EhJRVIVAL AGAINST THE ELEMENTIP

Cmwn Copy;ieht Reamed

By Command of the LJe.fmce Cound

SURVIVAL AGAINST THE CONTENTS

Page

Introduction

.............. ..

iv
I

Chapter 1. Physical Fitness

Section

Chapter IV. Prevention and Treatment for Exposure and Exhaustion

Section

27
21
34

35

I . The need for physical ntnen

Chapter 11. Movement in Difficult Country 3

Section

..... 2. Frost bite ............... 3. Heat diaordera ............

I. Exposure and exhaustion

.............. 2.ReparaUon . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.Thccxpedition ..........

I.General
4. Roadure in the cnnt of an accident or emergency

3
4
8
17

Chapter V. Clothing and Equipment

Section

40

......

............... 2.Equipment ..............

I.Clothing

40

41

Chapter 111. Weather

Section 1.Ccned

Chapter VI. Food and Water

19

43

Section

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LFwd
19

.................
..................

43

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......... 3. Cold weather ............

2.Tyrypuofweathcr

20 20

2.wt
).Water

43

4. The cflect of wind on cold mather 1

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................. 44
4.Alcohol ................ 44

ANNEX'A' THE COUNTRY CODE ANNEX '6' SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

5.Hotweather

............

25

iii

SURVIVAL AGAINST THE ELEMENTS INTRODUCTION

This pamphlet is intended as a guide to all those leading, taking part in, 1. or planning exercises, expeditions or other activities, when the dangers of exhaustion and expowre may be encountered. Although the pamphlet particularly emphasizes the dangers, and safeguards that should be taken, when training in hilly or mountainous country in the United Kingdom it should be remembered that the Symptoms of exposure and exhaustion may be met anywhere at any time.
The pamphlet is not intended as a complete guide t o mountaineering and hill walking. Those who are planning special training and expeditions in wch areas are to refer to DCI (Army) Parts I to V, S20 of 1974 on Mountain Safety, and are advised to consult certain of the publications shown at Annex A. A chapter on weather conditions is induded as the weather can change very rapidly and the leaders of exercises and expeditions should be aware of the implications of any deterioration in the conditions.

3 .

4.

The best advice is not to take chances G t h nature.

CHAPTER I

PHYSICAL FITNESS
SECTION 1 THE NEED FOR PHYSICAL FITNESS

101. Military skill and technical knowledge are wasted unless the soldier can overcome fatigue and mental strain. , n e basic requirement to help prevent such inefficienq is physical fitness, which can only be acquired by Physical Training.
Continuous and strenuous physical effort in extreme weather conditions can sap morale just a much as anxiety and danger, and there is a great risk s that the untrained will become casualties from premature exhaustion leading t o collapse.

102.

103. Physical Training is, therefore, an essential. preparation for soldiers taking part in strenuous field exercises, since a suitably graded programme toughens the body and develops a high standard of functional and specific fiiness.
The acquisition of physical fitness, together with training in survival 104. and technical military skills, i s of the utmost importance in making the soldier confident that he can perform efficiently in adverse conditions of terrain and weather. It should be remembered that: a. Physical fitness is the basis on which t o build military fitness.

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Planning and preparation are essential for the success of any b. exercises, including physical exercises. The unit APTC Instructor should be coapted on to all training c. conferences; he is a fully qualified technician. The effectiveness of the fitness programme should be checked by d. carrying out physical efficienq tests. e. Tests are "yardsticks" by which a man's progression and achievements are measured, thus giving an indication of an individual's ability to carry out his duties effectively in varying conditions.

It is far better to take every possible step to avoid cases of f. exposure and exhaustion than to have to treat them.

Complacenn/ about physical fitness can be very dangerous and it should 105. never be assumed that:
..

Soldiers are physically fit to take part in an exercise or a. expedition without confirmation. Games fitness is the equivalent of all-round physical fitness; the b. one is complementary to the other.
. ,

Everything will be all right on the day. c. and ensure that it is all right.

Plan wisely and well

The relevant information on the preparation and conduct of physical 106. fitness programmes is given in the Ministry of Defenoe (GS) training publication "PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE ARMY 1958" pamphlets Nos 1 and 4. (Code Nos 9467, 9470).

CHAPTER II MOVEMENT IN DIFFICULT COUNTRY SECTION 1

GENERAL

201. The term difficult country applies to areas of moorland and upland as well as to hills and mountains. The sections in this chapter cover the planning and execution of any expedition and the action t o take in the event of an accident. The chapter can be summarised at this stage under the general heading of Responsibilities of the Leader. These may conveniently be listed under three sub headings:
a. Before setting out on the expedition:

(1)

Brief members of the expedition on the complete plan.

(2) Advise a responsible person, not on the expedition, of the composition of the party, routes and timings.

(31 Check clothing and equipment of all members of the expedition for serviceability and completeness.
(4) Ensure members of the expedition are f i t and well, and that they have eaten.

(5) Obtain a weather forecast.

b.

On the expedition:

(1)

Keep the p a w together at all times.

(2) Maintain a suitable pace, and rest at suitable times and places.
(3) Know the location of the expedition at all times. others to assist with navigation. Detail

(41 Maintain a watch on the .weather, the remaining daylight and the wellbeing of all members of the expedition, and the progress of the expedition.

c.

On return to base:
(1) Advise the responsible person of the safe return of the expedition, particularly in circumstances which may have led t o apprehension for the safety of the party.

(2) Check all equipment and the wellbeing of members of the expedition.
SECTION 2

- PREPARATION

22 0.

Planning of the Route The chocsing of a good and sensible route, when moving in a. difficult country. is most important. A detailed route card, containing all details required to complete each leg of the route, must always be worked out beforehand. In the event of bad conditions and poor visibility all the necessary data is then immediately available. The map and route card should be carried in a polythene cover for protection from the wet. b. . When planning a route the following points should be borne in mind:

A .

(1) Try to choose the easiest route and to memorise prominent features on it; a rough sketch map is most valuable. (2) Note in particular the position .of possible difficulties, eg cliffs and unbridged rivers etc. so that they can be avoided.

(3) Note the general direction that rivers etc run, so that if they are encountered in a mist or at night the'expedition will have an idea of its own position and the best way to go.
(4) Choose the route so that height which will have to be regained later is not lost. Sometimes, however, if there is very rough ground it may be better to avoid it by either descending or climbing.

(5) Remember that in hills the shortest route is seldom the quickest or emiest.
4

(6) 'A hillside, provided it is not too craggy. may be descended direct. When planning a route involving a valley remember that water c. always tries to find the shortest way and consequently descends in the steepest places. ,A better route for ascent or descent will usually be found on the shoulders of mountains or hills which enclose a stream. d. I f it is envisaged that the route may be difficult or dangerous local advice should be obtained, if possible. on recommended route5 and the conditions likely to be encountered.

203.

Length of Route
It is most important, when planning a route, that care should be a. taken to ensure that the expedition is on easy ground, or in a valley, before nightfall.

The leader must judge the capabilities of the remainder of the b. expedition and adjust the length of any route acmrdingly. ~.
When estimating how far it is possible t o travel, Naismith's Rule c. gives a good .guide. ie:

(1)

Allow one hour for every 5 Kms as measured on.the map.

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(2) Allow a % hour for every 300 metres climbed.

(3) Allow additional time for halts as required.

It must be remembered that this i s only a guide; a tired party. heavy loads, rough going, mist or high winds will reduce the.distanoe travelled considerably. Only experience will teach leaders how much to allow for these factors.

204.

