T he Land People and the People

epal lies along the mountains of the central portion of the Himalayas. This rectangular piece of South Asia has acted as an important bridge linking two ancient civilizations of the Asian continent-China in the north and India in the south. The land slopes downwards from the almost impenetrable and mighty Himalayan wall of the north until it reaches the southern fertile Tarai plains. The narrow track of Tarai plains was once covered by thick tropical forests known as the Cbar Kose Jhadi. This malarial curtain kept settlements out until recently when the forests started being cleared and people from all directions came to settle down making it the fastest growing habitated area in the country. India lies to the south of the Tarai. The Mechi river flowing from north to south is the eastern border and the Mahakali river makes up the western border of Nepal. The Kingdom of Nepal was once much more extensive and included the present-day Indian Kumaun and Gadhwal and all the hill country west to the river Sutlej. Lord Buddha was born in Lumbini in South Nepal

Between the Himalayas and the Tarai plains lie two mountain ranges running from west to east broken only by streams and rivers that run from north to south. These natural furrows have acted as natural barriers against the movement of people from one part of the country to the other which meant that the isolated communities could enjoy their own unique lifestyles without hindrance from others. The Mahabharat range reaching up to 10,000 ft in height takes up the largest area of the country and most of the Nepalese live on the slopes and valleys of this range. The Chure or Siwalik range, a single file of sandstone hills Old Kathmandu Darbar Square- Now a World Heritage Site. running from the east to the west, not exceeding 300 to 600 feet from the base, is the outer the length of the country-Nanda Devi (25,700 feet); border of the mountainous ranges. The Tarai lies south Dhaulagiri (26,826 feet); Gosainthan (26,305); and of the Chure and serves as the rice bowl of today's Kangchanjunga (28,156 feet). The 29,028 feet Mount Nepal. Everest lies roughly midway and gives off no main The Nepal himalayas consist of four major ridges. massifs making the formidable northern wall throughout

The Nepal Himalayas - Nepal boasts 8 of the World's Highest 14 peaks.

The climate of Nepal varies according to the landscape. Farther north, between the Great Himalaya and the Tibetan marginal mountains, lie the Bhot valleys, which resemble in almost every respect the Tibetan landscape. The Bhot valleys offer a typically tundra climate, with cool summers and very cold winters. The southern Tarai and inner valleys have a hot, humid, tropical climate. The centrally located mountain and hill country offers conditions between these two extremes. In spite of the great variations available here, the climate can be generally described as temperate. The mountains stop the monsoon winds blowing from the southeast providing the country with plenty of rains from June to September. However, the winds get drier as they flow west making the eastern parts wetter than the west. Small amounts of winter rain are also brought by winds from the Arabian Sea. Because of the influence of topography, great variations in the amount of rainfall are found even in rather small localities. The rain shadow areas of the Tibetan plateau, which contain the northernmost parts of Nepal, get very little rain, some years not at all. Given the narrowness of the rectangle as the breadth of Nepal does not cover more than five degrees in latitude in any part, the range in climate is striking. The climatic variations offer a sanctuary for a wide variety of plant and animal species. The

biodiversity is one of the richest even though the area of the land mass is small. This diversity in climate, plants and animals is matched only by the diversity of people and their individual lifestyles. Within such a small geographical area many different ethnic groups have settled on the slopes of separate mountains and in valleys. Throughout the ages, people from north, south, east and west settled in these parts bringing in their influences to create a unique culture. Records show that at least 61 different languages are spoken in Nepal, besides the Nepali language itself. These people have lived in the difficult terrain for centuries toiling hard for a simple lifestyle. Their hospitality and honesty have been highly regarded throughout the world. They have learned to use the mountains not only for their livelihood and lifestyle but also for their security as well. The harsh conditions and independent mindset nurtutured the strong martial spirit of the Nepalese people, which has been well known throughout history. Ancient scriptures reflect that Nepalese forces had fought even during the Mahabharat war.

Hilly terrain typical of the mountainous landscape of Nepal

The rugged landscape offers some passes albeit for only hardened human beings, to traverse. These breaks or passes have served as stragtegic points for contacts between the northern and southern civilizations since time immemorial. There are more than half a dozen passes through the Nepal Himalayas leading to the Tibetan plateau that have been regularly used to this day. Apart from the numerous streams which originate in the mountainous country before furrowing their way to the south, three main rivers provide some basin landscapes in Nepal. The snowfed rivers rise in the Himalayas and provide a perennial source of water for irrigation, transportation and the like. They are: the Western basin of the Karnali, Central basin of the Gandaki and the Eastern basin of the Koshi. Mount Everest - locally called Sagarmatha

Nepali youths in traditional attire with their Khukuris (above.)

T he Origins of History Histor y

ecorded history of Nepal begins after 350 BC. Documentary evidences, apart from the scriptures, are not available for periods before that. Different kings of different dynasties like Gopal, Mahishpal, Kirat and Lichchabi had ruled over this kingdom during the Pauranic (ancient) Age. Capturing other principalities and invading territories through armed might was common practice. Records show that the institution of the army was initiated just after 350 AD. In those days, the neighboring countries, including China, Tibet and southern states, known as India today, had armies of their own. Nepal had also maintained her military strength according to documents of the reigns of prominent Lichchavi kings, including Mandev, Shiva Dev, Narendra Dev and Anshuvarma. King Narendra Devs Nepal had extended the cooperation of 7,000 cavalry and 3,500 infantry troops in the year 647 AD at the request of China to attack a Southern kingdom. The armed forces used to be centrally located during the ancient times, whereas, in the middle age, they were deployed in vital locations like fortresses in strategically important places of the country. The commander of the fortress was called Kwantha Nayak and they were very powerful. The Malla dynasties ruled Nepal in the middle age. Newar Malla kings ruled over Kathmandu valley and the surrounding areas while the Karnali region was ruled by Khas Malla kings, who had maintained powerful armies. King Jitari Malla had attacked Kathmandu valley but the Khas Malla forces were ignobly defeated by the Newari Malla Soldiers. During this period, Nepal was divided into fifty different principalities which meant that military strength remained dispersed. Soldiers were maintained by the kings, princes, chiefs of army, mulmi, kwantha nayaks,and umraos. These traditional ranks were prestigious positions in the then army. Since some of

