miles km 1.609
mm water Pa 9.81
P (poise) Pas 0.10
RPM (rpm) 1/s 1/60
sqft(ft 2 ) m2 0.093
sq in (inch2) m2 0.645x1 0~3
ton (metric) kg 1000
ton (US, short) kg 907.2
ton-refrigeration kW 3.51
Torr (mm Hg) Pa 133.3
K = °C + 273.15 Prefixes: k(kilo) =103, M(mega) = 106, G(giga) = 109
°C = (°F-32)/1.8 m (milli) = 10~3, n (micro) = 10"*, n(nano) = l(T9

Appendix 479
II. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER, STEAM, AND AIR
1. Saturated Pressure of Water
Table A.1 Saturated Pressure of Water
Antoine equation
a3+T
Ps bar Saturated pressure of water

T °C Temperature
T,<T<TC Range of application
T, = 0.01°C Triple point temperature

= 374.14°C Critical temperature
= 1.19 101 Antoine constants
= 3.95 103
= 2.32 102
1000
o.ooi
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Temperature (°C)
Figure A.1 Saturated pressure of water.

480 Appendix
2. Latent Heat of Vaporization of Water
Table A.2 Latent Heat of Vaporization of Water
Equation 1
(M50°C Range of application

AH MJ/kg Latent heat of vaporization
T °C Temperature
AH0 = 2.50 MJ/kg Latent heat of vaporization at 0°C
Cpw = 4.20 kJ/kgK Average specific heat of water
Cpv =1.87kJ/kgK Average specific heat of water vapor
Equation 2
1/3
,. -T
r, < r < rt. Range of application
Zl// MJ/kg Latent heat of vaporization

°C Temperature
AH0 = 2.50 MJ/kg Latent heat of vaporization at 0°C
T, =0.01°C Triple point temperature
Tc = 374.14°C Critical temperature
3.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Temperature (°C)
Figure A.2 Latent heat of vaporization of water.

Appendix 481
3. Density of Water
Table A.3 Density of Water
p = a0
P kg/m3 Density
T °C Temperature
a0 =9.9710 2 Constants in the range 0-150°C

a, = 3.141(T3
a2 = -3.761(T3
aa =9.9510 2 Constants in the range 0-350°C

a, = 2.911(T2
a2 = -3.4010~3
1250
250
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Temperature (°C)
Figure A.3 Density of water.

482 Appendix
4. Density of Saturated Steam

Table A.4 Density of Saturated Steam
MP
p =- Ideal gas equation
where P,s = a, — Antoine equation

' a3 + T
and r o =r+273.15 Absolute temperature
0-250°C Range of application
3
p kg/m Density
P., bar Saturated pressure of water
r °C Temperature
K Absolute temperature
= 0.083 143 nrbar/kmol K Ideal gas constant
= 18.015 kg/kmol Molecular weight
a, =1.1910' Antoine constants
a2 =3.9510 3
a, =2.3210 2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Temperature (°C)
Figure A.4 Density of saturated steam versus temperature.

1000
Critical poinl*
10
I °
1 10
11 •
*o ~ 0.1
» 0.01
Triple point
0.001
0.001 0.01 0.1 10 100 1000
Pressure (bar)
Figure A.5 Density of saturated steam versus pressure.

Appendix 483
5. Phase Diagram of Water
Table A.5 Clapeyron Equation for Ice Fusion
273.15 + 7 ]
-In
273.15 + rJ
where
P bar Pressure
T °C Temperature
P0 = 1 bar Normal pressure
T,, = 0 °C Normal melting temperature
and
- = -2.71516x10° bar
1000
Critical point
221 bap, 374°Cj
100
10
Normal
melting point < Normal
1 bar, 0°C boiling point
1 bar, 100°C
0.1
ICE VAPOR
0.01 f Triple point

6 mbar, 0.01°C
0.001
-100 0 100 200 300 400
Temperature (°C)
Figure A.6 Phase diagram of water.

484 Appendix
6. Density of Air
Table A.6 Density of Air
MP
Ideal gas equation
where Ta =7+ 273. 15 Absolute temperature
p kg/m3 Density
P bar Pressure
T °C Temperature
Ta K Absolute temperature
R = 0.083143 m3bar/kmol K Ideal gas constant

M = 18.015 kg/kmol Molecular weight
10
5 bar
o.i
-100 100 200 300 400 500 600
Temperature (°C)
Figure A.7 Density of air.