The Briefing of an--l%pedition

It is most important that an expedition is properly briefed before a. it sets off. The leader should cover such points as:
(1) Route and approximate timina (Details must be left at Base for use in an emergency).
'

(2)

Size of the party; this should never be

less than four.

(31 Equipment, clothing and rations to be taken.

(4) (5)
Details of halts (ie frequency and duration). Speed o f the Party (ie t o be that of the slowest member).

( 6 ) Order of march and distribution of loads.

(7)
(8)

Resume' on safety aspects (qparty must not split up). Procedure in event of an accident (See paras 210-214).

(9) A system of signalling, including distress signals /See para 212).

b.

A deputy leader of an expedition must be appointed before

it mwes off.

When making his plan the leader must allow for the unforeseen and thus his plan must be flexible. c. d. When movement is particularly difficult in mountains, the leader must ensure that the more experienced members of the expedition are detailed to help and guide those with less experience.

205.

Clothing, Equipment and Rations. These are discussed in more detail and with particular reference to the medical aspects, in Chapters V and VI. Ar a general guide, h o w e r , the following points should b considered b y e every leader of an expedition: a .
Clothing

(11 This should be light and designed t o protect the whole body. including the head, against cold. wind and rain.
(2) Spare warm clothing, t o wear when temporarily resting, must be carried, also light-weight wind and waterproof outer garments, and gloves when applicable.

'.

b.

Footwear

(1)

It is essential t o be well shod.

(2) For general purposes in hill walking and in snow and icy conditions boots are necessary. These must be tough and give a good grip on rocks; plain leather soles are not adequate and hard moulded rubber ,soles, eg Vibram, are best.

(3) For rock climbing on some types of dry rock gym shoes with a thin hard sole are acceptable, but they are very dangerous if the rocks are slimy. icy, or very wet.
(4) Boots DMS should not be wom for any form of rock climbing hut can be worn for fell walking.
c. Equipment

(1) Equipment to be taken will depend on the type and scope of the exercis or expedition, but even the shortest and easiest will require map, compas. torch; whistle, energy producing foods, First Aid and bivouac equipment. In ifs simplest form, the latter could be a polythene bag (8 x 4 minimum, gauge 500) which should not, of coufse, be closed at the head when being used. On more ambitious expeditions a tent, sleeping bag and cooking stove should be included.

(2) It is of vital importance that, where it is to be used. climbing equipment (such as ropes, slings, pitons, karabinen, etc.) is not only serviceable but is up t o the approved safety standards laid down by the British Mountaineering Council.
, .

d.

Rations

(1) Light, quick-energy producing foods are best for difficult climbing or mountaineering conditions and whenever strength and stamina deteriorate quickly.

(2) On exercises or expeditions lasting seberal days or weeks a balanced diet containing plenty of energy producing food will be .necessary.

(3) Emergenq rations should always be carried, including the ingredients for brewing up hot Nveet drinks: alcohol must
be avoided.

(4) Take some form of salt in summer as heat exhaustion can be as dangerous as cold exposure.
SECTION 3

- THE

EXPEDITION

206.

Rouk Finding

a.

General

(1) If the expedition becomes lost, or hag difficulty in finding a route, the leader should tell the remainder o f the expedition. If he does not do so, it will soon become apparent t o the remainder and they will lose faith in him as a leader.
(2) The leader must, however. maintain command, and although a general discussion on the route may take place the leader alone must take the final decision and ensure that his orders are obeyed.

(3) If the leader is physically unfit t o mntinue, the deputy leader mu* a u m e command. I f he also is unfit another member of the expedition must be appointed leader a once. t
(4) An expedition MUST NEVER DIVIDE INTO GROUPS because of differences of opinion about the route etc. This has been shown t o be one of the commonest cause o f accidents.
b.
In Clear Weather

(1) In clear weather it is often k t to maintain direction by using landmarks if possible.

(2) I f the whole of the route can be seen from the starting point the easiest line should be chosen and the landmarks memorised, eg houses, curiously shaped rocks,
8

streams, etc. It i s important t o do this as some way along the route it may no longer be possible to see the ultimate objective and the intermediate marks will help to ensure that the correct route is followed.

(3) When going up a hillside from a valley or plain it may be possible to see a road, river, railway, or the edge of a field, which can be used as a pointer in the direction to be followed. Such a pointer is most valuable as it can be used when both the objective and intermediate landmarks are hidden by a fold in the ground, or a wood. It is, there fore, advisable t o look back occasionally to see if such a pointer is available.
(4) In difficult country, where bad weather may make it advisable t o turn back, a memory of what the country looked like when seen in the revers? direction i s most valuable i f the expedition has to retrace its steps.
c.

In Mist

(1) The compass is often of use in clear weather, but i t s greatest use is at night or when visibility is limited by mist or low cloud. A knowledge of i t s correct us? is essential.
(2) In featureless country a party of three can maintain direction by walking in line at suitable intervals. The direction of the line should be set by a compms bearing and the last man should then maintain a direction by keeping the leader in line with the centre man. Any deviations by the leader may then be corrected by orders from the last man. eg one pace to the left, or two paces to the right etc. A fresh compass check, however. should be made periodically.
d.
A t Night

(1) On a clear night a convenient check on general direction can be obtained from the pole star. The leader and deputy leader, at 1east:should know how to find the pole star and hence true north.

(2)

If overCaSt a compass should be used in the same way

as in mist.
e.

In very hot desert or semi desert areas

(1) It is dangerous to rely on distant features on the ground as markers as sight can often be distorted due 'to heat, resulting in the wrong direction being taken.

( 2 ) Compass bearings should also be frequently checked

as magnetic storms can causa considerable magnetic

variation. Speed, Rests and Halting Places a .
Speed
(1) Do not waste energy at the beginning of the day by starting at a fast speed. It is better to start slowly so that a reserve of energy is maintained for difficult parts or emergencies.

(2): The leader must set a steady speed based on that of the slowst member. He must also ensure that the party sticks together and that there are no stragglers.

(3) The last fev; metres to the top of a mountain or hill should not be'rushed. as the apparent "top" may often prove to be a false crest.'

(4) Each step should be made deliberately. When climbing, the whole sole of the boot should be placed horizontally on the ground where possible. This can often be done by placing the heel on a stone and by climbing in Zig-zags'rather than straight up.
(5) The foot should not. be lifted too high nor the stride made too long. If it is necessary to increase speed this should be done by lengthening the stride.
(6) Breathing should be rhythmical, according to the pace and the steepners of the slope. If it is possible

10

to sing or whistle going along the speed can be considered as reasonable.

(7) When descending a slope flex the knees and keep the weight well forward. It is advisable not to go too fast unless the b w t s are well fitting and comfortable, otherwise feet will get blistered or ankles injured.
( 8 ) The leader must restrain the overenthusiastic and encourage and support the weaker members o f an expedition

(9) Weak members, either physically or morally, should walk immediately behind the leader; on no account must they be allowed to trail as their condition will rapidly become worse.
b.
Rests and Halting Places
(1) The leader should decide the time for a rest and for how long; rests should not be for tw long a duration.

(2) When it is decided to rest, choosa a place sheltered from the wind, put on spare clothing and try to rest completely. It is a good idea to try and rest the feet by removing boots and adjusting socks or stockings. Any blisters should be dealt with immediately. and a piece of elastoplast over rubbed skin, or the use of thin strips of Dunlopiilo as padding, will help prevent -. blisters from developing.

'

(3) If the halt is for a meal it should be eaten slowly, and everyone encouraged to drink as much as they require. If. however. water i s difficult t o obtain it should be drunk sparingly. As a general rule sweet foods are the most beneficial.
(4) It is advisable not to drink from valley streams and rivers, or any that are downstream of human dwllings or farm buildings. Water purifying tablets should be used whenever possible.