the principalities were stronger than the others, there were continuous clashes. In Kathmandu valley, and also in Doti, it is now known that Indian mercenaries had also been used. The significance of military might derived from the Pauranic Age was well understood and followed to the letter. The 1700s was a century of uncertainty throughout the world. Rivalry among states was not confined to this part of the planet. The world military powers like Britain, France and Portugal were busy creating colonies in different parts. Clashes in their interests resulted in wars in different countries. Britain and France were also moving towards southeast Asia. This threatened Nepal also. The British East India Company had already captured major parts of India and was moving forward towards northeast and approaching Nepal. Nepal was divided into many principalities during this period. It was at this time that King Prithvi Narayan Shah, hailing from one of the principalities called Gorkha, decided to unify Nepal. He was the architect of modern Nepal. Although, Gorkha was small and economically weak, King Prithvi Narayan Shah astounded the world by carrying out such a difficult task under such difficult circumstances. The present King, His Majesty Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev, is a direct descendant of Prithvi Narayan Shah the Great. The Unification campaign was initiated in 1740 AD at which time the British had already started colonizing the Indian provinces. This was a turning point in the history of the Nepalese army. Since unification was not possible without a strong army, the management of the armed forces had to be exceptional. Apart from the standard

Malla era temples in Kathmandu

army being organized in Gorkha, technicians and experts had to be brought in from abroad to manufacture war materials. After the Gorkhali troops captured Nuwakot, the neighbouring principality of Kathmandu (Kantipur) in the year 1744, the Gorkhali armed forces came to be known as the Royal Nepalese Army. Their gallantry, sincerity and simplicity impressed even the enemy so much that the British EastIndia Company started recruiting Nepalese into their forces. Since the British had fought against the RNA, which was till that time, still colloquially known as "Army of Gorkha" or "Gorkhali" army, the British took to calling their new soldiers "Gurkhas". There is still some misunderstanding that the

Royal Nepalese Army is a part of the British and Indian Armies. The Gurkha Rifles existing in India and Britain are part of foreign military organizations where Nepalese are recruited.The RNA, although righfully the true heir of the title of "The original Army of the Gorkha". The proud National Army of the sovereign and independent Hindu Kingdom of Nepal with an unbroken history since the year 1744. The fact that Nepal and the Nepalese people have never been subjugated by any colonial power is a significant achievement of the Royal Nepalese Army. Prithvi Narayan Shah the Great was the founder of the Royal Nepalese Army.

Unification Battles
Battle of Nuwakot Nuwakot, a strategic area in the northwest of Kathmandu valley, belonged to the kingdom of Kathmandu. King Narabhupal Shah, the father of Prithvi Narayan Shah had tried to annex Nuwakot into Gorkha. But his attempt had failed. The first attempt by King Prithvi Narayan also failed. So, this was really the third attempt by the Gorkha King. Kazi Kalu Pande, the Gorhali Commnader, chalked out a strategy to mount a sudden attack against the defenders from an unexpected direction without giving the enemy opportunity for counterattack. When Kazi Kalu Pande began to climb up from the north, it
His Majesty King Prithvi Narayan Shah The Great.

was dawn of the 26th of September 1744. The defenders of Nuwakot were still sleeping. The Gorkhali forces reached Mahamandal, a tactical outpost in Nuwakot, and mounted a surprise attack there. Shankha Mani, the commander of the defenders, began to encourage his panic-stricken soldiers to stand up and fight against the Gorkhalis, but to no avail. He himself took a sword, charged forward and wounded a few Gorkhali soldiers. He had already sustained injuries. He advanced towards Dal Mardan Shah, brother of Prithvi Narayan Shah, and challenged him.

Nuwakot Palace

Over the next few years, this success was followed by a deliberate and practical strategy to lay general seige on the Kathmandu Valley from all directions. Another important step in the initial unification campaign was the conquering of Kirtipur, the fortress in the southern part of Kathmandu valley. Gorkhali troops had failed twice already to secure Kirtipur. King Prithvi Narayan Shah changed his plan and encircled and blockaded the whole fort. A six-month long siege by the Gorkhali forces created panic among its inhabitants. The Kirtipur Commander, on 12th March. 1766, opened the gates of the fort at mid-night and surrendered to the Gorkhali forces. Kirtipur was annexed to Gorkha without any battle. Similarly, blockade tactics also helped secure Makawanpur, south of Kathmandu Valley. Well known names like Mohaddam Kirti Shah, Surpratap Shah, Dalamardan Shah, Rana Rudra Shah, Nandu Shah, Kaji Bamsa Raj Pandey, Kaji Kehar Singh Basnyat, Kaji Nahar Singh Basnyat and Kaji Abhiman singh Basnyat were despatched with about 1,100 fighting troops to encircle the Makawanpur fortress by the dawn of 20th August 1762.

Kalu Pandey Dal Mardan Shah was just 13 years old. Dal Mardan Shah answered the challenge and with a swift strike on Shankha Manis head, killed him on the spot. Kalu Pandes plans had proved successful. Another group of Gorkhali soldiers led by Chautaria Mahadam Kirti Shah, another brother of Prithvi Narayan Shah, crossed Dharampani but met with strong resistance. The battle continued for a while and ultimately the Gorkhali forces prevailed. Many defenders died and the remaining fled. The third group, led by King Prithvi Narayan Shah himself, began to advance swiftly towards Nuwakot Gadhi after receiving news of the capture of Mahamandal. The death of Shankha Mani had taken the wind out of the defenders sail. They began to flee towards Belkot instead of fighting. Kazi Kalu Pande reached Nuwakot with a small contingent of forces. Mahodam Kirti Shah also arrived. King Prithvi Narayan Shah entered the Nuwakot Gadhi fortress. Nuwakot was annexed to the Gorkha State. The first foothold in the process of unification of Nepal had been secured.

