Electronics Exposed For School Students

19 June 2010
Electronics projects for School Students
By Tamilvanan.A Email: collegecounselchennai@gmail.com
-1
Email: collegecounselchennai@gmail.com
19 June 2010
Index
Title Page
1. Introduction 2. Basic Fundamentals of Electrical circuitry 3. Simple LED experiments 4. LDR (Light dependent resistor)
3 5 10 13
5. Ohms Law and calculating Resistors in combination 14 6. Series, Parallel circuit and short circuiting 7. Voltage Divider 8. Primary use of PN junction Diode 9. Transistor as a switch 10. Binary Logic and Logic gates 11. Testing the AND, OR and NOT gate IC 12. Operating a transistor using a switch 13. Transistor AND Gate 14. Transistor OR Gate 15. Transistor as an inverter (NOT Gate)
-2
16 19 22 24 26 29 32 34 36 38
19 June 2010
16. Basic Theorems in Binary logic and Universal Logic Gates 17. Voltage regulation property of Zener Diode 18. Capacitors for timing applications 19. Clock/Oscillator using 555 Timer IC 20. Flip flops 21. Working of J-K flip flop 22. Current toggling T flip flop from JK flip flop 23. Data transmission using clock and JK flip flop 24. Serial lighting using Decade counter IC 40 44 46 48 52 53 56 58 60
-3
19 June 2010 Introduction This compilation of information in Electronics was specially compiled and edited for school students (6th grade+) which will help them to understand the key concepts in Electronics while also explaining the function of certain components through Do-it-yourself projects which will later help them to understand and build complex circuitry easily. Although, However, I must say that this isnt a complete reference guide book and many concepts which I really wanted to include arent inside the package as I am considering about publishing a proper book (a hand book that can even help a beginner understand and make complex projects) in which I will be sharing almost everything I learnt in this field until then. I sincerely would like to thank my supporters who gave me this opportunity to make a compilation like this one and exhibit my knowledge in this field. Furthermore, I would also like to notify readers that this compilation contains some information from the internet (such as IC chips data sheet information) and I do not claim such information as mine or part of my work. For any other doubts, queries or suggestions about this compilation, feel free to email me in the email address displayed below each page.
-4
19 June 2010 Lesson 1: Basic Fundamentals of Electrical Circuitry This Lesson comprises of information on Basic Electrical Circuitry. Since we wont be using any professional and cautious equipment like soldering gun, we will be using the bread board for building our circuits just by plugging in and plugging out components from it. First, let us acquaint ourselves about some basic fundamentals of Electric current and Electrical circuits. For understanding the basic fundamentals of Electricity and current flow let us consider the following illustrative example of water contained in a water pipe with a pump which acts similar to the voltage source (battery) portrayed in the electrical circuit diagram.
In the above illustrative example, the movement of the water contained inside the pipe constitutes what is known as current while the pump acts like the voltage source which circulates the water around the water pipe continuously as long as it is functioning. In Figure 1(a), the electrical circuits wiring is made up of atoms of the material with which it was fabricated. These so called atoms are made up of charges, namely, the proton (positive charge) and the electron (negative charge) whereas, the water pipe consists of something similar i.e., Water. Hence it can be understood that the movement of the water inside the pipe or the movement of the charges across the atoms of the conductor is what that makes up electricity.
-5
19 June 2010
It is said that current flow in a circuit is considered to be along the direction of flow of positive charges. So assuming the water to be a medium of positive charges, the current circulates from the positive terminal of the battery to its negative terminal and keeps looping the same way until the battery is completely drained whereas, the electrons (negative charges) are said to be simultaneously circulating in the opposite direction, i.e., from negative to positive terminal as it is the movement of electron which induces the movement of positive charges. So, if electrons stop moving protons also stop moving. In other words, both move with same speed but in opposite directions hence, it can be concluded that the force pushing them is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Now that we have mentioned the two measurable quantities in electrical circuitry, i.e., voltage and current lets have a look at a brief description about it. Voltage or Electric Potential: As mentioned earlier, we know that the movement of the charges of the atoms of the conductor is artificially induced by some sort of force which acts as the driving force of the electric current. This force which drives these charges, circulates them and constitutes electric current is known as Voltage. So, without voltage there wont be any movement of charges hence, current cannot be induced without voltage. Unit for voltage is Volts.
-6
19 June 2010 NOTE: It may also be noted that electricity flows from a high potential point to a low potential point. i.e., in a circuit consisting of a voltage source and a resistor, current will move from +ve potential point to ve potential point or zero potential point. Current: Now that we are familiar with what induces current in a circuit, lets us understand its relation with voltage. Current is the result of the movement of the charges of the atoms inside the conductor. Current is a measurable quantity. It can be defined as the number of charges that passes by a point in a unit time. Unit for current is Ampere. Example: 1Ampere.
Now it can be understood that increasing voltage, i.e., the pushing and pulling forces, increases the current as increasing the pushing and pulling forces across the battery terminals pushes and pulls it with higher speed and hence more amount of water (charges in electrical circuit) can pass across within the unit time.
-7
19 June 2010 Symbol Key In electrical and electronic circuits we wont be using any diagrammatic representations of any component as it can be quite huge and cannot be accommodated within the circuit diagram. Hence, we will be using the following standard symbols for each component. Symbol Component Name Description The long plate is the positive terminal while the short plate is the negative terminal. Voltage Source provided with a knob to change output voltage. A switch that closes the circuit when the lever is slid to one side. Switch that closes the circuit while pressed and breaks open when released. Used to limit current or voltage in a circuit branch. Another variant of resistor whose resistance varies depending upon the light falling on it. A component similar to a battery; used to store charges (current). Allows flow of current only from Anode to Cathode.
Voltage source (or) Battery
Variable Voltage Source
Simple toggle switch
Press Switch
Resistor LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) Capacitor
PN junction Diode
-8
19 June 2010 LED (Light Emitting Diode) The two junctions are as same as PN junction Diodes. There are two types of transistors, namely, NPN and PNP. Each has three terminals namely, Base (B), Collector (C) and Emitter (E).
Transistors
-9
19 June 2010 Project 2: Simple LED experiments
Aim: To study the working of a LED, to construct series and parallel circuit using them and to study the effect of resistance in a LED circuit. Materials Required: Components 1. Voltage Source 2. LEDs 3. Resistor 4. Switch(Any) 5. Jumper Wires Circuit Diagram: Numbers 1 - (as required) 1 1 - (as required)