(5) During rests the opportunity should be taken to change rucksacks. if neaessary, M that all members of the expedition do their fair share of carrying.. It is up to the leader to ensure that this i s done.

208.

Adapting the Route to suit the Ground

a. When the leader obtains his first view over the ground ahead, and again when he reaches a viewpoint, he should check the routes that have been chosen against the actual country and modify them where necessary. It may well be that there is a stretch of boggy ground, or of rough going, which does not appear on the map, but which can easily be avoided on the ground.
b. When climbing in a mountainous area it is usually better to move along the ridges, as the sides of a mountain are often the most difficult and roughest going and the gullies and little valleys may be boggy. hummocky and also rough. c. . A few hints on negotiating certain types of country are given at paragraph 209. In general, however, avoid scree, rocks, gullies and wet places; keep to clean turf and high ridges if'possible. d. If convenient, use paths and tracks, as they often take the quickest line and are generally safe. They seldom, however, go the way that men want to go! e. The following are the safest rules:

.-

(1) If there are no paths, climb or.descend in single file unless there is a.danger of dislodging stones etc on to those below. If this is so, climb or descend simultaneously in line abreast.
'

(2) If the width of the slope is restricted by rocks, as in a gulley, and it is necessary to follow the leader, keep close together so that any stones dislodged do not have time'to gather momentum and become dangerous to the other members of the party lower down.
f. In precipitous mountains never attempt to follow a stream down unless it is possible to see the whole of its course to easier ground, or unless the party has been up the same way. .
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209.

Types of Country a.
Grass

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( l i Shon grass is the most pleasant and easiest to walk on. and is usually the best way up a hill.
(2) It is possible to descend grassy slopes veri/ rapidly, with safety. provided the complete slope can be seen.
I

(3) Steep grassy slopes may well become coated with ice or thin snow in winter and should then be avoided. Wet grass can also be very slippery on steep slopes.
Bracken
(1) Bracken should be avoided in summer as it makes walking very laborious and difficult.

(2) On rocks and hillsides it is treacherous as a handhold as it is very brittle and the roots mme out very easily.
Heather

( 1 ) Heather is better for climbing, as the plant is tough and not easily up-rooted.

(2)
Scree

Heather mvered slopes of boulders should be avoided.

( 1 I Scree is the name given to steep slopes of loose stones or rocks.

(2) In this country scree sometimes provides a safe, if rather tiresome, way up a mountainside and a rapid way down. Scree running is an acquired skill, and should be avoided in high and' remote places where a twisted ankle or broken leg could have serious repercussions.

(3) Generally it is better to avoid scree altogether when carrying a heavy pack.
(4) When ascending. it is advisable to avoid scree and climb grassy slopes.

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( 5 ) When descending scree, boots should be worn to avoid cutting or twisting the ankles. The best method to descend is with the legs stiffened and the heels driven well in. Never descend at high speed and ensure that the bottom of the scree can be Seen before descending.

(6) Large saee should be avoided.

e.
Rocks

(1) Where possible rocks should be avoided and lett t o the experienced rock climber.

(2) If it is. not possible'to avoid them then, as. a general rule, avoid using your hands unnecessarily and make sure of each foothold.

(3) To avoid slipping or dislodging stones, pay careful attention t o the placing of the feet and always think one or WO movements ahead.
(4) . Never descend rocks where it is not possible t o see the whole way down, or where it is necessary to drop more than once from the hands:
' '

(5) There are few places in the United Kingdom where'it is necessary t o descend rocks a d t h e r e is usually an easier way around.
f. Stones. Even small stones can be lethal weapons if they fall down a hillside, and great care must be taken to avoid dislodging stones or rocks. : If a stone is dislodged the culprit should shout "Below" in a loud voice t o warn anyone beneath him.
~ o g . In certain hills or moors there are large stretches of g. boggy ground. These are rarely dangerous but should always be avoided as they are heavy going and very tiring.

h.

Rivers, Streams and Lakes

(1) The majority of hillside streams are easy to cross;but it is always advisable to moss carefully and to choos the easiest place.

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(2) Be careful if attempting to cross dry shod, as when doing so it is a y to attempt too long a jump and slip.

(3) The rivers in the main valleys should always be crossed by bridges where possible.
(4) In strong flowing rivers it is extremely difficult to wade safely in water above waist level as the bed of the river is usually rocky and uneven; a detour is more pleasant and less dangerous than a ducking on a cold day.

(5) A number of mountain lakes have steep hillsides rising' from them, and the lakes may be very difficult t o clamber out of. It is advisable, therefore, always to walk carefully when traversing a steep hillside round a lake.

(6) Mountain streams are liable to become gushing tonents/. within a very short time after heavy rain. Should the proposed route be blocked and a detour impossible, the usual course i s to wait until the force of water is reduced. Should it be vital to cross such a stream the following precautions must be taken:
(a) DO NOT remove boots.

(b) The strongest member should cross first;helped by a stick t o act as a third leg upstream.
(c)

He should tie to an arm any available buoyancy,

eg plastic water container.

(d) He should secure himself t o an endless circle of rope which is held by two others, one slightly upstream and one well downstream of him. If he is swept away the others must run downstream whilst guiding him ashore. If they try to pull him t o the bank against the current he will be forced under water. (e) Once the first man is aaoss,.an endless circle of rope is available to enable others to cross sicurelv; the last man crosses in a similar manner to the first;.
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j.

Snow and Ice

( 1 ) In snow and icy conditions it is essential to wear wrrect footwear, to carry an iwaxe and to know how to us it to brake in the event of a downhill slide.

(2) Ice on sloping rock or grass is highly dangerous and should be crossed only with the greatest caution. crampons' provide the only safe footwear. . .

(3) The effect of snow depends upon i t s condition. but,,if it is soft the labour of walking uphill or on the level i s .
greatly increased.
.

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(4) In climbing hard snow without crampons steps should be dug by the leader of the party. On a long slope this duty should be taken in turn as it is very tiring. The leader
must dig steps sufficiently close together for the smallest member of the party to use them comfortably.
. .

,451

In descending hard snow without crampons the heels should be dug well in and, if the slope i s steep, balance stadied by the use of an ice axe.
'

(6).Soft or powdery snow, lying on a firm snowhce base, should be cleared away with the axe before placing the feet.
.

( 7 ) Snow slopes.are inviting to glissade down but this should only be done if:
(a) the run out of the slope can be seen .to be safe.

(b) Ice axes are carried and everyone is trained in their use.

(8) In general, conditions of ice and hard snow completely change the character of an expedition. What in summer may be a straighfoward hill wdk may, in winter. demand the experience and skill of an alpine mountaineer.

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SECTION 4 - PROCEDURE I N THE EVENT OF AN ACCIDENT OR EMERGENCY 210. General Evewone must know what to do in the event of an accident a. or emergency. b. 21 1

No injured or exhausted person should be left alone.

Immediate Action a. Carry out any immediate first aid,if necessary.

Make the casualty(s) comfortable and warm, as recommended b. in Chapter IV. c. Decide on further action to be taken.

International Distress Signal. The International Distress Signal, which 212 every member of the expedition should know, is six blasts on a whistle, six shouts, or six flashes of a torch, followed by a pause of a minute, then a further six blasts, etc. If the signal has been heard the answer will be three blasts followed by a pause of a minute, repeated several times.
If for some reason it is not possible t o use a whistle or shout, etc 213. a signal may be made by waving a handkerchief or something similar, asabove.