Abhiman Singh Basnyat

Bada Kaji Amar Singh Thapa

King Digbardhan Sen and his minister Kanak Singh Baniya had already sent their families to safer grounds before the encirclement of their fortress. The Gorkhalis launched an attack on 21st August 1762. The battle lasted for eight hours. King Digbardhan and his minister Kanak Singh escaped to Hariharpur Gadhi. Makawanpur was thus annexed to Nepal. After occupying the Makawanpur Gadhi fort, The Gorkhali forces started planning for an attack on Hariharpur Gadhi, a strategic fort on a mountain ridge of the Mahabharat range, also south of Kathmandu. It controlled the route to the Kathmandu valley. At the dusk of 4th October, 1762, the Gorkhalis launched the attack. The soldiers of Makwanpur fought valiantly against the Gorkha forces, but were ultimately forced to vacate the Gadhi after mid-night. About 500 soldiers of Makwanpur died in the battle. The unification process by Prithvi Narayan Shah continued after this death also. The Kangra fort, now Old Nepalese Army Colours part of Himachal Pradesh of India, was kept under encirclement for three years during the unification battles unification battles, except for the annexatino of Palpa by the Royal Nepalese Army under the command of which was accomplished after the death of Regent Bada Kazi Amar Singh Thapa. In the years that followed Prince Bahadur Shah.

the death of King Pritvi Narayan Shah, his younger son Regent Bahadur Shah and others had succeeded in extending Nepal to the Sutlej river (now in India) and beyond in the West and Sikkim and Bhutan to the East. The Kangra fort, situated on top of a hill about 64 Kilometers from the Vyas river, was considered impregnable and had a great strategic and military importance. Sansar Chand, the king of Kangra, was unpopular even to his countrymen. Amar Singh Thapa camped his forces at Jwalamukhi, from where a contingent of Nepali forces laid seize to the Kangra fort. Sansar Chand sent a message to Amar singh Thapa saying he intended to give up control of the Kangra fort and Tara Gadh and hand them over to him. He asked for a period of ten days to do so. Amar Singh Thapa withdrew his forces from the gates of Ganesh valley. But Sansar Chand was just buying time and secretly approaching Ranjit Singh of Punjab for help. Ranjit Singh along with his 1,500 Sikh soldiers reached the Kangra fort, dodging the Nepalese. He launched a multipronged attack against the Nepali forces. The first battle was fought at Ganesh valley, the second at Gorkha Tila and the last at Malkan da. A fierce fight raged in the Ganesh valley, where both sides suffered heavy casualties. The Sikhs made a retreat but again attacked in the evening. The Nepali forces had to give up some positions in the battle. Ultimately, a peace treaty was signed between the opposite camps. The Nepali forces had to fall back to Sutlej river on 24th August, 1809. The battle of Kangra was the last of the

Battle against Mir Kassim - 1763 AD

Defending a Defending Kingdom in the Making

f the unification battles brought the bravery of the Gorkhalis into the limelight, that bravery was to be tested to the limits by the wars they had to fight to preserve the fledgling Kingdom. The stories that follow show how the Nepalese forces kept up their reputation even during adverse circumstances. They were almost always vastly outnumbered and outgunned, but rarely out-soldiered.

The fortress of Makawanpur has a historical and military significance for the Nepalese. It was here that the Nepalese defeated superior forces of Mir Kassim and seized 500 guns and two cannons. Later on, these weapons were used by Nepalese troops and four companies were established regular, namely, Srinath, Kalibox, Barda Bahadur (Bardabahini) and Sabuj. (Purano) Gorakh Company was established a few months later. It was the first rank and file system beginning a proper organizational history for the Royal Nepalese Army. The battle against Mir Kassim troops was the first battle of the Royal Nepalese Army against a foreign power. Sardar Nandu Shah was the fortress Commander of Makawanpur with 400 troops, some guns and home-made traditional weapons like Dhanu, Khukuri, Talwar, Ghuyatro etc. They devised different hit-and-run strategies to surprise the enemy. A spoiling attack base was set up on the Taplakhar mountain ridge for night operations. Mir Kassim's renowned warrior, Gurgin Khan was the commander on the other side with

approximately 2,500 troops with cannons, guns, ammunition and a very good logistics back up. Their attack base was at the bottom of the Makawanpur Gadhi hill. They had planned a night attack. When the enemys heavy forces marched on December 1762 and arrived at Harnamadi in January 1763, they found all the local houses already evacuated and the area short of food provisions. Makawanpur Gadhi was on top of a mountain, about nine kilometers uphill from the Harnamadi area. Although the Nepalese had physically occupied all the fortresses enroute, the enemy was able to initially push them back to the Makawanpur Gadhi area. About 300 enemy launched a strong attack on 20th January 1763 putting the Nepalese still more on the defensive. But they were totally surprised when they were resting in Taplakhar, as Kaji Bamsa Raj Pandey led a downhill attack on them Kaju Naharsigh Basnyat led an uphill attack from below them and Nandu Shah led a frontal attack. The smooth coordination among the three, leading their, by now battle-hardened, troops in the dark of the night, led the bewildered enemy to scatter. About 1700 of them died and 30 Nepalese soldiers were lost in that battle. The Nepalese captured 500 rifles and two canons with other military equipment. More importantly, the battle led to the beginning of a proper organization of the Royal Nepalese Army. Battle of Pauwa Gadhi against Captain Kinloch- 1767 AD King Jayaprakash Malla of Kantipur was in search of foreign military help against the Gorkhali military campaign. So he decided to seek urgent military assistance from East India Companys Consular General of Betiya, Mr. Goulding, in March 1767. King Prithvi Narayan Shah for his part sent a message to the British asking them not to help the Malla King. But the company ignored the message and a threatening letter was sent to King Prithvi Narayan Shah to fall back to Gorkha and not to block the trade routes to Kathmandu Valley. Captain Kinloch, a veteran of many campaigns, was the Commander of about 2,400 well armed and equipped men. He planned to advance form Patna (India) to Panauti (Kabhrepalanchok). Kinloch marched from Patna on 17th August 1767. But when they were marching form Dhungrebas to Sindhuali Gadhi, the Nepalese troops launched ferocious surprise attacks from both front and rear. Captain Kinloch managed to

escape with about 1600 men. Kinloch fell back to Janakpur with his surviving troops. He planned to launch another offensive via the Bagmati rive and the target was Hariharpur Gadhi. He reorganized and regrouped his surviving 700 troops. His second military expedition started towards Hariharpur Gadhi on 20th September 1967. But the adverse weather conditions and the swelling river stalled his advance. Prithvi Narayan Shah deployed Kaji Ram Krishna Kunwar with reinforcements at Hariharpur Gadhi. When Kinloch received the news he became uneasy. He was physically restricted by the flooded Bagmati and mentally harrased by the Nepalese Army

Ram Krishna Kunwar tactics. With low morale among the troops, Kinloch reluctantly retreated to India in disgrace after a small battle.

Anglo-Nepal War 1814 AD

Border tensions and ambitious expansionism led to the inevitable Anglo-Nepal War in 1814.