Working: To test the circuit, simply press the switch and observe the LED connected. The lamp will glow as the LED conducts current in this configuration (Forward Bias). Try switching the terminals of the LED and test it again to see if the lamp glows. This time the LED wont glow as it does not conduct current in this configuration (reverse bias). Conclusion: The LED allows the flow of current only in one direction and hence was found to be a directional component which restricts the flow of current in the reverse direction.
- 10
19 June 2010
LED in Series and Parallel: Now lets try connecting two or more LEDs in series and parallel to the voltage source using a switch.
Effect of Resistance in a circuit:
Now that you have already tested the circuit described in figure3 (a), try including a high resistance resistor in your circuit like in figure 3(d) and observe what happens. You can clearly notice that the LED will not be as bright as it was before. This is because of the resistance you included in the circuit. The resistance imposed limits the current and voltage in the circuit. Hence, the LED gets a limited range of voltage and current. Thus, the LED will not glow as bright as before.
- 11
19 June 2010 Resistance and Resistors: Resistance is known as the tendency of a material to oppose/limit current and Resistor is a device used in a circuit branch to limit current or voltage (depends upon what branch you connect them). There are several types of resistors of which we will only be utilizing the carbon film resistor which are cylindrical in appearance and which has colored bands around them. These colored bands are used as an alternative to represent their resistance values since printing contextual content around such a small component is very difficult. The convention for finding the value of a resistor is as follows:
Consider the below table for the code of each color to be applied: Color Code Black 0 Brown 1 Red 2 Orange 3 Yellow 4 Green 5 Blue 6 Violet 7 Grey 8 White 9
- 12
19 June 2010 Project 3: LDR (Light dependant resistor) Aim: To construct a simple circuit to study the working of LDR (Light Dependant resistor). Materials Required: Name 1. LDR 2. LED (for testing) 3. Voltage Source Circuit Diagram: Quantity 1 1 1
Principle: LDR is another variant of resistor that varies its resistance depending upon the amount of light falling on it. When contained in a dark environment, the resistance of the LDR abruptly increases; Hence, the amount of current going through it will be low; whereas, when exposed to bright light, its resistance decreases. Thus, the amount of current going through it will be high. Working: In Figure 1(a), Since the LDR is in series to the LED in the circuit, the amount of current going through the LDR directly influences the LEDs brightness. When the LDR is kept away from light, the LEDs brightness decreases as the LDRs resistance increases. When the LDR is exposed to light, the LED becomes brighter as the LDRs resistance decreases. Applications: Since the LDR is capable of identifying dark lighting from bright lighting; it can be used for detecting contrast colors (similar to a light sensor)
- 13
19 June 2010 Ohms Law and calculating resistance of resistors in combination Ohms Law: The famous relation which relates Voltage (or) Electrical potential, Current and Resistance in a branch of a circuit or a circuit as a whole is given as: V=IR Where, V- Voltage in Volts I- Current in Amperes R- Resistance in Ohms Calculating Resistance in Series and Parallel: Below, is the formula for calculating the total resistance imposed in a circuit by all resistors connected in their respective branches. This gives you the equivalent resistance of the resistors taken into calculation. For resistors connected in series:
The total resistance in the above branch can be found out as: Total (Equivalent) Resistance= Sum of all the resistances = R1+R2+R3 =330+220+1000 =1550 Ohms For resistors connected in Parallel:
- 14
19 June 2010 1/Total Resistance=1/R1+1/R2 1/Total Resistance=1/1000+1/1000 =2/1000 Total Resistance =1000/2 Total Resistance =500 Ohms
- 15
19 June 2010 Lesson 5: Series, Parallel Circuit and short circuiting Now that we are well acquainted with basic fundamentals in Electrical circuitry in the previous chapter, we will be progressing to our next concept in this chapter, i.e., connecting components in series and parallel. The very first thing that comes to our mind when we hear the word series is in a sequence. The same literary meaning applies even in electrical circuitry. When referring to a couple of components as in a series, we mean that they are allocated in a sequence, i.e., one after another in the same branch. Whereas, placing components in parallel means to allocate them in such a way that each component in parallel connection are said to be in a separate branch which would operate individually even if the other branch were to be removed or damaged.
Figure 2(a) shows a resistor and LED in series, i.e., two components which are in the same branch in a sequence. Whereas, in Figure 2(b) shows the same resistor and LED in parallel branches, i.e., the resistor can operate individually even if the LED branch is removed or damaged and vice versa. NOTE: It is known that in a series circuit, the voltage varies from component to component i.e., decreases after passing by each component whereas current remain constant to all components in the same branch.The contradictory condition applies to Parallel circuitry where, Voltage is constant in each branch, i.e., the voltage sources voltage is maintained constant in the beginning of each branch but current is distributed from the main branch to the parallel branches depending upon the resistance in each branch which can be found out by applying Ohms law (Refer Ohms Law and calculating resistance of resistors in combination chapter).
- 16
19 June 2010 Open switch: So, everyone knows what an open switch in circuit is. But, do you know whether an open switch conducts or does not conduct or partially conducts? The answer in the case of mechanically driven switches (common press, push and slide switches) is that it does not conduct and the truth behind the concept is that the battery does not even induce the current in the circuit (if there arent any other branches to conduct through). The reason is simple because, current requires a positive potential point and a negative potential point to conduct. When the junction between any two points in the circuit breaks (opening the switch) the two potential points are not interconnected. Hence, the battery does not even induce current in the circuit. Consider the following diagram for an open switch circuit:
Short Circuit: As we know that a closed switch conducts, we might misunderstand the problems that are yet to be faced in it. The problem referred here is known as short circuit. Unlike its literary meaning, a short circuit does not mean that it is short in length. It means that it is an easy to travel path for current to flow without any sort of effort thereby draining the batterys power rapidly. So it is often necessary to emphasize on balancing the resistance in each parallel branches of the circuit. This does not mean that you are not only to ensure that there arent any branches without any resistance, but, also to ensure that you do not over load any parallel branch with very high resistance misleading the current to divert to any other branch. - 17
19 June 2010