214. must:

Going for help. Before going for help the leader of the expedition

Ensure the casualtyls) is a comfortable as possible and well s a. sheltered. Issue clear instructions on the treatment and action to be b. taken by those remaining or going for help. Ensure the expedition's present position is pin-pointed as c. accurately as possible. The party going for assistance should write down the details of their location and also of the time and nature of the casualty(s).

17

Detail someone to be in charge of the party going for assistance, . d. or remaining behind, if the leader is going himself. One man should not be sent on his own. Check the position and route to the nearest mountain rescue e. post, police or habitation. All members of the expedition should know the location of the mountain rescue posts when training in mountainous areas.

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CHAPTER 111 WEATHER SECTION 1

GENERAL

301. The climate of Western Europe, in particular that of the United Kingdom, has a wide range of temperature from very cold to extremely hot; "temperature" is, therefore, a poor description of the weather pattern. Deaths have occurred in the United Kingdom during cold or rainy spells and in heat waves; these were mainly due t o underestimating or not recognising the dangers.

Because weather conditions in mountainous areas are liable t o change rapidly, parties should normally be prepared for the worst mnditions. The leader must obtain a local weather forecast, from the Met Office or local air station, before setting out. He must also have sufficient knowledge of weather t o be able t o make sensible deductions from the forecast given and if necessary make appropriate changes t o his plans.

302.

i
~ ~

303.

Preparation.. The best preparation is to have an advance knowledge by learning the "three Rs" of weather, because they describe its dangers, and the precautions t o be taken against it. The "three Rs" are: a.
Risk. The types of weather.

.-

Results. The result of taking the risk and the effects on b. the human body of each type of weather.

c.

Remedies.

( 1 ) Prevention by the correct. use of clothing and equipment and by mrrect feeding.

( 2 ) Learning to recognise the Results (Effects) in their early stages and knowing their First Aid treatment.
304. . This chapter deals with the Risk and the two subsequent chapters with the Results and Remedies. They should all be read carefully as each is'as important as the others.'
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THE RISK SECTION 2

. TYPES OF WEATHER

The four main types of weather, all of which are encountered in 305. Western Europe and the United Kingdom, are: a. b. c. d. Coldmet Coldlory Hotmet Hotlory SECTION 3

COLO WEATHER

306. ColdMlet. Coldmet describes the weather when the air temperature varies around freezing point in the range loo Centigrade to minus 2 Centigrade (0 Fahrenheit to 2 ' 5' 8 Fahrenheit) with rain, sleet and high ' winds. It is typical of the winter months in the United Kingdom that what starts as a mild day can. a few hours later, be cold and wet enough to be a hazard to life. The great danger to life in this type of climate is a general lowering of the body temperature due to a combination of cold, wind and wet clothing, aggravated by fatigue and lack of hot food and drink. This condition has various names - Exposure, Cold Exposure, or Hypothermia (deficient heat). Another serious condition arising in a Cold/ Wet climate is Immersion Foot or Trench Foot, when the feet have been in water or mud for long periods without much movement.
307. Cold/Dn/. Cold/Ory describes the climate when the air temperature rarely rises above freezing point at any time of the day. The ground, puddles, pools, etc are frozen. snow does not melt, and the presence of wind greatly increases the danger of body chilling in this climate. The general lowering of body temperature (Exposure) can occur, or local chilling can go on to local freezing of exposed or badly protected tissue: this is called Frostbite.

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SECTION 4 - THE EFFECT OF WIND ON COLD WEATHER Wind Speed. Wind speed plays such an important part in the 308. effects which the Cold/Wet and Cold/Dry climates may have on the human body that the table reproduced below is a guide so that the speed can be estimated. without instruments, in order that the wind chill effect, which is shown at Figure 1, can be referred to correctly. A an example, the wind chili effect of a strong breeze of Force 6 s (about 28 mphl in an air temperature of 10' Centigrade (0 Fahrenheit) 5' is equivalent t o a slight breeze of Force 1 (about 2 mph) at minus 12' Centigrade 110' Fahrenheit); this can be checked in Figure 1. 309. The wind speed, in the following table, is shown in relation to the Beaufort Scale, and with a general description to assist estimating.

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WIND SPEED
rind Speed mph 1 1 - 3 3eaufort Scale Wind Force Calm Light Air Land Description Smoke rises vertically Wind direction shown by smoke and not by wind vane. Wind felt on face, leaves rustle ordinary vane moved. Leaves and small twigs in constant motion, wind extends high flag. Raises dust and loose paper, small branches are moved, snow begins to drift. Small trees in leaf begin to sway, created wavelets form on inland waters. Large branches in motion, whistling heard in telegraph wires, high drift occurs. Whole trees in motion, inconvenience felt when walking against wind, visibility obscured by drifting snow. Breaks t q i g s off trees, generally slows progress . ' Slight structural damage occurs . chimney pots and slates fall off roofs. Inland trees uprooted. Widespread damage. Hurricane.

1 2
3

4 - 7

Slight Breeze

12

Gentle Breeze

13 - 18

Moderate Breeze

19

24

Fresh Breeze

25

31

Strong Breeze

32

- 38

High Wind

39
47

- 46 - 54 -

Gale

Strong Gale

55

63

10 11 12

Whole Gale Storm Hurricane TABLE I

64 - 72
73
~

82

The wind-chill index gives a measure of the cooling 310. WindChill. p o w r of the climate on the body and is obtained from the relationship $existingbctween the temperature of the air and the speed of the wind. The air temperature can be taken from the minimum temperature quoted in the newspaper, or other weather forecasts, or by.direct measurement i n a training area. 311. The wind-chill index, shown in Fig 1, i s used as follows:
a.

Check the newspaper, or thermometer, to see if the temperature is in degrees Fahrenheit or degrees Centigrade. The degrees Fahrenheit Scale is shown along the top and degrees Centigrade along the bottom of the chart. If clothing is wet from profuse sweat, rain, sleet, melting snow or other immersion, subtract 6' Centigrade or 11' Fahrenheit from the air temperature (to allow for the extra cooling of the body due to the water) before using the chart. Make a pencil point mark where the temperature line b. intersects the left-toright line of the wind speed. This is given in miles per hour on the right of the chart and in metres per second on the left. c. To interpret the wind-chill index, if the pencil point mark is in:
(1)

Zone A (below

ZOO), no danger.

(2) Zone B (200.400). little danger with light clothing provided the exercise is not too prolonged and food is taken regularly; but beware of the weather deteriorating.
(3) Zone C (400-1000). increasing danger requiring up to full clothing, hot food, waterproof shelter, and prevention of exhaustion. It i s in this band that the majority of deaths from exposure have occurred in the United Kingdom.
(4) Zone D (1000-1200). travel becomes dangerous on overcast days. (5)
Zone E (120Cb1400). travel only in heated vehicles.

23

Fig. 1

- Wind

Chill Index

',

24

(6) Zone F ~14001600).temporary shelter i s dangerous to live in.

(7) Zone G (1600 and above). exposed flesh freezes in less than one minute, and survival efforts are required.