Appendix 485
7. Specific Heat of Water, Steam and Air
Table A.7 Specific Heat of Water, Steam and Air
2
c. = «o + a\ r + a T 2
cp kJ/kgK Specific heat

T °C Temperature
a0 =4.21 Constants for water

a, =-1.3510'3
a2 =1.3810'5
aa = 1.87 Constants for steam

at = 3.07
= 5.66 io-7
GO = 1.01 Constants for vapor
= 3.16 1Q-75
= 3.28 io-
I 1— i•>F^
•••••> ^aa ^
^
4 Water
•Si
JC
g 3-
O
Vapor (P->Q bar)
1 Air
11
n
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Temperature (°C)
Figure A.8 Specific heat of water, steam and air.

486 Appendix
8. Viscosity of Water, Steam and Air
Table A.8 Viscosity of Water, Steam and Air
77 = a0 + a{T + a2T2 + a^
77 mPa s Specific heat

T °C Temperature
a0 = 7.59 10~3 Constants for saturated vapor in the range 0-300°C

a, =4.4910" 5
a2 =-6.13 10"8
aj =1.441(r 10
a0 = 8.07 10~3 Constants for superheated vapor in the range 100-700°C

a, =4.0410"5
a2 =1.2410" 9
a3 =-1.21 10"12
a0 = 1.69 10"2 Constants for air in the range 0-1000°C

a; = 4.9810~5
a2 =-3.1910~8
a, = 1.32 10""
a0 =-1.07 101 Constants for saturated water in the range 0-350°C

a, =1.9710"2
a2 =-1.47 10~5
a3 =1.8210 3

Appendix 487
9. Thermal Conductivity of Water, Steam and Air
Table A.9 Thermal Conductivity of Water, Steam and Air
A W/m K Specific heat

T °C Temperature
a0 = 5.70 10"' Constants for saturated water in the range 0-350°C
a, =1.7810"3
a2 =-6.94 1Q-6
a3 = 2.20 10~9
a0 = 1.76 10~2 Constants for saturated vapor in the range 0-300°C
a, =1.0510^
a2 =-6.1 \ 10~7
a} =3.0710"9
a0 = 1.77 10~2 Constants for superheated vapor in the range 100-700°C
a, =6.0110~ 5
a, = 9.5110-"
a} =-3.99 10-"
ao = 2.43 10"2 Constants for air in the range 0-1000°C
a, = 7.89 10"5
02 =-1.79 10~8
0} =-8.5710'12
10. Mass Diffusivity of Water Vapor in Air
Table A.10 Mass Diffusivity of Water Vapor in Air
D = a0\ ' '" Pa>

\ 273 J
D m2/s Mass diffusivity
T °C Temperature
P bar Pressure
a0 = 2.16 10"5 Constants for saturated vapor in the range 0-1200°C
a, = 1.80
a, =-1.00

488 Appendix
II. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MAJOR FOOD COMPONENTS
1. Density of Major Food Components
Table A.11 Density of Major Food Components
p =-
s
^
v
p, =
p kg/mj Density of food

Pi kg/m3 Density of component /
X, kg/kg Weight fraction of component /
r °c Temperature
Component bo b,
Protein 1.33E+03 -5.18E-01
Fat 9.26E+02 ^t.lSE-01
Carbohydrate 1.60E+03 -3.10E-02
Fiber 1.31E+03 -3.66E-01
Ash 2.42E+03 -2.81 E-01
Water 9.97E+02 3.14E-03 -3.76E-03
Ice 9.17E+02 -1.31E-01

Appendix 489
2. Specific Heat of Major Food Components
Table A.12 Specific Heat of Major Food Components
^
,2
cpl
CP kJ/kgK Specific heat of food
cp, kJ/kgK Specific heat of component /'
x, kg/kg Weight fraction of component /
T °C Temperature
Component bo b, *,
Protein 2.01E+00 1.21E-03 -1.31E-06
Fat 1.98E+00 1.47E-03 ^t.80E-06
Carbohydrate 1.55E+00 I.96E-03 -5.94E-06
Fiber 1.85E+00 1.83E-03 -4.65E-06
Ash 1.09E+00 1.89E-03 -3.68E-06
Water 4.18E+00 -9.09E-05 5.47E-06
Ice 2.06E+00 6.08E-03
Water 4.08E+00 -5.31E-03 9.95E-04
(below 0°C)