As described in the above diagram, the branch encircled in red is a short circuit, meaning that it forms an effortless path for current to progress (without any resistance) hence all the current from the voltage source gets diverted through the last branch, leaving no current on any of the other branches. The diversion of current through a short circuit does not depend on its position in the circuit. As long as current has access to too low resistance or no resistance path, it deviates through that path no matter how far it is away from the battery and drains the battery rapidly. NOTE: Considering the case of two or more possible short circuit branches in a closed circuit switch, the current diverts through the branch closest to it as it is mentioned earlier that current chooses an effortless path to flow which does not only mean that it chooses the very low resistance path but also chooses the shortest among such branches.
- 18
19 June 2010 Voltage Divider Voltage divider is a network formed using certain components such as capacitor or resistor to split a high input voltage to obtain a desired voltage level for our application. It can be formed by coupling the two components in series and paralleling out an additional branch from between them to obtain the desired voltage amount. Right here in this chapter you will be exhibited a detailed description on Resistive dividers (Voltage dividers formed by resistors), how to calculate voltage across voltage dividers and also on how to select proper resistance for obtaining your desired voltage from a high voltage input.
In the above circuit the two resistors in the same branch are in series and the output line is a separate parallel line. Hence, it can be understood now that the current across the two resistors is same as current is constant across all components connected in series, whereas, voltage across each component varies in series (which is why voltage is split after the first resistor). To calculate the voltage obtained across the output line, first it is necessary to calculate the current in the series branch across the two resistors and the voltage drop caused by the first resistor.
- 19
19 June 2010 To calculate the current in the series connection first it is necessary to calculate the total resistance in the series branch and then calculate the current using Ohms Law formula as shown below: Total resistance = R1+ R2 (Ohms) Current in the series branch = Input voltage/Total Resistance (Amperes) Now that we know the current in the series branch, the voltage drop caused by the resistor(s) (the voltage negation caused by the resistor(s)) before the parallel output line has to be calculated. For this, we simply have to apply Ohms Law for the resistor(s) before the output line like shown below: Voltage Drop = Current in the series branch x Total resistance before the output line Output Voltage = Input Voltage Voltage drop caused before output line NOTE: If the resistance of the two resistors in the voltage divider network is same, i.e., if both resistors have same resistance, then the input voltage gets split by half, i.e., the output voltage = Input Voltage/2. Choosing resistors for voltage divider network: For constructing a voltage divider network we require at least two resistors (we wont be considering complex voltage dividers). Assuming you have chosen one of the resistors for forming the voltage divider network, the resistance of the second resistor to be included for getting the desired voltage from the input voltage can be calculated as follows: The formula for finding the resistor value for splitting the voltage can be given as:
Output voltage = Input voltage x Total resistance after the output line Total resistance in the series line
For Example consider the following problem: For obtaining 5V output from a 9V input voltage supply where the second resistor, R2=500Ohms, what resistor, R1 should be coupled in series with resistor R2 in the voltage divider network? - 20
19 June 2010
5 (Output Voltage) = 9 (Input voltage) x 500 (Total resistance after output line) (500+R1) (Total resistance in series line)
5=9x
500 (500+R1)
1 900
1 (500+R1)
500+R1 = 900 R1 = 900-500 R1 = 400 Ohms.
- 21
19 June 2010 Project 7: Primary use of PN junction Diode
Aim: To construct a circuit using a PN junction diode and study its primary use. Materials Required: Name 6. Voltage Source 7. Bulb 8. Resistor (Optional) 9. PN junction Diode/Rectifier 10.Switch(Any) 11.Jumper Wires Quantity 1 1 1 1 1 - (as required)
Circuit Diagram:
Principle: The above circuit is an illustrative example of the primary use of a diode in a circuit. The PN junction Diode which restricts the flow of current in one direction allows the flow of current only when the anode (A) and cathode (C) of the diode are connected to the positive and negative terminal of the voltage source respectively. This configuration of connecting the diode is known as forward bias while connecting the opposite way is known as Reverse Bias. Working: To test the circuit, simply press the switch and observe the Lamp connected. The lamp will glow as the diode conducts current in this configuration (Forward Bias). Try switching the terminals of the diode and test it again to see if the lamp glows. This time the lamp doesnt glow as the diode does not conduct current in this configuration (reverse bias). - 22
19 June 2010
Conclusion: The PN junction diode allows the flow of current only in one direction and hence was found to be a directional component which restricts the flow of current in the reverse bias mode (when anode and cathode of the diode are connected to the negative and positive terminal of the voltage source respectively). This component can also be used to restrict the flow of AC (Alternating Current) and allow the flow of DC current.
- 23
19 June 2010 Project 8: Transistor as a switch Aim: To construct a circuit which utilizes transistor as an electrical switch in common emitter mode. Materials Required: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Circuit Diagram: Name Voltage Source Resistor (Optional) NPN Transistor Jumper Wires Switch (any) LED (for testing) Quantity 2 1 1 (as required) 1 1
Principle: The NPN transistor is a component which when connected in common emitter mode acts as an electrical switch and switches on circuit loop B when the control circuit loop A is switched ON. Working: Consider two circuit loops A and B connected together in a junction using the NPN transistor. The circuit loop A acts as a control circuit for the main circuit loop B. When circuit loop A is switched ON, it activates the transistor in Base(B) junction and starts conducting from Collector(C) to Emitter(E) junction thereby switching on circuit loop B and turns on the LED. When the switch connected to Base (B) junction is turned off, the transistor stops conducting from Collector (C) to Emitter (E) junction and hence circuit loop B turns off.
- 24
19 June 2010 Conclusion: The transistor in common emitter mode acts as an electrical switch which can be controlled by another control circuit. This property of NPN transistor can be used for autonomous switching of circuit branches in electronic circuitry. Applications: Can be used to turn ON and OFF any component in the circuit depending upon the input from any sensors like the LDR (Light dependent resistor) when connected in the Base-Emitter junction circuit. Note: This book contains information only on NPN transistors and not on PNP transistors as PNP transistors wont be necessary in any of the circuits. However, the following context will provide you information on how the PNP transistor is different from the NPN transistor. The PNP transistor is simply a contradictory version of the NPN type transistor. Its junction polarities are just opposite i.e., it allows the flow of current from Emitter to Collector junction only if the Base junction is grounded to the negative terminal of the battery.
- 25