SECTION 5

- HOT WEATHER

312. General. Healwaves in Westem Europe and the United Kingdom contain parts of both the HotNVet and Hotlory climates having air tempera tures up to 3 Centigrade (93' Fahrenheit).'but with lower humidity than 4 ' the jungle climate and without the heavy rainfall. The great dangers to health and life are Heat Exhaustion from lack of water or salt, and the deadly Heatstroke, both arising from working or training too hard especially while unacclimatised to the heat. This is particularly dangerous in a sudden heatwave in Europe. Cases of heat illness, and a few deaths, have occurred in the United 313. Kingdom and BAOR during healwaves in recent years. Deaths occur'every summer in the United States when intensive training starts for the .Autumn football season. These could all be prevented i f the risk was measured and activities lessened or stopped when the heat stress was too great. The US Marine Corps Recruit Depot in Southem Carolina have had great problems during training (600 heat casualties in the summer of 1952) and have evolved a system for preventing heat illness by grading the amount and type of train-. ing to be carried out with variws readings of the heat s t r e s index. Whenever i t is considered that there may be a danger o f heat illnesses 314. occurring during training the Medical Officer should be consulted. 315. Hotmet. Hotmet climates are typical of tropical'jungle country where the air temperature seldom rises above 3 Centigrade (looo Fahren8 ' heit) and more commonly is around 3 Centigrade (930 Fahrenheit) in day4 ' time. These temperatures are mainly due. t o the abundant supply of moisture, with cloud formations blocking direct sunlight There is no marked fall in temperature at night because the moisture' which evaporated during the day condenses once more, thus returning heat to the atmosphere. Cloud forme tions at night a h prevent the terrain from losing heat t o the open sky. The danger of direct radiation from the sun is not very great because of the readily available shade in the dense vegatation and from the convective 25

cumulus cloud formaticons. Rain occurs frequently as local downpours and causes dripping vegetation, stagnant and humid atmosphere. A storm is usually followed by a brief period of intense sunshine. Wind velocities are low except in violent storms and approach zero in forested areas.

316. Hot/Dry. Hot/Dry climates are those of desert and semi desert areas. The sky is clear, radiation levels from the sun are high and air tempemtures may go up to 5 Centigrade (122' Fahrenheit) or higher. The low 0 ' humidity and scanty rainfall result in sparse vegetation and there are sudden intense windstorms, often dust or sand laden. There is a marked fall in temperature during the night because the lack of clouds allow the ground to radiate the heat accumulated during the day to the open sky.

26

CHAPTER I V PREVENTION AND TREATMENT FOR EXPOSURE AND EXHAUSTION (RESULTS AND REMEDIES) SECTION 1

EXPOSURE AND EXHAUSTION

101.

Definitions a. Ehporurc. Exposure is a severe chilling of the body surface causing a progressive fall of body temperature with the risk of death from hypothermia (deficient heor). b. Exhaustion. Physical exhaustion is an additional factor over and above the deficiency of body heat which kills quickly. It has not been possible to separate the effects of one from the other in many of the recent fatal cases in the United Kingdom.

Symptoms of Exposure and Exhaustion. I t i s not always easy to 402. recognise the early or mild cases of exposure or exhaustion, but it is most important to be on the watch for it. Any two of the following symptoms require immediate action: a. Complaints of feeling cold, tired or listless. Unexpected or unreasonable behaviour. Sudden uncontrollable shivering fits.

b.
c.

Physical and mental lethargy, including failure to respond to d. or understand questions or orders.
e.

Slowing down, stumbling 0; repeated falling disturbance or failure of vision

f.

Violent outbursts of unexpected energy or speech. or 9. slurring of speech.

27

h.
j.

physical resistance t o offered help. Collapse, stupor or unconsciousness.

403. Aggravating Factors. The following factors are likely t o aggravate'.' the Symptoms given above:
a. Soaked clothing with high wind increasing the windchill..

General chilling from continued low air temperature and b. high wind speed. c. Immersion in cold water.

An injury that immobilises the casualty and severely d. reduces his ability to produce heat.
A. combination of fatigue, cold. anxiety or mental e. stress can be especially dangerous.

f.

Unusual thinness.

Prevention. A thorough knowledge of First Aid and the contents of 404. the chapters in this pamphlet, with strict adherence to the rules, is the best way of preventing the onset of exposure or exhaustion. Men should be e n c o u r a d to develop the "buddy" system, in which soldiers are paired off to watch one another at all times; the onset of any of the signs or symptoms of exposure or exhaustion can then be recognised and reported quickly.

405.

To keep warm a good mnemonic to remember is "Cold Feet".

C

Clean Clothing.

- Overheating is Out. - Dryness Definitely' Demanded.

L - Loose Layers of clothing D

28

F E
E

Faca. Finger and Foot Exercises. Equipment check before leaving. Eat your Rations. Boots are Terrible.

- Tight

406.

Treatment of Exposure a. Although there i s general agreement between authorities on this subject, there' are many important discrepancies which can be remnciled only when considered in the light of actual conditions at the, time of a particular accident. These conditions will include:

(1) The state of the patient. Is he in the early stages, fairly advanced. or has he collapsed and become quite incapable of any further movement? What reserves of energy has he remaining. (2) The Weather. Summer or Winter conditions; mild for the time of year or severe; raining, snowing, high wind. Time of day (daylight. etc)

(3) Location. On top of a mountain, or in a valley. Time and distance to a safe refuge. Chances of being able t o reach it.
(4) Clothing and equipment of the party. What are the chances of being able to survive until.rescued if they remain where they are?

b. . It is a matter of leadership and experience to decide what t o do in specific circumstances. .The general rules are discussed below. c. The way in which a casualty will eventually remver from exposure is by:

(1)

Insulation from further heat loss.

(2) . Resting, t o enable energy reserves t o be built up (6g from body fat).
29

(3) Replacement of lost heat and energy by warm drink and food and exterior warmth.
'

,'

c.(3)' is not necessarily essential, and the casualty can recover d. spontaneously; that i s to say with his own body resources. But warm drink and food should always be given, when available, to : . assist recovery. Exterior warmth can be provided by fires, cooking stoves in tents, warmth from companions, etc. e. The first decisions to be made by the leader are:

( 1 ) Are ihe conditions suitable for the casualty to be able to recover in his present environment?

(2) Must an attempt be made to get him,'to safety, even though this will lead to further deterioration and possibly death. because there i s little chance of him surviving in his present situation?
(3) A compromise solution might be a temporary halt for a rest and food.before continuing to the nearest place of safety. f. Treatment for Recovery. Insulating the patient against further heat loss also .insulates him against absorbing heat from outside, which i s a good method of assisting recovery. When should wet clothing be removed? When should the patient be left with little clothing on to ' speed the abmrption of exterior warmth? One method of treatment is t o strip the patient, as well as a healthy person, and to put them both in a sleeping bag together. To attempt this on top of a Scottish mountain in Winter would be madness; whereas in a hut with a fire going, or a warm tent, it becomes more practical, except for the difficulty of getting two adults into one sleeping bag. Even wet clothing. covered by waterproof outers to prevent evaporation of moisture, can provide considerable extra warmth. It will also act as a very efficient insulation against exterior warmth. Remember' always to keep the head and neck well protected. and the head low in relation to the body.
'

g . Carrying Out and Walking Out. Carryinpout implies evacuation of a casualty on some form of stretcher or improvised carry. The

30

advantages of this System are that the casualty does not use energy in movement. However, unless he is kept very warm (sleeping bag etcl he will still lose a great deal of body heat. If he is allowed to walk out he may well keep himself warmer. Frequent halts can be made for rest and warm drinks and food to be consumed. It i s frequently better to let the casualty make his own way i n this manner, without assistance from companions, even if he is staggering to a certain extent. They should, of course, be ready to give all assistanm if required. h. Hot Bath Treatment. The important thing to remember is that this treatment should be given only under a doctor's supervision. It does not form part of the treatment in the mountains or at normal refuge, and details of the treatment are basically tor interest only. The patient is immersed, fully clothed except for his boots, in a hot bath at a temperature of 45' (113OF). The temperature must be maintained by frequent topping up with hot water. When normal body temperature is regained, and perspiration breaks out on the brow, the patient is removed to a warm bed in a warm room. Under certain conditions, the treatment can be harmful. as when the patient is suffering from serious injuries or frostbite. Incorrect temperature may introduce shock if too hot, or further loss of body heat if too cool.
407.