490 Appendix
3. Thermal Conductivity of Major Food Components
Table A. 13 Thermal Conductivity of Major Food Components
,-z
bQ+b{T + b2T2
A W/mK Thermal conductivity of food

A, W/mK Thermal conductivity of component ;'
r; m3/m3 Volume fraction of component /'
r °C Temperature
Component *. *, b,
Protein 1.79E-01 1.20E-03 -2.72E-06
Fat 1.81E-01 -2.76E-03 -1.77E-07
Carbohydrate 2.01E-01 1.39E-03 -4.33E-06
Fiber 1.83E-01 1.25E-03 -3.17E-06
Ash 3.30E-01 1.40E-03 -2.91E-06
Water 5.71E-01 1.76E-03 -6.70E-06
Ice 2.22E+00 -6.25E-03 1.02E-04

Appendix 491
IV. TRANSPORT PROPERTIES OF SELECTED FOODS
1. Viscosity of Selected Foods
Table A.14 Apparent Viscosity of non-Newtonian Fluid Foods
Mathematical Model
K = K0 exp(&r)exp —(-- —)
FV ) V^j, rJJ
n = n0- bX
rj Pa s Apparent viscosity
K Pa s" Consistency coefficient
« - Flow behavior index
u m/s Fluid velocity
d m Equivalent diameter
X kg/kg Concentration
T K Temperature
T0 K Reference temperature
R Ideal gas constant
Adjustable Model Parameters
B
E
Table A. 15 Data for Estimating Apparent Viscosity of Selected Fluid Foods Us-
ing the Model in Table A.14
Material K0, Pa s" B E, kJ/mol n0 b

Tomato 1.27 0.149 15.8 0.403 0.0028
Orange 9.28 0.077 35.0 0.950 0.0034
Pear 2.15 0.087 16.1 0.348 0.0000
Apple sauce 26.4 0.286

492 Appendix
2. Thermal Conductivity of Selected Foods
Table A.16 Mathematical Model for Calculating Thermal Conductivity in Foods

as a Function of Moisture Content and Temperature
Mathematical Model
X ,
X exp
a f
RT \+x'
A. (W/mK) the thermal conductivity,

X (kg/kg db) the material moisture content,
T(K) the material temperature,
Tr = 60°C a reference temperature, and
R = 0.0083143 kJ/mol K the ideal gas constant.
• ~ka(W/mK) thermal conductivity at moisture X = 0 and temperature T = Tr

• "k^W / mK ) thermal conductivity at moisture X = oo and temperature T = Tr
• Eo(kJ/mol) activation energy for heat conduction in dry material at X = 0
• Et(kJ/mol) activation energy for heat conduction in wet material at X = oo

Appendix 493
Table A.17 Data for Estimating Thermal Conductivity of Selected Foods Using
the Model in Table A. 16
4 4, Et E.
Material (W/m K) (W/m K) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)
Cereal products
Corn 1.580 0.070 7.2 5.0
Fruits
Apple 0.589 0.287 2.4 11.7
Orange 0.642 0.106 1.3 0.0
Pear 0.658 0.270 2.4 1.9
Model foods
Amioca 0.718 0.120 3.2 14.4
Starch 0.623 0.243 0.3 0.4
Hylon 0.800 0.180 9.9
Vegetables
Potato 0.611 0.049 0.0 47.0
Tomato 0.680 0.220 0.2 5.0
Dairy
Milk 0.665 0.212 1.7 1.9
Mea(
Beet 0.568 0.280 2.2 3.2
Other
Rapeseed 0.239 0.088 3.6 0.6
Baked products
Dough 0.800 0.273 2.7 0.0

494 Appendix
3. Moisture Diffusivity of Selected Foods
Table A.18 Mathematical Model for Calculating Moisture Diffusivity in Foods

as a Function of Moisture Content and Temperature
Mathematical Model
1 E(\ \\\ X £. f 1 1
£> = - Do exp — + D.exn -
l +X R\T T \ l+X ' \ R\T T
D (m2/s) the moisture diffusivity,