Nepal was in difficulty due to shortage of war materials as the Nepalese had been fighting continuously for half a century, ever since the unification process began. A huge amount of resources were spent on the first and second wars against the Tibetans. And now, they had to fight the numerically superior and well equipped British. The Royal Nepalese Army Commanders were hard pushed to concentrate the troops in time because they remained scattered in many places between the Tista river in the east to the Alakhnanda of Gadhwal in the west. Bada Kaji Amar Singh Thapa, Sardar Bhakti Thapa. Captain Bir Balabhadra Kunwar were not in favour of war with the British at the time, but, Bhimsen Thapa and his officers had calculated otherwise. Nepal had about 14,000 troops. They had some pieces of cannons and about 4,000 rifles to fight the British with. The Nepal-Company war was a painful ordeal for Nepal . About half of the Nepalese territory was lost in this war. But the battles also proved the fighting mettle of the Nepalese under severely adverse conditions. The British military strategy against Nepal

was to launch multiple offensives to split reaction while primarily threatening Kathmandu directly. Their strategy was to capture the whole of Kumaun and Gadhwal, Bushair in Himanchal Pradesh and adjoining hill states. The British also wanted to free other areas from Gorkha control. For this they would have to contain the Sikh and the Marathas through alliances. They would also need to pacify the Chinese. The British made a detailed plan for a huge offensive thrust against Nepal which was designed to divide the Nepalese forces into fragments. Their armed forces not only greatly outnumbered the Nepalese side but had far superior weapons. Major General Marley led the first division to seize the pass at Makawanpur as a preliminary step to advance to Kathmandu. Major General John Sullivan Wood led the second division. Major General Rollow Gillespie had the third division under his control and his aim was to advance to Deharadun via Saharanpur and then reach Srinagar. Colonel David Ochterlony was given the fourth division to advance through BilaspurRamgadh, Arki/Malaun-Subathu-Jaithak and then link up with Gilliespies troops. Captain B Latter was given approximately 2,400 troops to secure the firm base and provide flank protection to Major General Marleys troops from the eastern direction. Battle of Jitgadh 1814 AD With the help of the ex-Palpali king, Major General Wood planned to march on Siuraj, Jit Gadhi and Nuwakot with a view to bypass the Butwol defense, flushing out minor opposition on the axis, and assault Palpa from a less guarded flank. Colonel Ujir Singh Thapa had deployed his 1200 troops in many defensive positions including Jit Gadhi, Nuwakot Gadhi and Kathe Gadhi. The troops under Colonel Ujir were very disciplined and he himself was a dedicated and able commander. He was famous for exploting advantage in men, material, natural resources and well versed in mountain tactics. The British advance took place on 22nd Poush 1871 BS (January 1814 AD) to Jit Gadh. While they were advancing to this fortress, crossing the Tinau river, when the Royal Nepalese Army troops opened fire from the fortress. Another of the attackers columns was advancing to capture Tansen Bazar. Here too, Nepalese spoiling attacks forced the General to fall back to

Weapons used by the Grokhalis

Gorakhpur. About 70 Nepalese lost their lives in Nuwakot Gadhi. Altogether, more than 300 enemies Battle of Hariharpur Gadhi 1815 AD perished. No special military action had taken place in Battle of Makwanpur Gadhi Hariharpur Gadhi fortress in the first campaign. Major General Bannet Marley and Major General George Major General Bennet Marley was tasked to Wood had not been able to advance for an offensice occupy Hetauda and capture the fortresses of against Makawanpur and Hariharpur Gadhi fortresses. Hariharpur and Makawanpur before proceeding to But the out stretched Royal Nepalese Army was Kathmandu. His frontage of advance lay between Rapati defeated on the Western front i.e. Gadhawal and river and Bagmati river. After additional reinforcements, Kumaun area. Ochterlony had finally outfoxed Bada he had 12,000 troops for his offensive against the Kaji Amar Singh Thapa. He was the only successful Makawanpur and Hariharpur axis. A big attack base British Commander in the first Nepal-Company was established but Major General Marley showed campaign. British India appointed him as the Main reluctance to take risks against the Nepalese. Some Operational Commander in the second offensive on the skirmishes had already started taking place. Similarly, Bharatpur- Makawanpur-Hariharpur front. Major General George Wood, sometimes known as Colonel Kelly and Colonel OHollorah the Tiger of the British Indian Army, proved exceedingly followed the Bagmati river to reach Hariharpur Gadhi. cautious. Nepalese local Officials and heads of villagers were Colonel Ranabir Singh Thapa, brother of bribed for sensitive information about the defensive Bhimsen Thapa, was to be the Sector Commander of positions in the area of Hariharpur Gadhi.The Makawanpur-Hariharpur axis. He was given a very information seriously compromised the Nepalese large fortress and about 4,000 troops with old rifles defences. Secret routes would have given the enemy and a few pieces of cannons. advantage even if they were able to get only a battalion But the British could not move forward from through. But the British were able to advance with more the border. Colonel Ranabir Singh Thapa had been trying than a brigades strength. to lure the enemies to his selected killing area. But Major Colonel Kelly and Colonel OHollorah General Wood would not move forward from Bara launched their attack from two different directions on Gadhi and he eventually fell back to Betiya. 29th February. Many Nepalese lost their lives. Kaji Ranajor Thapa withdrew to Sindhuli Gadhi to link up with Bada Kaji Amarsingh Thapa. The British troops did not approach Sindhuli Gadhi and fell back to Makawanpur by the end of March 1815 AD. Two days latter the ratified treaty was handed over to the British in Makawanpur. Battle of Nalapani Gillespies Army entered Dehradun well before the declaration of war. When bal Bhadra Kunwar, commander of the Royal Nepalese Army defences there, heard of the approach of the British Army and its size, he realized that it would be impossible to defend the city. He withdrew from Dehradun and moved his six hundred men, mainly of Purano Gorakh Batallion including dependents to a hill northeast of the city, where he took up position in the small fort of Khalanga.