Survival a. When a decision is made to set up a bivouac. the treatment of the casualty should proaeed along the lines set out in para 406c. If the expedition has been planned to last Several days, it is likely that full bivouac equipment in the form of tents, sleeping bags and c w k ing stoves will be carried, greatly facilitating the treatment of the casualty.

(1) Set up the bivouac in a location as sheltered as possible in the circumstances. (2) Use all means to insulate all members of the expedition from cold, if necessary by erecting a wind break, collecting grass or heather to form a warm bed, and gathering close together. Put on all extra clothing.

(3)

Light a fire, brew-up and use emergency ration.

31

(4)
hole.

In suitable snow conditions dig a snow scrape or snow

(5) Send at least for assistance.

two

of the fittest members of the expedition

The ability to survive in adverse conditions is dependent on b. mental and moral qualities as much as the physical condition of the. casualty. Fear i s the great enemy, coupled with a fatalistic attitude t o succumb. Previous experience of bivouaccing in a hostile environment will do much t o create confidence and. strength of will. This is it matter of training.
'

408.

'

Immersion in Very Cold Water (Immersion Exposure) a. Immersion in water with ice floating nearby 'is a grave emergency because the effects are immediate and clothing affords little or no protection. The breath i s k.nocked out of the person. violent shivering starts, the body curls up and control of the muscles is lost. Exposed parts, such as the fingers, freeze in about four minutes, consciousness becomes clouded in about seven minutes, and death occurs in 15-20 minutes. 'Some men have saved themselves by really violent action on hitting the water but greater numbers require help or die because of muscle spasm.

b. A common belief that immersion in cold water is rapidly fatal is, in fact, not always true and it is possible for men to survive immersion in very cold water for some time. ' Survival will depend upon the kind of protective clothing being worn; age; injury and training, for example; it i s not easy to predict how long, in general, men can live in cold water. There is a risk; however, of cold injury to the extremities in these circumstances. .It has been stated that at sea temperatures under 4' Centigrade . 5 (0 Fahrenheit) survival should be considered a a matter of minutes; 4' s this may be as few as five but perhaps as many a 60. At temperas tures in the order of 15.5' Centigrade (0 Fahrenheit) it.would be 6' unlikely for men not wearing special protective garments to survive for more than aboui five hours. ' A t temperatures of the order o f 21' Centigrade (0 Fahrenheit), and above, the likelihood of 7' survival after longer periods of time is good.
'

32

c. Immersion in water that is not cold enough to produce these acvte reactions calls for ths saving of body heat by a minimum of exertion. When the liner LACONIA was abandoned near Madeira, only 11 of the 124 deaths were due to injury or accident, and the rest were attributed t o Immersion Exposure. Some people swam around and thus lost body heat, others took clothing off in the water or entered it with little or none on. It is better t o cling to a floating object rather than to stmggle or to swim more than a very short distance unless this is likely to reduce the time spent in the water. Do not remove your clothing in the water. The prindples of treatment are those for exposure.

49 0.

Immersion or Trench Foot Immersion or Trench Foot occurs when the feet are immersed a. in cold water, or are thoroughly damp and cold for long periods without free movement and their blood supply is additionally constricted by tight clothing and by sitting with the legs down for many hours. The condition is serious and i t s onset is hastened by exhaustion, general chilling, and lack of food, drink and sleep. The feet and legs are painful and numb, or the pain and numbness may alternate. The pain can be so severe that the person looks ill and shocked. b. If Immersion Foot is suspected the First Aid treatment i s to remove the casualty gently to warm surroundings as soon as possible, lay him down and then take off the foot and leg coverings very care fully, preferably by cutting. The skin will be livid or purple in an established case, with swelling and blister formation. Dry the limb with gentle dabbing but do not rub or damage any of the blisters. Elevate the pan t o help the swelling to diminish and improvise a cage over the feet t o take the weight of the blankett that are necessary to provide warmth and wmfon. Do not provide the pan with artificial warmth and do not massage or rub. Do give the casualty hot food and drink, combat the pain with aspirin and keep the casualty lying down until he is safe in bed in haspital. c. Prevention comprises dryness, to8 and leg e x e r c i s and the loosening o f any constrictions that may impede circulation of the legs.

33

SECTION 2

- FROSTBITE

410.

General Frostbite occurs when the tissue' actually freezes, and this is. a. not until a skin temperature of minus lo Centigrade (0 Fahrenheit) 3' or lower is reached. The time scale depends on the severity of the cold, the wind speed, the area of skin exposed, or the amount of constriction of blood supply t o a part. Minor Frostbite most often affects the tip of the nose. cheeks, ears and fingers. .Severe Frostbite is wrnrnonest on the feet and indeed 85 per Cent of the cases.in Korea were of frostbitten feet. This i s because the shape and function of the feet render them diffi. cult 'to insulate adequately and 'any carelessness in severe wather makes them particularly liable t o this form of cold injury.

b.

'

411.

'

Prevention of Frostbite a . Know the contents of these sections.

b. ' Protea the casualty by getting under cover and warming up . the affected part as quickly as posible while it is in the painful tie warning) stage.
c. ' Under the "buddy" system the men should watch each other for the blanching (white appearance) .of nose;ears, cheek and skin which herald frostbite. d.
'

.&gravating factors to be guarded against are exhaustion, lack

of food and drink, other illness,.con&iction of blood supply:to a part such as the foot, wetting by sueat or water and the general chilling of the body. ' .

Do not handle metal with bare hands in these conditions and e. do not allow fuels, such as petrol, t o contaminate the skin, as freezing is almost instantaneous. .
'

f.

'

To keep warm remember "COLO FEET".

34

412.

Treatment for Frostbite

a.

The affected part may be intensely painful and this should be sufficient warning that it must be warmed up. The first aid treatment at this stage is to cwer the nose. cheek or ear with a gloved hand and get into warm shelter quickly. The fingers or hand should be slipped through the clothing into the armpit. When the feet are affected, get into shelter quickly and, as a test of true friendship, place them on the bare warm abdomen of a comrade, but with blankets or other coverings around to conserve heat. The disappearance of pain and the return of normal sensation indicates that the danger is over. b. If a p e r m is intensively pre-ompied - generally stunned with cold or exhausted the warning pain may not be recognised; eventually the pain disappears when the foot becomes numb. At this stage the frost has bitten and the area i s blanched and waxy white to look a t and hard to the touch. The condition is now serious and will spread i f shelter and w a r m i n g are not obtained. Never rub a frost bitten part with anything, because this will cause further damage to what is already very delicate tissue.

c. Research has indicated that rapid thawing in water of 42' 43O Centigrade (loa0 - 109' Fahrenheit) provides the best treatment for frost bitten limbs. Water in a container over a primus stove can be used conveniently for hands or feet. The water may be tested for temperature by using the elbow.

SECTION 3

- HEAT DISORDERS

413.

General a. The challenge o f the heat wave and the tropical climate can be better met i f there is a wider understanding of the illnesses and afflictions likely to be encountered, especially those directly due to the environment. Dehydration (lack of water) causes a loss of working efficiency, b. a marked decline in endurance and can lead to Heat Exhaustion.