X (kg/kg db) the material moisture content,
T(K) the material temperature,
Tr= 60°C a reference temperature, and
R = 0.0083143 kJ/mol K the ideal gas constant.
• D0 (m2/s) diffusivity at moisture X = 0 and temperature T = Tr

• DI (m2/s) diffusivity at moisture X = oo and temperature T = Tr
• E0 (kJ/mol) activation energy for diffusion in dry material at X = 0
• E, (kJ/mol) activation energy for diffusion in wet material at X = oo

Appendix 495
Table A. 19 Date for Estimating Moisture Diffusivity of Selected Foods Using

the Model in Table A. 18
Di Do Ei Eo
Material (ltl2/S) (mz/s) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)
Cereal products
Corn
- 4.40E-09 O.OOE+00 0.0 10.4
dem 1.19E-08 O.OOE+00 49.4 73.1
grains 1.15E-09 6.66E-11 10.2 57.8
kernel 5.87E-10 5.32E-10 0.0 33.8
pericarp 1.13E-09 O.OOE+00 10.0 5.0
Pasta
- 1.39E-09 O.OOE+00 16.2 2.0
Rice
kernel 9.75E-09 O.OOE+00 12.5 2.0
Rough rice
- 2.27E-09 O.OOE+00 12.7 0.7
Wheat
- 1.94E-09 1.30E-09 0.0 46.3
Fruits
Apple
- 7.97E-10 1.16E-10 16.7 56.6
Banana
- 2.03E-09 4.66E-10 9.9 4.6
Grapes
seedless 5.35E-09 O.OOE+00 34.0 10.4
Raisins
- 8.11E-10 1.05E-10 21.4 50.1
Model foods
Amioca
- 1.52E-08 1.52E-08 0.0 33.3
Hvlon-7
- 1.96E-08 1.96E-08 0.0 24.2
Vegetables
Carrol
- 2.47E-09 1.54E-09 13.9 11.3
Garlic
- 5.33E-10 1.68E-11 15.4 7.1
Onion
- 1.45E-08 O.OOE+00 70.2 10.4
Potato
- 1.57E-09 4.31E-10 44.7 76.9

496 Appendix
V. FLUID FLOW IN CIRCULAR TUBES
Table A.20 Fluid Flow in Circular Tubes
16Re~' for laminar flow (Re < 2100)

s __
0.08Re~ 1/4 for turbulent flow(Re > 2100)in smooth tubes
0.017 for turbulent flow(Re > 2100) in very rough tubes (pipes)
E =n
Ap Pa Friction pressure loss

L m Length of tube
d m Diameter of the tube
u m/s Superficial velocity
p kg/m3 Density of fluid
rj Pa s Apparent viscosity of fluid
Re - Reynolds number
/ - Fanning friction coefficient
F mVs Fluid flow rate
n - Pump efficiency
E W Pumping power

Appendix 497
0.025
0.020
f=0.017
o f=16Re -i
s
_o
c
o
0.010
u.
0.005
0.000
l.E+02 l.E+03 l.E+04 l.E+05 l.E+06 l.E+07
Reynolds number (Re)
Figure A.9 Friction coefficient versus Reynolds number.

498 Appendix
VI. CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
Free
convection
Forced convection,
air
Forced convection,
water
Boiling
water
•'V ..
Condensing
organics
Condensing Steam.
Film
Condensing Steam,
Dropwise
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

z
Heat transfer coefficient (W/m K)
Figure A.10 Heat transfer coefficients.

Appendix 499
Table A.21 Convection Heat Transfer in Circular Tubes
Laminar flow
1/3
Turbulent flow
0.7
-0.14
Nu = 0.023 1+ -
where
Nu = — Nusselt number
Re = —— Reynolds number
Pr = Prandtl number
0 = ^- Correction factor for heating or cooling
— Entrance effect
L
and
h W/m K Heat transfer coefficient

d m Tube diameter
L m Tube length
p kg/m3 Density
A W/m K Thermal conductivity
77 Pa s Viscosity at bulk temperature
7/w Pas Viscosity at wall temperature