19 June 2010 Lesson 9: Binary Logic and Logic Gates Below is a small description about IC chips after which you will be taken through Basic Logic Gate ICs which deals with Electronic Logic using binary numbers, i.e., 1 (+5V in digital circuits) and 0 (0V). What are IC CHIPS? IC chip or Integrated circuit chip are chips holding miniaturized circuits in micro scale (10-6) embedded inside them. ICs are made for a specific purpose and hence it can only be used for its purposes and similar ones and cannot be utilized for any other as you cannot make any changes to the circuits inside them. So People usually purchase specific purpose oriented IC chips which suits their desire for building circuits. ICs generally look like a Black rectangular enclosure which are embedded with serial numbers which defines its purpose. They also host series of metal pins around its edges (usually over the two opposite sides along the length of the rectangle). The pins are internally connected to the circuits and serves specific purpose depending upon to which circuit they are connected. Since an ICs internal circuitry cannot be seen through naked eye (as they are in micro scale). Every IC has documentation sheets known as datasheets describing the specific purpose of each pin around its corners. So, when a user wants to use an IC to its utmost, he/she has to refer to its datasheets which is available online free of cost. Binary LOGIC: Binary logic is a method of encoding what humans understand into something what machines can understand. Like mentioned earlier, it is constituted by two alphabets (0s and 1s) unlike ours which is from A-Z. Similar to how humans work with numbers, machines encode them into their own language, i.e., into a series of 1s and 0s and perform calculations with them like us and give us our anticipated output. These so called binary numbers (1 and 0) are nothing but electrical signals. In other words, 1 refers to existence of current whereas, 0 refers to absence of current. For example, if an LED where to be connected to a voltage source through a switch, opening the switch will switch off the LED which is interpreted by machines as 0 and closing the switch will turn it ON which is interpreted as 1. - 26
19 June 2010 Embedded Systems: These are nothing but electronic computer systems which are used to perform a single or a few dedicated functions (These devices are smaller units of big electronic systems which are built solely for some specific purposes). They are usually a part/module of a Huge Electronic system. Basically they can be described as units from which the whole system is built with. For example, the clock/timer circuit in any of your electronic components and any complete and individually represent able circuitry of an electronic device. Embedded systems usually consist of one or more components of which some can be programmed. An example of embedded systems is the microcontroller. Microcontrollers: A Microcontroller is a small chip (similar to IC chip) which can be programmed to operate in a user defined manner. It consists of a basic CPU capable of performing simple binary operations, storage unit where programs can be stored, a small RAM unit where Datas that is to be processed or manipulated are stored temporarily. In general it is a smaller version or replica of a computer which can perform only binary operations. It can be part of a whole electronic system in order to simplify the flow of instructions (nothing but electrical signals) in a complex circuit.
- 27
19 June 2010 Basic Logic Gates In this section you will be shown how computer processors perform calculations using some basic circuitry known as LOGIC gates. Below are some examples of LOGIC gates and you will be taught on how to implement them on an IC chip containing these LOGIC GATES. AND (Multiplication) Gate:
OR (Addition) Gate:
NOT (Inverter) Gate:
For testing these gates using IC we will be connecting an LED in the OUTPUT junction to verify the output for each combination of input in the truth table. - 28
19 June 2010 Lesson 10: Testing the AND, OR and NOT GATE IC The IC gates described over here house about four of each logic gate inside them of which we will be only using only one. First we start by powering the IC chip by connecting its +Vcc terminal and GND terminal to + and terminal of the voltage source. But however as described in the figure below the +Vcc (power supply +) is directly connected to each input port. So leaving the pin connected to the Input port idle will constantly provide it with logic 1 which is provided from +Vcc pin.
Considering only the circuit in the left bottom corner, to provide logic 0 in any one of its inputs we simple short circuit the pin externally to the GND pin due to which the power supply will not go the input of the gate and all will flow directly to the GND pin instead, making that input 0. Similarly, try out all the combinations given in the truth table by leaving the connection idle for providing binary 1 and grounding each input to provide binary 0 and verify whether the LED is glowing or not. OR Gate IC also hosts a similar connection inside it hence; try out the same connections for OR Gate IC and verify the outputs for different input combinations with the truth table for OR GATE. - 29
19 June 2010
Likewise try out the connection for NOT Gate IC for which datasheet diagram is given below:
- 30
19 June 2010 Applications: AND Gate can be used in cases where you want to turn ON a component only when there is an input from two sensor systems connected to the input ports. In advanced security systems, where there are two levers on the two sides of a door to open it, the two levers have to be activated at the same time to open the door. A simpler example of AND gate would include the working of a microwave oven. The ovens heater will not function unless the door is closed and the button is pressed. OR Gate can be used in situations where the functioning of a component/device requires input from any one of the sensors connected to the input pins. A more illustrative example of an OR gate would be a single alarm system that inspects two doors where the alarm will go off even when either one of the doors are opened or if both are opened. NOT Gate can be utilized in inspection systems to inspect proper working of any device. Consider a case where a device is inspected for proper functioning. If the devices power line where to be shared to the input of a NOT Gate, it would be easy to notify whether the device is shutdown or damaged by fixing an alarm system in the output pin.
- 31
19 June 2010 Project 11: Operating a transistor using a switch
Aim: To construct a transistor switch circuit using a single press switch powered by a single voltage source. Materials Required: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Circuit Diagram: Name Voltage Source(s) Resistor (300 Ohm) Resistor (10K Ohm) NPN Transistor Jumper Wires Switch (any) LED (for testing) Quantity 1 1 1 1 (as required) 1 1
Principle: Unlike what we constructed using two voltage sources in a class earlier using the NPN type transistor, we will be constructing a much simpler way as used in many complex circuits which use a single voltage source.
- 32
19 June 2010 Working: The circuit consists of two parallel loops which are isolated by the transistors. Hence, although they are parallel branches from a single voltage source, their operation can be better understood considering them as two individual circuits. The circuit loop from the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is the control branch while the circuit in the Collector-Emitter junction is the main circuit which is controlled. The circuit branches meet at a common point after the emitter junction. Hence, they both have a common path in the last junction connected to the negative terminal of the battery. The main branch consisting of the LED will only conduct only if the Base-Emitter junction is supplied with current, i.e., the LED will light up only when the switch connected in the Base-Emitter branch is closed.
- 33
19 June 2010 Project 12: Transistor AND Gate Aim: To construct a circuit that utilizes the transistor as an AND Gate. Materials Required: Name 7. Voltage Source(s) 8. Resistor (5K Ohm) 9. Resistor (10K Ohm) 10.NPN Transistor 11.Jumper Wires 12.Switch (any) 13.LED (for testing) Circuit Diagram: Quantity 1 1 2 2 (as required) 2 1