35

Lack of salt produces a similar inefficiency and likelihood of fatigue. and can lead to Heat Cramps, which may m u r alone, or in association with, Heat Exhaustion.
c.

d. Dehydration and lack of salt can o a r together, perhaps complicated by sunburn or prickly heat or aggravated by continued exercise, so that they become ptentially lethal. e. Unacclimatised troops are particularly prone to heat disorders especially under operational conditions, but even acclimatised troops are affected when the simple instructions are not obeyed. f. Any of the heat disorders can predispose a man t o Heat Stroke, from which he may die. For further consideration they fall into two main .groups g. aaarding to the degree of incapacity they cause:.
.

(1)

Minor disorders. Major disorders.

(2)
414..
'

Minor disorders a. Prickly heat

(1) Prickly heat is common and is a source of great annoyance t o the sufferer, particularly by interfering sleep.

(2) The prickly sensation arises from a blockage o f the mouths of the sweat glands which prevent Sweat escaping. Instead. the sweat has to force its way through layers of skin cells causing fine eruptions, sometimes with a vesicle in the 'centre, a reddening of the surrounding skin and irritation,

(3) Areas of skin' usualli covered by clothing are most fquently affected, and. may become infected due to scratching.

36

(4) The mndition is aggravated by heat s t m . which would otherwise causa increased sweating.

(5) A severely affected man may suffer extensive damage to a large number of sweat glands causing sweating ability t o be ,diminished, with the result that, i f not removed from the heat stress. he is predisposed to a more sarious heat illness.
b.

Sunburn

(1 1

Sunburn is a particular hazard for unacclimatised troops.

(2) The reddening and blistering of sunburn is due t o the ultra violet content o f sunshine affecting skin which has not developed a protective tan. This ten is achieved by graded exposure, but in regions where sunshine is strong the first exposure must be no longer than five minutes if sunburn is t o be avoided.
(31 Extensive sunburn causes temporary upset, headache. fever and occasional vomiting. in addition t o the pain of the burn.
(4) The body's heat regulation may be upset because the affected areas do not sweat.

c .

Fainting

(1) Fainting after standing still for long periods can occur in troops anywhere.
In the tropics the troops are more likely t o faint hermed "Heat Syncope") while standing quietly. from the increased strain on the cirwlatory system due to the environment. T h i s is particularly true of unacclimatised men.

(2)

(3) Its occurrence does not imply any weakness or incapacity in the man, who will recover rapidly after a short rest.

37

415.

Major disorders a. Heat exhaustion. Heat Exhaustion includes four separable mnditions all of which are serious. These are:
. ,

Anhidrotic heat exhaustion. This is the name given t o chronic swaating deficienq of gradual onset (anhidrotic meaning "without swat"). which is nearly always preceded . by severe prickly heat and accompanied by loss of.energy. : initiative and interest. Such cases usually have to be returned. .. to a temperate climate. . .
' '' '

11)

( 2 ) Salt deficient heat exhaustion. This commonly occurs after 2 3 days heavy sweating without replacement of salt. The symptoms are collapse, pallor, sweating, nausea or vomiting and sometimes cramp of the muscles. The latter wn involve the large muscle groups and morphine may have to be used t o control the severe pain. This type of Heat Exhaustion i s a potentially lethal cmdition and requires urgent medical attention.

(3) Water deficient heat exhaustion. This may follow any period of heavy sweating when the water intake has been restricted. The symptoms are that the man complains of vague discomfort, no appetite and dizziness. He is impatient. weary and sleepy; tingling sensations, shortness of breath and a blue tinge of the skin develop and he has difficulty in walking. Eventually he is unable to stand or cmtrol his muscles and becomes restless and hysterical or delirious. However, with rest in the shade and water t o drink, recovery IS rapid.
(4) Exercise induced heat exhaustion. This is the Sequel to physical exertion in a hot environment in the absence or deficienq of salt or water or sweating, and may stop a t the exhaustion stage or 90 on to actual collapse.
b. Heat hyperpyrexia and heat. stroke. These are of the utmost importance in view of the rapidity with which a man may be struck down and die.

(1) Heat hyperpyrexia means "high fever" and is usually defined as a body temperature of 41' Centigrade (106O

38

Fahrenheit) or more, resulting from impaired functioning o f the heat regulating mechanism. Heat Hyperpyrexia can progress rapidly to Heat Stroke in which. the heat regulating mechanisms have failed. The body temperaturn rises steadily in the absence o f sweating and death ensues at a temperature of about 43' Centigrade (110' Fahrenheit).

(2) Heat stroke

(a) The onset of Heat Stroke is sudden and the victim may have been quite well a few hours previously. The disturbances are profound, including delirium, convulsions and partial or' complete 1 sof consciousness. 0 with snoring breathing and a hot, dry. flushed skin. (b) The only cure is immediate cooling t o check the rise in temperature, a a delay of one or two hours s can mean the differenca between life and death. (c) The man should be stripped of his clothing, wrapped in a wet sheet or covered with a wet towel. and fanned by any means at hand to promote cooling by evaporation. (d)

Do not apply iced water t o the skin of the patient

as this will not have. the desired effect.

(e) Do not wait for medical aid t o arrive before starting the suggested treatment i f Heat Stroke is suspected. If) Although cases'of Heat Stroke are relatively rare, they are more dangerous from a tendenq on the part of a casualty to crawl into a quiet corner, such as under a tent flap or behind a bush, where he may easily escape notice during the critical period. Where there is a risk o f Heat Stroke the above point must therefore be borne'in mind.

39

CHAPTER V CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT SECTION 1

- CLOTHING

The function of clothing is to aid in keeping the body temperature within the narrow range of the few degrees that are normal for efficient functioning and t o prevent injury t o the skin from rough terrain, thomy plants, insects etc.

501.

502.

Clothing for cold climates should have the following qualities: a . Insulation. Insulation is achieved by trapping still air (the . best 'insulation known t o man).between the fibres in the weave and between the layers of the under garments. The amount of insulation can be varied by removing or putting on one or more layers o f clothing when too warm or chilly. b. Ventilation. Over-heating is prevented by ventilating the clothing through clmures at'the neck, wrists.and waist,.and by having the' head, face and hands bare.
'

c Bulk. Clothing should not hinder agile or fine movements, otherwise the workload will increase and there will be a danger of over-heating, end therefore quick fatigue.
Fit. Each layer must f i t comfortably on the inner layer d. without constricting. It must not be too loose or body move ments will cause a serious loss of heat by ."bellow" action.
'

e. ' Windproofness. The windprcmfing of garments prevents the penetration by wind which would remove the still heated air. This quality is particularly required in outer garments.

f. ' Water resistance and water proofness: These are highly desirable in outer garments and footwear in ColdANet climates:
g. Fibre permeability. This is essential in outer garments for ColdIDry climates since exoegive sweat can evaporate and escape without condensing in the clothing. There is a danger
'

40

that frost or ice may form inside certain commercial waterproof clothing in these conditions and soldiers should be on their guard against this.
h. Durability. This is in order t o prevent snagging and tearing of outer garments which would allow trapped heat t o be lost rapidly.

j. Washable. This calls for fabrics that do not shrink on wash. ing. and dry easily.