Dress of Traditional Nepalese Soldiers

The first British attack on Nalapani took place on 31st October, the day befor the official declaration of war Gillespies plan was to storm the fort from three sides. Under cover of fire, pioneers swarmed up to the walls, only to be cut down by the fearsome blast of Bal Bhadras cannon. Gilespies men fell back. Bravely, but perhaps a bit foolishly, Gilespie moved forward to rally his men but a Royal Nepalese Army marksman got him. Marley and Wood never really recovered from the shock of Gillespies death, and even with very substantial reinforcements they could not be brought to engage the Royal Nepalese Army in their respective areas of responsibility. Major Mawbey, who was next in command at Nalapani, after reinforcement, bombarded the fort and breached the wall. The British forces then tried to storm the breach, but hesitated when they found their way blocked by sharpened bamboo sticks. The Royal Nepalese Army troops fired on the attackers and drove them off. The day ended with the British withdrawing. British casualties for the day mounted to over five hundred men dead and wounded. And still Bal Bhadra held his position. Mawbey then instructed his by now strongly reinforced gunners to fire into the fort, and he sent scouts out to discover the fort's water sources. The water supply was finally blocked, and the Nepalese were forced to evacuate the fort on 30 November, but Bal Bhadra and some seventy of his men were able to cut their way through and escape into the hills. This battle more than any other established the Warrior reputation of the Gorkhalis. Balbhadra and his 600 had held against the might of the British/native troops for a month. Gen Gillipsie had been killed even with only 70 remaining survivors after his water source had been cut off, Balbhadra refused to surrender, instead charging out and successfully hacking their way through the seige. It set the tone for the rest of the campaign. Today too British made memorials still stand in Nalapani. One in the honour of Gillespie but the other, in the highest traditions of the British Army, in honoury "Our brave adversaus Bul Buddur (Bal Bhadra) and his gallant men". Battle of Jythak Nalapani had cost both sides dearly, but in Nahan and Jythak, further west, they were to suffer more. Kazi Amar Singh Thapas son, Ranajor Singh Thapa, was in command there. Nahan had been left

undefended, and Ranajor Singh set up his defences at Jythak on a ridge overlooking Nahan. Major-General Martindell, who had meanwhile assumed command of Gillespies forces, took possession of Nahan on 25 December and immediately set about preparations for the attack on Ranajor Singhs positions. The result of the first days battle at Jythak was almost a repetition of the first day at Nala Pani for the British. They were the very troops who had fought at Nalapani - British grenadiers, not Indian sepoys. During the night of 25th December, Major Richards set out first taking his troops on a wide sixteen mile sweep around to the north to get into position for the attack on Ranajor Singhs ridge, early the next morning. Major Ludlow, who led the attack up the southern slope of the ridge, left camp in the early hours of the 26th. The combined force of British grenadiers and Indian sepoys carried on to a small ruined temple, where they were to await the attack by Major Richards party to the north. In the distance a small, lightly defended Royal Nepalese Army stockade was seen which the British grenadiers in Ludlows force attacked to avenge the humiliation they were suffering. This was a questionable move as it meant abandoning the original battle plan.

Bal Bhadra Kunwar

Weapons used by the Nepalese troops Jaspao Thapa who had concealed the major part of his forces in a slight hollow behind that stockade, sent out flanking parties on both sides of the British troops. When the force of the British charge was broken on the stockade itself, these flankers caught the British in a deadly cross-fire. The Royal Nepalese Army soldiers pursued the British down the mountain side. The Indian sepoys who were waiting in the assigned area to the rear were caught up in the rush of the retreat, which rapidly developed into a rout. Ludlow and his men, defeated and exhausted, arrived back in camp at the foot of the ridge before 10:00 that morning-before, in fact, the attack had even been scheduled to begin. Meanwhile, Major Richards and his men on the northern approaches managed to secure a point on the top of the ridge and hold it throughout most of the day. But they were pinned down by Royal Nepalese Army fire, and instead of reinforcing them, Martindell, fearing another Nalapani, ordered Richards and his men to retreat. This first day of battle at Jythak cost the British over three hundred men in dead and wounded and cooled Martindells ardour for battle. For over a month and a half, he refused to take any further initiative against the Royal Nepalese Army. Thus by mid-February, of the four British commanders the Royal Nepalese Army had faced till that time, Gillespie was dead, Marley had deserted, Wood was harassed into inactivity, and Martindell was practically incapacitated by over-cautiousness. It set the scene for Octorloney to soon show his mettle and change the course of the war.

Soldier Morale
The final Royal Nepalese Army success of this period was in a way the most devastating to the opposition's morale. On 17th February word reached Martindell at Jythak of the approach of a small party of two hundred Royal Nepalese Army reinforcements moving from Malaon to Jythak. Lieutenant Young with some two thousand irregulars was sent out to intercept them. Contact was made, and the Royal Nepalese Army was surrounded. The Nepalese realized that there was little hope of victory, so they discussed their next move and decided to sell themselves dearly rather than surrender. With Khukuri in hand they charged the irregulars, even though they were outnumbered ten to one. The irregulars broke before them, their morale shattered. From that time on the Royal Nepalese Army treated the irregulars with contempt and whenever they encountered a force of irregulars, no matter how strong, they charged. Regardless of numbers, the irregulars were never once able to withstand the hill men and their Khukuris. By the same token, a strong sense of mutual admoration started to take hold between the British Regulars and the Nepalese.

Trying times for Nepalese Troops Out west, the Nepalese were hopelessly overextended. Kumaun, a key link in Royal Nepalese Army communications with the far west, was defended by a small force, numbering perhaps seven hundred and fifty men, with an equal number of Kumaoni irregulars. Fifteen hundred men to defend a whole province. In addition, Doti, east of Kumaun, had been practically stripped of troops. Bam Shah, as governor of Kumaun, had final responsibility for the defense of the province. The British force, numbering initially over forty five hundred men, was easily able to out manoeuver the Royal Nepalese Army defenders and force them to abandon one post after another. Despite a significant victory over Captain Hearseys force, which had been sent on a flanking movement though eastern Kumaun, and the capture of the captain himself, the Royal Nepalese Army was unable to stem the tide of the British advance. Hasti Dal Shah arrived in Almora with a small body of reinforcement troops. A further reinforcement of four companies was sent from Kathmandu to aid the beleaguered defences of Kumaun, but the difficulties of communication through the hills prevented them from arriving in time to be of any help. Meanwhile, Hastings sent Colonel Nicolls,Quartermaster-General for the British troops in India, to take charge of the Almora campaign and assigned two thousand regular troops to this front in addition to the very large number of irregulars already assigned to the area-all of this against fewer than one thousand Royal Nepalese Army soldiers. Hasti Dal Shah and some five hunderd Royal Nepalese Army men had set out from Almora to secure Almoras northern line of communications with Kathmandu. This party was intercepted; Hasti Dal Shah, the ablest Royal Nepalese Army commander in this sector, was killed in the first moments of the battle; and the Royal Nepalese Army suffered terrible losses. When word of this disaster reached the defenders at Almora, they were stunned. The British closed in on Almora and the Royal Nepalese Army was unable to prevent the British advance. Subsequently, the British managed to establish gun positions within seventy yards of the gate of the fort at Almora and the Brtish artillery demolished the walls of the fort at point blank range. Bam Shah surrendered Almora on 27th Arpil.