Principle: As you are already well aware about the application of the transistor as an electrical switch, you wouldnt find it hard to notice that all you did in the circuit above was place those two electrical switch in series such that the current in that branch would only conduct only if both the switches are in conducting mode (turned ON) which very well suits the truth table of AND logic GATE (Refer truth table of AND logic gate). - 34
19 June 2010 Working: The two NPN type transistors are kept in series such that current in that branch connected to the first transistors collector junction will not pass through unless both transistors are saturated (making them conductive by applying sufficient voltage in the Base junction). When the two switches connected to the Base junction of the transistor are open, the transistors would be in OFF mode due to which the branch in which the transistors are connected will not have any current. As soon as the two switches in the Base junctions of the two transistors are closed, the transistors turn ON and start conducting from Collector to Emitter junction. Hence, as a result, the LED turns ON only when the two switches are closed. This explains the similarity of the two switches acting as the two inputs (A & B) in the logic gate and the LED being the output (C).
- 35
19 June 2010 Project 13: Transistor OR Gate Aim: To construct a circuit that utilizes the transistor as an OR Gate. Materials Required: Name 14.Voltage Source(s) 15.Resistor (5K Ohms) 16.Resistor (100 Ohms) 17.NPN Transistor 18.Jumper Wires 19.Switch (any) 20.LED (for testing) Circuit Diagram: Quantity 1 2 1 2 (as required) 2 1
Principle: Similar to how we connected the transistors in series for the construction of AND Gate, we will be using the two transistors in parallel for the OR Gates construction. Unlike the And Gate, the OR Gate turns ON the LED even when either one of the parallel branches starts conducting current. This principle makes use of what you had already learned in your first class where you studied the working of two switches in series and in parallel connections. - 36
19 June 2010 Working: Since the two NPN type transistors are in two parallel branches, current can pass by and turn ON the LED even when either one of them start conducting. In other words, the LED should light up when either one of the two switches are closed or when both of them are closed. The only case when the LED will not light up is when both the two switches are open. Consider the truth table of OR Gate for verification.
- 37
19 June 2010 Project 14: Transistor as an inverter (NOT Gate) Aim: To construct a circuit using a transistor which will utilize it like an inverter. Materials Required: Name 21.Voltage Source(s) 22.Resistor (100Ohm) 23.Resistor (3K Ohm) 24.NPN Transistor 25.Jumper Wires 26.Switch (any) 27.LED (for testing) Quantity 2 1 1 1 - (as required) 1 1
Circuit Diagram:
Principle: As explained in the previous project, the NPN transistor is connected in the same common emitter mode in this project also giving the same results in the first two circuit loops. The third circuit loop consisting of the LED is the loop in which current is going to be inverted with correspondence to the current in the base junction of the transistor. Working: When the switch connected to the base of transistor is open, the third circuit loop consisting of the LED which is not linked to the transistor works normally by lighting up the LED. When the switch connected to Base junction of transistor is closed and conducts current to base, the transistor gets activated and redirects the flow of current from the voltage source powering the LED, through itself and into the emitter thereby, diverting the current from going through the LED signifying that the flow of current (binary 1) in base inverts the result by turning off the LED (binary 0) and - 38
19 June 2010 switching off current in base junction (binary 0) turns on the LED (binary 1). The base resistor is 3K ohms while the collector resistor is 100 Ohms. Conclusion: The transistor can also be used as an inverter in common emitter mode. This experiment also explains that Binary 0 does not only refer to switching off current in a branch but also signifies that binary 0 can also be achieved by diverting the current from the specified branch to another branch.
- 39
19 June 2010 Lesson 15: Theorems in Binary logic and Universal Logic Gates This Chapter will provide an overview of a few theorems in Binary logic which might be quite useful for simplifying complex Binary logic equations thereby also exhibiting the working of what are known as Universal Logic Gates which are nothing but Logic Gates from which all other logic gates can be derived from. Universal Gates: The so called Universal Logic Gates mentioned earlier are NAND and NOR which are a combination of NOT-AND and NOT-OR respectively. As the name says, NAND can be obtained by simply inverting (adding NOT) the output of AND GATE while NOR can be obtained the same way by inverting the output of OR gate.
- 40
19 June 2010 Basic Theorems in Binary Logic: There are several theorems in Binary logic of which we will be looking into those which will help us to verify the output for Universal logic Gates and hence prove that they can be used to obtain any type of gate in Binary logic. 1.
A
= A
2. A+A = A 3. A.A = A De Morgans Theorem: A mathematician named De Morgan developed a pair of important rules regarding group complementation in Boolean algebra. These rules or theorems were statements which related two Binary Logic Gates operation (AND and OR) in a single equation. The mathematical expressions for the two statements were given as follows: 1. A.B = A + B 2. A+B = A . B Deriving Basic Logic Gates from Universal Logic Gates:
Verify the output obtained from the circuit provided above with the truth table of OR Gate. - 41
19 June 2010
Verify the output obtained from the circuit provided above with the truth table of AND Gate.
- 42
19 June 2010 IC pin diagram KEY
NAND IC
NOR IC
NOT IC
AND IC
OR IC
- 43
19 June 2010 Project 16: Voltage regulation property of Zener Diode
Aim: To study the voltage regulation property of a Zener diode and hence to use it for regulated power supply for from a high voltage power source. Materials Required: Name Zener diode Voltage Source Resistor 100 Ohm Resistor (2k Ohm) Jumper Wires LED (optional) Quantity 1 1 1 1 (As required) 1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Circuit Diagram:
Principle: Zener Diodes are a special variant of diodes which come printed with a voltage value printed on them known as breakdown voltage. It is said that the Zener Diode, when connected in reverse bias mode in parallel to the power source, will not allow the elevation of the voltage beyond its breakdown voltage (with a few decimal errors) in its parallel branch irrespective of the increase in input voltage. Hence, it regulates the maximum voltage that can enter a circuit branch.
- 44
19 June 2010
Working: The Zener Diode has a special characteristic in reverse bias mode which allows current to flow through it abundantly when the voltage supplied to it is greater than its breakdown voltage and allows feeble current when the voltage supplied to it is below its breakdown voltage. Its property is as if it would suddenly turn into a pure conductor when input voltage increases beyond a specific value. Hence, when the voltage increases beyond the breakdown voltage, the diode allows more than enough current through it to maintain its breakdown voltage in the nearby parallel branch. If the breakdown voltage of the Zener diode is assumed to be 5.6V then the maximum voltage through the resistor in parallel will not exceed 5.6V (with minute errors). However, when the Zener diode experiences an input voltage greater than its breakdown voltage, it conducts enormously that it could damage itself due to heavy current hence it is always necessary to include a resistor before including the Zener diode in the circuit which is why there is another resistor in series after the Variable Power supply. Conclusion: The Zener Diode is a component which can be used for maintaining a maximum voltage through a branch and hence, can be used for powering components such as IC chips which are sensitive to high voltage power. Applications: Zener Diodes can prevent high voltage from entering the circuits and thus can prevent the damage caused by short circuits. Zener diodes are mainly used in protective circuits such as stabilizer circuits through which common household devices are powered. Hence, Zener diodes can be used across power lines to power electronic and electrical devices as a protective measure.