500 Appendix
NOMENCLATURE
cp kJ/kgK Specific heat

d m Diameter of the tube
D m2/s Mass diffusivity
E kW Pumping power
f - Fanning friction coefficient
F m3/s Fluid flow rate
h W/m2K Heat transfer coefficient
K Pas" Consistency coefficient
L m Length of tube
M kg/kmol Molecular weight
n - Flow behavior index
n - Pump efficiency
P bar Pressure
P* bar Saturated pressure of water
R m3bar/kmol K Ideal gas constant
r m Hydraulic radius
Re — Reynolds number
T °C, K Temperature
Tc °C,K Critical temperature
TO °C,K Reference temperature
T, °C, K Triple point temperature
X, kg/kg Weight fraction of component i
Y: m3/m3 Volume fraction of component /
Ap Pa Friction pressure loss
rj Pas Apparent viscosity of fluid
r}w Pas Apparent viscosity of fluid at wall temperature
X W/mK Thermal conductivity
P kg/m3 Density
REFERENCES
Choi Y, Okos MR, 1986. Effect of temperature and composition on the thermal
properties of foods. In: Le Maguer M, Jelen P, eds., Food Engineering and
Process Applications, Vol 1. Elsevier, London.
Levenspiel O, 1986. Engineering Flow and Heat Exchange. Plenum, New York.
McCabe WL, Smith JC, Harriott P, 2001. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineer-
ing, 6* ed. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Pakowski Z, Bartczak Z, Strumillo C, Stenstrom S, 1991. Evaluation of equations
approximating thermodynamic and transport properties of water, steam and
air for use in CAD of drying processes. Drying Technology, 9: 753-773.
Perry RJ, Green JH, 1997. Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 7th ed.
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Saravacos GD, Maroulis ZB, 2001. Transport Properties of Foods. Marcel Dekker, New
York.

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Appendix

Copyright © 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

I. CONVERSION FACTORS TO SI UNITS

From To (SI) Units Multiply by

Copyright © 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

II. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER, STEAM, AND AIR

1. Saturated Pressure of Water

Table A.1 Saturated Pressure of Water

Ps bar Saturated pressure of water

T,<T<TC Range of application

T, = 0.01°C Triple point temperature

Figure A.1 Saturated pressure of water.

Copyright © 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2. Latent Heat of Vaporization of Water

Table A.2 Latent Heat of Vaporization of Water

(M50°C Range of application

r, < r < rt. Range of application

Zl// MJ/kg Latent heat of vaporization

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Figure A.2 Latent heat of vaporization of water.

Copyright © 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Table A.3 Density of Water

a0 =9.9710 2 Constants in the range 0-150°C

aa =9.9510 2 Constants in the range 0-350°C

Figure A.3 Density of water.

Copyright © 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

4. Density of Saturated Steam

where P,s = a, — Antoine equation

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Figure A.4 Density of saturated steam versus temperature.

Figure A.5 Density of saturated steam versus pressure.

Copyright © 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

5. Phase Diagram of Water

Table A.5 Clapeyron Equation for Ice Fusion

0.01 f Triple point

Figure A.6 Phase diagram of water.

Copyright © 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Table A.6 Density of Air

where Ta =7+ 273. 15 Absolute temperature

R = 0.083143 m3bar/kmol K Ideal gas constant

Figure A.7 Density of air.

Copyright © 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

7. Specific Heat of Water, Steam and Air

Table A.7 Specific Heat of Water, Steam and Air

cp kJ/kgK Specific heat

a0 =4.21 Constants for water

aa = 1.87 Constants for steam

Figure A.8 Specific heat of water, steam and air.

Copyright © 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

8. Viscosity of Water, Steam and Air

Table A.8 Viscosity of Water, Steam and Air

77 mPa s Specific heat

a0 = 7.59 10~3 Constants for saturated vapor in the range 0-300°C

a0 = 8.07 10~3 Constants for superheated vapor in the range 100-700°C

a0 = 1.69 10"2 Constants for air in the range 0-1000°C

a0 =-1.07 101 Constants for saturated water in the range 0-350°C

Copyright © 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

9. Thermal Conductivity of Water, Steam and Air

Table A.9 Thermal Conductivity of Water, Steam and Air

A W/m K Specific heat

10. Mass Diffusivity of Water Vapor in Air

Table A.10 Mass Diffusivity of Water Vapor in Air

D = a0\ ' '" Pa>