Second Battle of Malaon and Jythak The second battle of Malaon and Jythak cut the Royal Nepalese Army lines of communication between Nepal proper and the far west. It also sealed the fate of Kazi Amar singh Thapa at Malaon and Ranajor Singh Thapa at Jythak. At Malaon, MajorGeneral Ochterlony had moved with extreme care summoning reinforcements and heavy guns from Delhi until his total attack force consisted of over ten thousand men well-equipped with heavy cannon. Kazi Amar Singh Thapas position in the Malaon Hills depended on Bilaspur in the lowlands for his food supplies, and the nature of the hills forced him to spread his forces very thin in an attempt to defend every vantage point. Ochterlony cut off the supply of food from Bilaspur and then turned his attention to the intricate network of defensive posts that were designed to withstand any frontal assault. Although rear fortifications supported these posts, none could withstand a long cannonade by heavy guns. Because Ochterlony had sufficient troops to attack and overwhelm several positions simultaneously, the thinly spread Nepalese defences could be dangerously divided. Ochterlony chose his target, a point on the ridge, and then proceeded to move slowly, consolidating each position that he took, and allowing the pioneers time to build roads so that the heavy guns could be moved forward to support each attack. After a series of carefully planned and executed moves, he succeeded in establishing a position on the crest of Deothal, not even one thousand yards from Kazi Amar Singh Thapas main fort at Malaon. The old warrior Bhakti Thapa

Malaon Fort

Sardar Bhakti Thapa valiantly led assault after assault on this position, but he died and the position did not fall.Immensely impressed by Bhakti's sustained courage against impossible odds, the British made the well appreciated and honorable gesture of returning his body with full military honours. The British superiority in numbers made it inevitable that they would be able to establish themselves and their heavy guns on a vantage point within range of Ranajor Singhs fortifications, sooner or later. Both Kazi Amar Singh Thapa and Ranajor Singh Thapa were thus hemmed in and looking down the barrels of the British guns when Bam Shahs letter arrived, announcing the fall of Almora. Although the old commander was still reluctant to surrender, Kazi Amar Singh Thapa at last saw the hopelessness of the situation and, compelled by circumstances and the British guns, surrendered with honour for both himself and Ranajor Singh. The Royal Nepalese Army positions in the far west were turned over to the British on 15 may 1815. Second Campaign - Deployment of Nepalese Troops and the British Offensive The British had given a 15 day ultimatum to Nepal to ratify a treaty on 28th November. But the points of the treaty were very difficult for Nepal to ratify quickly. The delay provided the excuse for the British to commence the second military campaign against Nepal. Colonel Bhaktabarsingh Thapa, another brother of Bhimsen Thapa, had been appointed as Sector Commander for defensive battles for the area from Bijaypur to Sindhuli Gadhi in the first campaign. In this second campaign, Bada Kaji Amarsingh Thapa was

detailed as Sector Commander for Sindhuli Gadhi and the eastern front. Colonel Bhaktabarsingh Thapa was manning his headquaters at Makawanpur Gadhi. Major General David Ochterlony, was the overal commander against Nepal with a huge nubmer of British troops to assault the fronts including Upardang Gadhi, Sinchyang Gadhi, Kandrang Gadhi, Makawanpur Gadhi and Hariharpur Gadhi. The Nepalese troops were eventually driven back from Hariharpur Gadhi after a big battle. The situation became very critical for Nepal and the British could have reached Kathmandu if the signing of the treaty was delayed any further. Major General David Ochterlony settled down to receive the treaty, signed by Nepal Durbar through Chandra Sekhar Upadhyaya, Pandit Gajaraj Mishra and finally though Bhaktabarsingh Thapa. The war ended with the Treaty of Sugauli and Nepal succeeded in remaining independent but lost about half its territory. The Mechi river became the new eastern border and the Mahakali the western boundary of Nepal.
Buff Head This is the largest standard knife made in Nepal. The blade is remarkably long and measures 37 and with handle it is 50 long. It is used to chop off heads of buffaloes, hence is known as Buffs Head. The handle of this knife is made of wood while the scabbard is that of buffalo leather. It weights a staggering 5 kilos. Long 18 Sacrificial This is the second largest knife used for sacrificial ceremonies especially for goats. During the Nepali festival; Dashai, which falls mainly in the month of October, a large number of goats are sacrificed to celebrate the event on a special day called Mar(Sacrifice). It is customary for families to purchase a goat locally and sacrifice after the necessary ceremonies are done. The normal length of the blade is 18 and with handle it is approx. 25 long. On special order the scabbard can be made of wood with Brass or Aluminium handle. The normal knife has a wooden handle with leather (buffalo hide) scabbard. It weighs approx. 1500-2000 grams. Nepal Army Traditionally, a Gorkhali soldier carries a Khukuri either in war or in barracks life. Nepal Army knife, which is akin to a Khukuri, is still issued to the RNA. It is a knife made in Dharan in Easter Nepal using highly graded carbon steel for the blade and buffalo leather for the scabbard. The blade is 9 long and the buffalo horn handle is 4 long. this knife weights 500 grams. This type of Khukuri is the simplest one that is used in warfare by soldiers.

Types of Khukuris

Nepal-Tibet ars Nepal-Tibet War s

Kerung. The march of the troops was delayed because Balbhadra Shah became seriously ill. They crossed Kerung on 20th July, 1788 and captured Jhunga on the 3rd of August 1788. Bhotu Pandey was captured by the Tibetans. The Nepalese troops were reinforced with 2,000 more troops and Bhotu Pandey was freed from the Tibetans on 14th October, 1788. Kuti Axis (I): Shree Krishna Shah was the Commander and Kaji Ranajit Pandey, Sardar Parath Bhandari, Captain Harsa Panta, Captain Naharsingh Basnyat and Captain Shiva Narayan Khatri were the subordinate commanders under him. About 5,800

ibet was a good market for Nepalese traders since ancient times and Nepal had alsays maintained good relations with Tibet. King Ansubarma gave his daughter Bhrikuti in marriage to King Tsrangchongyampo. Many Nepalese merchants and officials also married Tibetan girls. For Nepal, the relationship was profitable. Tibet herself had no mint and Nepalese silver coins were the currency of Tibet as well. First Nepal - Tibet War The relations started forming sour after the Malla rulers started to mint impure silver coins just before their downfall. The Tibetans demanded that the coins be replaced by pure silver ones. When Prithvi Narayan Shah took over, he found that it would be a great loss to him if he conceded to the Tibetan demands. That case remained unsolved due to his untimely demise. Queen Mother Rajendra Laxmi, the Regent of minor King Rana Bahadur Shah, inherited the coinage problem which reached the culminating point in 1888 AD. Another sore point in Nepal-Tibet relations was Nepals decision to provide refuge to Syamarpa Lama with his 14 Tibetan followers. He had fled from Tibet to Nepal on religious and political grounds. Yet another cause for conflict was the low quality salt being provided by Tibetans to Nepal. All salt came from Tibet in those days. Tibet ignored the Nepalese ultimatums and that promoted the preparations for war. Nepal was soon preparing to launch multi-directional attacks. Kerung Axis : Kaji Balbhadra Shah was the main Commander of the offensive attack from Kerung axis. Kaji Kirtimansingh Basnyat, Sardar Amarsingh Thapa and Bhotu Pandey were the subordinate commanders under him. Approximately 6,000 troops and 3,200 porters were despatched for this operation. Their main objective was to capture Dirgacha through