- 45
19 June 2010 Project 17: Capacitors for Timing Application Aim: To build a circuit using a capacitor to understand the working of Capacitor in series and to use it for timing applications. Materials Required: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Circuit Diagram: Name Voltage Source Resistor (any) Capacitor (50 uf) LED Jumper Wires Quantity 1 1 1 1 (As required)
Principle: Capacitor is a component that is similar to a battery, i.e., it can be used for storing current temporarily; hence, it can be used for a variety of purpose. One such purpose which is very prominent is using it for timing applications. Capacitor is a device which acts like a dam door in a circuit loop. It allows the inflow of current only until the dam tank gets full (until battery is 100% charged) after which it closes due to which it stops the inflow of further current through it, until it completely empties itself. So, it can be considered to be a device that allows flows of current in the branch in which it is included, only until it gets full. Working: When the voltage source is connected and turned on, the capacitor starts to allow flow of current until it can store enough. Hence, the LED can only be expected to be turned on for a fraction of a second as in real time we use capacitors which are of small values (capacitance of a capacitor is measured in farads). Once the capacitor gets full, it stops the inrush of current from the voltage source thus turning off the LED. - 46
19 June 2010
The time period for which the capacitor allows current depends upon the capacitance of the capacitor (in farads) and the resistance of the resistor included. For increasing the time period for flow of current, one can either increase the capacity of the capacitor by choosing a higher capacitance capacitor so that more current has to flow to fill it thereby increasing the time period or by increasing the resistance of the resistor due to which the capacitor fills up little by little, taking more time to fill it as the amount of current that flows through a high resistance resistor is very less. Conclusion: The capacitor can be used for triggering a device for a certain period of time in this manner. Applications: Can be used for timing the lighting of the LCD screen for a particular period of time in a mobile phone. When you press any button on your mobile phone, the LCD screen of your mobile, lights up for a few seconds which is set by the capacitor connected in series between the battery and the LCD screen pin.
- 47
19 June 2010 555 Timer IC chip This section of the chapter will explain the pin diagram of 555 Timer IC chips which is broadly used for timing applications in several circuits. Hence, this can be considered as an abridged version of the datasheet for 555 Timer IC. For more information on the 555 Timer IC, consider the datasheet of the IC which is available online for free.
1) Ground- The negative power supply of the IC. 2) Trigger- A short low pulse (current pulse) on the trigger starts the timer. We simply have to provide a starting current pulse to start the timer inside it. 3) Output- During a particular timing interval (depends upon what capacitor you use), the output pin voltage will be equal to the voltage provided in +Vcc pin. 4) Reset- Forces output pin 3 to OFF mode (binary 0) if connected to ground. 5) Control- Is used to adjust the minimum trigger voltage. Not used in our applications. Connect to ground with a .01uF cap to eliminate supply noise from Vcc. 6) Threshold- When threshold crosses above 2/3 of the voltage in +Vcc pin, timing interval ends.
- 48
19 June 2010 7) Discharge- automatically connects to ground pin automatically when output goes low, i.e., binary 0 (Controls timing). 8) +Vcc- positive Power supply. Typical range: 4.5v to 16v.
- 49
19 June 2010 Project 18: Clock/Oscillator Aim: To construct a clock/oscillator circuit using the 555 Timer IC which is used for timing applications in data transmission circuits. Materials Required: Name 28.Voltage Source(s) 29.Resistor (10K Ohms) 30.Resistor (250 Ohms) 31.555 Timer IC 32.Jumper Wires 33.Switch (any) 34.LED (for testing) 35.Capacitor (500nF) Circuit Diagram: Quantity 1 2 1 1 (as required) 1 1 1
Principle: The clock/Oscillator (not the clock used for displaying time) circuit is a part of every complex circuit that is used to transmits/receive data. In other words, it would be apt to say that there is no circuit in the device of computer which does not have an oscillator. This circuit is what that helps to synchronize the transmission and reception of data between - 50
19 June 2010 two systems when exchanging. However, complex circuits in computer require high speed oscillators which are built using individual components. This circuit is just an example oscillator circuit which will help you to understand its working. Working: As mentioned in the datasheet section of the 555 Timer IC, the described pins when connected as shown in Figure 1(a), would give a clocked (fluctuating) output through the output pin which is connected to a LED through a resistor. The clock simply produces pulses for a specific interval of time, i.e., the output fluctuates; meaning, turns ON (binary 1) and goes OFF (binary 0) for a particular interval of time which is set by the capacitor. The Voltage divider network consisting of the two 10K resistors is used to ensure that only half of the voltage provided in +Vcc pin is sent to the Discharge pin of the IC (Remember that in a voltage divider network, the output will be half of input voltage if both the resistors are of same resistance). The capacitor in the circuit is kept in the main parallel branch which does not have any resistor (resistance) after the voltage divider network. Hence, the current in the main branch connecting several other pins will short circuit only for a while (due to the capacitor in series). This property of short circuiting for a while and then providing current into the pins connected in parallel during discharge period causes the Clocked Output. The so obtained output keeps fluctuating in given interval which is configured by the capacitor connected in the circuit. The number of fluctuations in voltage per second is called as Frequency. Thus, it is now understood that the frequency of the clocked output can be modified by changing the capacitor in the circuit. The Unit of frequency is Hertz. During the Clocked output, the output will rise from a lower voltage to a higher voltage when fluctuating from 0 to 1. This point where the voltage rises is called the rising edge of the clock. Similarly the falling edge occurs when the output falls from a higher voltage to a lower voltage (when fluctuating from binary 1 to binary 0). Applications: Used almost everywhere in communication systems and in computer. Ex: RAM, Processor, Network Card, etc. - 51