503. Cold weather clothing is fitted on the layer principle, and this applies to the head, hands and feet as well as on to the body and limbs. 'Care should be taken to overlap the various items particularly at the wrist,-as it is in such places where frostbite has resulted from not replacing mittens and gloves properly. The footwear for ColdNVet climates, ie. socks and boots. must be fitted carefully when a man is standing and carrying a loaded pack. In severe Cold/Dry conditions, leather boots-cease to protect between minus 10' Centi0 ' 5 grade and minus 2 Centigrade (14' Fahrenheit t o minus' Fahrenheit) so duffle socks, felt insoles and mukluks should be used.
Protection of the head in cold weather deseNeS special mention. The 504. skin of the head is well supplied with blood vessels, but it does not feel the cold. The result i s that a bare head can lose a substantial amount of heat, but it i s the body that feels cold and extra clothing put on the body does not make a man any warmer. It is therefore more economical and weight saving to wear even a light head covering. More severe weather requires the use of ear muffs, balaclavas, hats and hoods of combat smock and parka. The areas most liable to frostbite after the feet and fingsrs are the tip of the nose. cheeks and ears. . In snow cover and sunshine snow goggles are required to prevent snow blindness. Equipment The equipment to be carried should ideally be in a waterproof container, such as a rucksack. Web equipment is not waterproof and so the contents should be kept dry by, for instance, putting them into a polythene bag. Spare food. First Aid Kit, waterproof overgarments, torches and spare batteries, lightweight cooking equipment and emergency camping gear, with sleeping bag, should also be carried by each man i f the expedition'is to be away for more than a few hours.

505.

41

That it is dangerous not t o carry the above items is shown clearly in 506. recent incidents of exposure in the United Kingdom in which there were 25 deaths, 5 cases of unconsciousness all recovered - and 58 milder cases, in all of which the symptoms began 5-6 hours after setting out. The interval between the onset of wmptoms and collapse and death was sometimes as short as 1-2 hours. All were wet through with inadequate windproof clothing, especially on the lower half of the body, and had pushed on to exhaustion.

All men, and in particular the leader of an expedition, must check 507. clothing and equipment before setting out to ensure that:

'

a. Correct clothing i s taken, eg string vest;long pants, heavy shirt, pullover(s), socks, mittens, gloves. head coverings, windproof outer garments and boots; furthermore that.the items are in good .order. b. Waterproof garments are carried: This means that the danger of setting out in bad weather or deteriorating conditions must be taken into amount. c. Emergency items have not been forgotten and the polythene b a s are not torn, the.sleeping bags have no holes and zippers are not jammed. 508. The leader of a party should check, each morning, that members do not put on all their warm clothing before beginning the day's activities. As conditions change throughout the day clothing should be added or removed t o maintain an even skin temperature.

42

CHAPTER VI

FOOD AND WATER

SECTION 1

FOOD

601. There is a great temptation to travel light, and this is often done at the expense of food and water supplies. Optimism that there will not be an emergency in the short time away from Base is another danger, but it needs only a twisted ankle to immobilise a man in open country for several hours while help is obtained. If the weather deteriorates suddenly the results of lacking shelter, hot food and drink may be fatal.
Always carry a reserve of food above the normal requirement. 602. Experiments on troops have proved that a high fat and carbohydrate (starches and sugars) diet is better for protection in cold climates than a high meat diet. One of the best reserve foods (to be eaten in emergencies only) is glucose toffee sweets containing 7 per cent fat and 85 per cent sugar, packed in 5 8 oz boxes. In heat-waves and tropical climates the main meal should be kept 603. until the cool of the evening and special attention should be given to "attractiveness" so that jaded appetites are stimulated.

SECTION 2 . SALT

604.

Common salt is lost in the sweat and in the urine and if it is not replaced inefficient working and then illness result. There is enough salt in Army rations to replace that lost in 10-12 pints of sweat daily. provided the rotion is eoten. Appetites readily become jaded in the heat, however. so there should be supervision at meal times. It is advisable not to swallow salt tablets whole because they can irritate the stomach and cause vomiting. If extra salt is required it should be taken by crushing and dissolving the tablets at the rate of one tablet to one pint of water, say in the water bottle. This solution does not taste and i s quite the best way of ensuring an extra supply with the amount of water required by the body to use it.

43

SECTION 3 605.

. WATER

Troops lacking experience of winter training are often surprised a t ' . the high daily water requirement in a cold climate, if physical efficiency is m be maintained. It is better to stop at regular intervals to "brew-up" in shelters. Always have a good meal before starting, then a snack at a "brewup" halt about midday and another good meal in the evening. Remember that food and drink are the only souras of fuel necessary to keep going well, and remember t o take a reserve.

606. The body's water requirements in heatwave, and in the tropics. are large because of the high sweat rate which is necessary to keep'the body mol and working efficiently. The thirst sensation is not an accurate reflection of the body's water requirements and troops.,must be encouraged to drink past the point of thirst quenching. A good d e is 10 pints of water per day plus one pint for every hour of activity; walking round counts a an activity. If the urine is scanty and highly wloured more water must s be drunk.
SECTION 4

- ALCOHOL

Never take alcohol during the-day and only well diluted and in 607. small quantities in t h e evening in hot climates. The consumption of alwhol

can be dangerous in Certain conditions of exposure and exhaustion and it . .

should not be used.

44

Annex A

THE COUNTRY CODE

1.
It is essential that the Country Code is always obselved. particularly a. when training or moving Over private land. It IS not only a matter of courtesy to the landowner and the public in general, but helps t o ensure that the Army is not brought into disrepute.

b. I f it i s necessary t o climb over a gate, do so at the hinged end. When climbing a wire fence put one foot on each side of a POSt and do not stand with full weight on the wire between WO posts. c.

Do not scorch grass with cooking stoves but rest them on a stone.

Do not dig water trenches around tents in the mountains as d. grass can be precious.
If damage is caused by accident it must be reported as soon as e. possible. This must be done even if the damage is repaired a t the time.

f.
g.

Do not shout unless there is an emergency.

The Country Code is:
(1)

Guard against all risks of fire. Fasten all gates. Keep d o g under proper control. Keep to paths across farmland. Avoid damaging fences, hedges and walls.

(2)

(3)
(4)
(51

(6)
(7)

Do not leave litter.

Safeguard water supplies. Protect wildlife, wild plants and trees. Go carefully on country roads.

(8)
(9)

(10) Respect the life of the countryside.

A- 1

ANNEX B SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY The bibliography contains only a few of the publications available and is not intended to be a comprehensive list. Mountaineering "Mountain Leadership" by E Langmuir "Mountaineering" by A Blackshaw Sports Council Penguin Books Mountaineering Association Educational Publications Edinburgh Universiw Press Nelson Faber Kaye
\

"A Short Manual of Mountaineering Training"

"Rock Climbing" "Mountain Climbing" "Let's Go Climbing" "Modern Mountaineering" "The Technique of Mountaineering" "Safety on Mountains"

by W C Burns

(Know the Gameseries) by C M Dixon (Teach Yourself series) by G H Francis by C Kirkus by S Styles by J E B Wright

CCPR Handbook obtainable from 22 Park Crescent, London W1.

British Mountaineering Council and Association of Scottish Climbing Clubs Joint Circulation No. 326. British Mountaineering Council and Association of Scottish Climbing Clubs Joint Circulation No. 380 (BMC 380 lissued on scale C)). Hill Walking "Camp and Trek" by J Cox Lutterworth

ReSCUe

"Mountain Rescue and Cave Rescue" . Handbook of the Mountain Rescue Committee obtainable from Hill House, Cheadle Hulme. Stockport, Cheshire, Weather

"The Observer's Book of Weather"

"The Weather Map" 'Weather" "Understanding Weather" 'Weather' Guide" General "Where to climb in the British Isles"

by R M Lester
Meteorological Office by R S Scorer bv 0 G Sutton . by Fosdyke

Warne HMSO Phoenix House Pelican Hamilton

by E C Watt by J E B Wright

Faber Kaye

"Rock Climbing in Britain"

"The Climber and Rambler" "Mountain"

This is a monthly magazine suited to all tastes

10 times a vear

BMC.

746D M 3/75