Captured Tibetan Cannons made of leather soldiers and 3,000 porters were allotted for the offensive operation. Later on, Kaji Abhimansingh Basnyat and Ranajit Kunwar also joined this offensive. The Dalai Lama was taken by surprise and to protect his sovereignty, he initiated a parallel approach whereby he asked military help from Sovan Shahi, the King of Jumla in West Nepal, and requested him to launch guerrilla activities and revolt against the Nepalese Army in and around Jumla. Sovan Shahi did revolt at Humla and captured some fortresses. The Dalai Lama also asked for military help from the Chinese Emperor. Additionally, he himself and Panchen Lama of Dirgacha wrote a secret letter ot East India Company seeking military assistance. The Tibetans also initiated propaganda about having constructed a new road through the Tigri valley and establishing a post at the front. They also rumoured that they had assembled an Army of 1,25,000 men. But the Tibetans could get nothing from Jumla, China

or the East India Company. Kuti Axis (II): Kaji Damodar Pandey was leading his troops with subordinate commanders Bom Shah, Dev Dutta Thapa and others. He was given about 4,000 troops and his objective was to capture Dirgacha via the Kuti axis. The Battles Nepalese troops, having crossed the Himalayas captured Chhochyang and Kuti in June 1788 and Sikarjong on 3rd August, 1788, in spite of many difficult logistic limitations. Later, Bahadur Shah was able to provide some reinforcements and improve some logistics arrangements. Still that was not enough and progress was slow. When the Nepalese were about to capture Dirgacha via both Kuti and Kerung, the Tibetans started to make compromises with Nepalese commanders. Bahadur Shah started negotiations, ultimately arriving at a solution. Prisoners were handed back to the Tibetans. Tibet was ready to pay tributes to the tune of Rs. 50,000 in silver coins per annum to Nepal and a treaty was signed on 2nd June 1789 in Kerung. The treaty is called the Treaty of Kerung by historians.

Rasuwa Gadhi and Timure were the firm bases in the first Nepal-Tibet war. Syabru Besi and Rasuwa Gadhi were Strategic points in this war. Likewise, Listi and Duguna villages were the main bases for offensive operations against Tibet. They were the forward most dumping places of the Royal Nepalese Army. Although Rasuwa Gadhi and Duguna Gadhi Fortresses were not constructed at the time, the places themselves were important because of their military significance. Nepal-Tibet/China War (Second Battle) The Tibetans had signed the Kerung treaty because they had no other option then. The Dalai Lama had not been able to get timely help, so he was, for the movement, ready to pay the Rs 50,000 per year tribute to come out of his difficulties. The amount was paid that year but not the next year. Nepal took it as an insult. Bahadur Shah started preparing for the next battle with Tibet. Kerung Axis : Kaji Abhimansingh Basnyat was appointed the Commander of Kerung front and Captain Kalu Pandey, Sardar Jasawanta Bhandari and Sardar Ranajit Kunwar were his subordinate commanders. Their tasks were to capture Jhunga initially and link up with Kaji Damodar Pandey to capture Dirgacha. Kuti Axis : Kaji Damodar Pandey was the Commander of this axis. Kaji Davdutta Thapa, Captain Bom shah, Kaji Jaharsingh Basnyat, Sardar Pratiman Rana Magar, Taksari Narsingh Gurung were initially his subordinate commanders. Their task was to capture the Kuti area and join Kaji Abhimansingh Basnyat to capture Dirgacha. Kharta Axis: Kaji Kirtimansingh Basnyat was the overall Commander and Subba Puran Shahi, Subba Padamsingh Basnyat and Subba Madho Shahi were his subordinate commanders. They were supposed to capture Kharta initially and link up with Damodar Pandey in Kuti to destroy Dirgacha. His troop were to advance via Chainpur, now in Sankhuwasabha district. The Battle Rasuwa Gadhi and Timure were vital for reinforcement and logistic support. A fortress was there since the Malla period. Similarly, Listi and Duguna

Damodar Pandey

villages were the nearest points for logistic back-up. Nepalese troops later resisted the Sino-Tibetan offensive from here as it was useful for defensive battles. All the commanders succeded in their missions in general. Dirgacha was badly destroyed and the Lamas retreated. Nepalese Commanders Demanded 50 dharni (120 Kg) of gold and 100 thousand rupees from the Tibetan authority in Dirgacha. The Lamas refused to pay leading the Nepalese troops to plunder Dirgacha. After the Nepalese troops returned to Nepal, the Dalai Lama and th Chinese Ambans forwarded a complaint to the Chinese Emperor about the Nepalese invasion and seeking military help from China. Nepalese were rejoicing at the successful offensive against Tibet. Bahadur Shah became even more popular in Nepal and he was hailed as a worthy son of a worthy father. The honeymoon ended with news was that a vast Chinese Army had reached Lhasa to help Tibet against Nepal on 8th March 1792. Nepal was finding that it was using up a lot of the scarce national resources on military campaigns- the unification battles, the earlier Nepal - Tibet war and against the impending war against Sino-Tibetan joint forces. Fukagn An, alias Thung Thang Chan Chun, was the main Commander of the Sino-Tibetan joint forces. Our report suggest that he was leading approximately 11,000 Chinese plus 3,000 Tibetan troops. They had 3,000 troops in reserve. By that time, Tibet had also prepared 10,000 local troops under Kalong Hor Khang. So, the total strength of the enemy was approximately 17,000. Another report said that the invading joint forces including irregulars totaled 60,000 to 70,000. The Chinese troops were deployed along three different axes to launch their attack against Nepal. The first would advance through Kuti, i.e. LhasaKuti DugunaListiJalbireChautaraIndrawoti River DevpurNaladum and Kathmandu. The second would advance through LhasaKerungRasuwa Gadhi BetrawotiNuwakot and Kathmandu. And the third would take the route from Lhasa through Kharta ChainpurKathmandu. The third advance through Kharta consisted of a small or group about 3000. But they had trouble arranging logistic support from Tibet and knew that the local Kirants of Chainpur area would not support them. So, they withdrew their troops prematurely. consequently, the Chinese commander decided to launch his attacks from the two main axes: Kuti axis under the

command of Cheng-Tse and Kerung Axis. The Kerung axis was divided into two parts one headed by FukangAn and the other by Kalong Horkand. For the Nepalese, the plan had to be like trying to plugging a dam that had burst from a considerable height. Some Nepalese troops were already positioned