19 June 2010 Project 19: Flip Flops Flip Flops: Flip flops, are circuits built using Logic Gates (Universal Logic gates in most cases) which are used as memory cells (circuits used for storing binary data) primarily in some memory devices. There are several types of flip flops of which a few are mentioned below: 1. 2. 3. 4. S-R Flip flop (Set- Reset) J-K Flip flop D Flip flop T Flip flop (Used for toggling current i.e., turning ON/OFF devices)
Basic S-R Flip flop: The Basic S-R (Set-Reset) Flip flops constructed using Universal Logic Gates, NAND and NOR is described below: R 1 1 0 0 R-S Flip flop using NAND Gates S 1 0 1 0 Q Q 0 1 ?
R 1 1 0 0 R-S Flip flop using NOR Gates
S 1 0 1 0
Q ? 0 1 Q
Try out the above connections using the NAND and NOR IC chips and verify. - 52
19 June 2010 Project 20: Working of J-K flip flop J-K Flip Flop: In previous chapter it would have been clear that both R-S flipflops constructed using NAND and NOR Gates have unpredictable conditions. The J-K flip-flop is nothing but an advanced version of the S-R flip-flop which overcame this disadvantage. Besides, the J-K flip-flop also has overriding pins in it (pins which force a specific output despite the input given in J and K ports). Hence, the J-K flip-flop is believed to be an integrated form of the R-S type. Below is the circuit of J-K flip constructed using Logic Gates But, however, we wont be constructing the circuit using logic gates as we will only be testing the J-K flip flop to see its working including all of its features.
JK flip flop circuit constructed using NAND Gates
The above circuit constructed using NAND gates shows that the JK flip flop uses four inputs along with a clock input whose values are computed and displayed at one end through two output pins, Q and Q . The two primary inputs, J and K are the two inputs whose mode of operation gives four different combinations with each combinations output given out through the output pins. The Clock input is used to refresh the system each time a single clock pulse is completed. Hence, it is used for keeping record of the time for which the previous output will hold on. Of the two output pins, Q is considered the primary output. The JK flip flop is mainly used for storing bits and can be quite useful as a memory cell for storing data. It is said to be in Set state when it is said to store binary 1 (when Q is 1) and said to be in cleared state - 53
19 June 2010 when it stores binary 0 (when Q is 0). The preset and clear inputs are overriding inputs which when configured to preset state (when preset is binary 1 and clear is binary 0) will force it store binary 1 irrespective of the inputs J and K. Whereas, when configured to clear state (when preset is binary 0 and clear is binary 1), the primary output will be stored as binary 0 irrespective of the inputs in J and K. No matter what the value of Q is, the output Q will always store the complement of what is stored in Q, i.e., if Q is 1 then Q will be 0 and if Q is 0 then Q will be 1. Verify the output of the IC given to you with the following truth table. Preset x x x x Clear x x x x J 0 0 1 1 K 0 1 0 1 Clock Falling edge Falling edge Falling edge Falling edge Q Q
No change 0 1 1 0
1 0
0 1
any any
any Falling edge any Falling edge
Toggles previous output 1 0 0 1
Each time it can be remembered that the circuit stores the output during the falling edge of the clock. So, when changing the inputs you will have to wait till the falling edge after which it will display the respective output for the current input state.
- 54
19 June 2010
Aim: To study the working of J-K flip flop IC chip. Materials Required: 1. 2. 3. 4. Circuit Diagram: Name IC 7476 LED Voltage Source Jumper Wires Quantity 1 2 1 -(As required)
Working: Similar to how you tested the basic logic gates and universal logic gate ICs, Verify the output of the JK flip flop IC by trying out all the combinations. To provide binary 1 to any input, simply couple it to the positive power supply. To provide binary 0, simply ground it (connect it to negative supply).
- 55
19 June 2010 Project 21: Current toggling T flip flop from JK flip flop Aim: To construct a power toggling circuit that toggles current in the circuit i.e., turns on/off the current with the push of a push switch Materials Required: Name 12.JK flip flop IC 13.Clock(Any)(Electronic Oscillator) 14.LED (for testing) 15.Resistor (optional) 16.Voltage Source 17.Jumper Wires Circuit Diagram: Quantity 1 1 1 1 1 - (as required)
Principle: T flip-flop also known as the Toggle Flip flop is a flip flop that toggles the states of its two outputs, Q and ~Q (Q NOT) when the input T is HIGH during the falling edge of the clock cycle and remembers the state until changed using the same method. It is just a one input variant of JK flip flop and can be obtained from the JK flip flop just by coupling the two primary input pins, J and K together. Working: To turn on the LED, simply press and hold the press switch till the falling edge of the clock and wait for the LED to turn ON. Once the IC toggles the states of Q and ~Q to HIGH and LOW respectively, it turns on the LED. Release the switch now to hold the current states. To turn it off, repeat the process i.e., press and hold the switch till the two outputs change states and turns off the LED and then release the switch. - 56
19 June 2010
Applications: Since the T flip flop is capable of changing and remembering the states of its two outputs depending upon the input provided, this type of circuitry can also be used as an alternative for a computers memory cell in the main memory for storing and rewriting a bit (either 1 or 0). Main use of this type of circuitry is turning ON and Turning OFF a device as it does not require you to press and hold the input for remembering the output.
- 57
19 June 2010 Project 22: Data transmission using clocks and J-K flip flop Aim: To construct a circuit using J-K flip flop IC chips and a clock to observe how a circuit transmits binary data (1 and 0) between each other Materials Required: 1. 2. 3. 4. Circuit Diagram: Name Quantity IC 7476 (JK flip flop) 1 LED bulbs - (As required) Voltage Source 1 Jumper Wires - (As required)
Note: Please remember to power every IC used in the circuit. They can be powered individually or powered using a single voltage source by connecting all the ground pins to the negative terminal of the voltage source. Principle: The circuit in the above diagram is an example of how binary data is transmitted between JK flip flop IC chips which are used as memory cells as mentioned earlier. The 555 Timer IC clock pulse is shared among the IC chips in a series which helps to synchronize the data transmission between them. The LEDs connected in the output pins helps us to visualize the transmission. Wherever the LED is turned OFF, the data transferred is binary 1 and wherever it is turned OFF the data transferred is binary 0. - 58
19 June 2010 Working: The JK flip flop is said to transmit binary 1 when J and K are set to 1 and 0 respectively, i.e., Q transmits 1 and Q transmits 0. Whereas, it transmits the opposite signals (Q=0 and Q =1) when J and K are set to 0 and 1 respectively. Leaving the first flip flops J=1 and K=0 for one clock cycle, i.e., transmitting 1 from the first flip flop, will trigger it to send 1 continuously until transmission of 0 starts. The continuous transmission applies even when transmitting 0 by setting J=0 and K=1. Try transmitting a pattern of 1s and 0s by altering the inputs to see how data is transmitted. NOTE: The data 1 and 0 can be sent through the first flip flops pins using the same technique which we employed in Basic Logic gates IC chips (either leaving it idle which will send binary 1 or short circuiting it to the ground pin which will transmit binary 0) as these ICs also house the same architecture which was used in those IC chips. Applications: This circuit is what is known as a shift register in computers which transports the data from memory cells located in one end to the memory cells in the other end.
- 59
19 June 2010 IC 4017 Decade Counter The 4017 is a counter IC which is used to count clock pulses.

There are 10 outputs labeled Q0 - Q9 Each output will go High (emit binary 1) in a series while all others remain low (emit binary 0). Each time the Clock input rises the next output goes high The outputs have current limiting circuits and so LED bulbs can be used without series resistors when a 5v - 9v power supply is used. For supply voltages greater than 9v series resistors may still be needed. The reset pin (15) is usually low. When it is momentarily taken high (binary 1), the counter starts from first. The Clock input is pin 14. The output changes on the rising edge of the Clock CI is the Clock Inhibit. This is usually held low. When CI is made high, the outputs do not change even if the Clock continues to change. The CI input effectively stops the counter. Carry is an output that can be used to join multiple counter IC chips. Carry is High (binary 1) for Q0 to Q4 and Carry is low (binary 0) for Q5 to Q9. This means that the Carry goes high (rising edge of clock) when the counter output goes from 9 to 0 so connecting the Carry to the Clock of the next counter will cause the next counter to progress by 1 count for every 10 counts of the first counter.
- 60
19 June 2010 Project 23: Serial lighting using Decade counter IC
Aim: To construct a circuit using the Decade counter IC using LED bulbs for serial lighting effect. Materials Required: 5. 6. 7. 8. Name Quantity Decade counter IC 1 LED bulbs - (As required) Voltage Source 1 Jumper Wires - (As required)
Principle: The Decade counter IC is an IC that provides sequential output through its output pins from Q0-Q9 one after another lighting each LED one at a time connected to them which appears to look like serial lighting. This type of lighting can also be used for count down timing sequence for games too. Applications: Can be used for lighting LED bulbs in a specific pattern, can be used for serial lighting, can be used as counting device for electronic instruments and can be used as countdown timer.
- 61
19 June 2010
- 62

Electronics Exposed For School Students

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Electronics Exposed For School Students

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

19 June 2010

Electronics projects for School Students

By Tamilvanan.A Email: collegecounselchennai@gmail.com

Voltage source (or) Battery

Variable Voltage Source

Simple toggle switch

Resistor LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) Capacitor

19 June 2010 Project 2: Simple LED experiments

Effect of Resistance in a circuit:

500+R1 = 900 R1 = 900-500 R1 = 400 Ohms.

19 June 2010 Project 7: Primary use of PN junction Diode

NOT (Inverter) Gate:

19 June 2010 Project 11: Operating a transistor using a switch

19 June 2010 IC pin diagram KEY

19 June 2010 Project 16: Voltage regulation property of Zener Diode

R 1 1 0 0 R-S Flip flop using NOR Gates

JK flip flop circuit constructed using NAND Gates

any Falling edge any Falling edge

Toggles previous output 1 0 0 1

19 June 2010 Project 23: Serial lighting using Decade counter IC

Potrebbero piacerti anche