Old Ceremonial uniform

was to hold the enemy s heavy thrust for a few hours and retreat. Syabru Besi was the next delaying position after Rasuwa Godhi. Bhaskar Rana Magar and Subedar Agbal joined the Srinath Battalion in Syabru Besi and they were also reinforced from Kathmandu. The Nepalese troops held in place for about 18 hours. They then successfully broke contact and retreated to Ramche. By this time hundreds from both sides had lost their lives. A small battle took place in Ramche from whence Kaji Damodar Pandey took over. The Nepalese again fell back to Gunche but it was too narrow a place to come into Bhairab Top, a cannon made in Nepal contact with the enemy forcing the in different fortresses of Tibet under Tula Ram Pandey, Nepalese to retreat to Dhaibung for the major defensive Shatru Bhanjan Malla. Uddav Khawas etc. Damodar -offensive battle. It was a well chosen position. The Pandey was appointed the Overall Commander against Chinese had held the battle initative up to Ramche. By the time the actual defensive battle was started, the Royal the Chinese offensive. The joint enemy force attacked Nepal at a Nepalese Army had secured good defensive positions difficult time. Most of the Nepalese troops were engaged in Dudha Thumka, Dhaibung and Gerkhu areas and in the western unification campaigns. On top of that, stretched the Chinese to an uncomfortable limit. A good they were busy crushing revolts launched in Achham, strengh of troops was deployed in Betrawoti. Trisuli Doti and Jumla. Only a limited number of surplus soldiers Bazar was also occupied and other Nuwakot villages were available to fight against the Chinese invaders. were vacated to protect the civilians in the vital grounds Nonetheless, Betrawoti-Nuwakot was fixed as the last of defensive battles . Meanwhile , elsewhere , Kaji Amar Singh Thapa line of defense and the major defensive battle would be fought from that position. Troops and commanders were gave up the year long conquest at Langur Gadhi in the called in from Kumaun and Gadhwal to fight against Godhwal and released his troops for the defense of the the Sino-Tibetan forces. Some troops were sent to take motherland. The soldiers had to cover a distance of more then 1,000 km from this westen outpost to reach up defensive positions in Kirat and Morang areas. The battle in Kuti and Khasa started with small Nuwakot. They made it in about a month by travelling confrontations. The Nepalese had good defensive some 30 km per day . Some of them joined the Nuwakot positions in Duguna and Listi areas. The Chinese Army defenses while others remained as reserves in entered the Kerung front, defended by Satru Bhanuyang Kathmandu. By this time , the Nepalese troops had retreated Malla, Subedar Talaram and Udhaun Khawas with a small number of troops. Tula Ram Pandey was shot about 85 km from their initial defense position in Kerung. dead at the gate of the exterior fortress and Satrubhanjan A linear definse was set up along the Betrawoti river. was badly wounded. The battle ensued for five days The Dudhe Thumka hill was a ground of tactical and all the fortresses of Kerung were lost to the importance (GTI) and a strong position was held by Chinese. In the initial battle on the Kerung front, about the Nepalese here. It would be diffcult for the Chinese 400 Chinese soldiers and 200 Nepalese lost their lives. to launch an uphill attack . One battalion plus Chinese The Nepalese army retreated to Rasuwa Gadhi troops did march to capture Dudhe Thumka but could from the Kerung front for delaying action. The tactic not do so. A big flood in the furious Betrawoti on 20th

hereditary Rana Prime Ministerial System, who continued to develop his army. Jung Bahadur was mentally prepared for the impending war against Tibet. The treaty of Betrawoti was humiliating and painful for Nepal. Jung Bahadur wanted to recover this loss of national prestige. After working to keep the British and the Chinese at bay, Jung Bahadur recruited approx. 14,000 new soldiers, about 80 pieces of 12 pounder cannon and 24 pieces of 6 pounder cannon. Many pieces of mountain mortars and howitzers were arranged and they were in Nepal. Approx. 12,000 fighting troops were detailed for internal (national) security. The Eastern and Western Commanding Generals were told to prepare 5,000 more troops from each command sector. Many technicians were employed for An old gun manufacturing guns , ammunition, cannon and warlike materials. Winter clothing like August 1792 washed away many Chinese troops. The Bakhkhu and Docha were made for all fighting troops. Betrawoti bridge was destroyed by the Nepalese before This was the biggest war preparation after Nepalit fell into enemy hands. The Chinese could only use a Company war. Many defence posts were created and Royal Nepalese Army personnel were deployed in the handing rope of the bridge to cross the river. The enemy troops marched to capture the major axes including Dhankuta and Jumla. Nepal sent a letter to the Tibetan Authority Gerkhu ridge. This would have been a good firm base for them to launch downhill assaults on Nuwakot and demanding that Taklakot and the areas of Kuti and Trishuli Bazar. Earlier successes had made them Kerung be given back to Nepal. The losses suffered underestimate the Nepalese troops to the extent of by Nepalese traders in Tibet had to be refunded to the launching a daylight uphill asssult. But the Nepalese tune of Rs 10,000,000 in silver coins to Nepal. Tibet launched spoiling attacks from many fronts. A large refused. Jung Bahadur declared war in March 1855. The Kerung Axis was commanded by General number of Nepalese troops attacked the enemies with only Khukuris from flank and rear positions. The attrition Bom Bahadur Kunwar. Approx. 25,728 troops were was overwhelming, forcing the enemies to take flight. in this axis. The Kuti Axis sector commander was The turning point of the battle and the war came here General Dhir Sumsher with about 4,678 troops. Humla with the Chinese dropping their insistence to negotiate and Mustang was commanded by General Krishna Dhoj only after Nuwakot fell. Fu Kang An wanted to Kunwar and 2,500 troops were deployed there. And, negotiate in Nuwakot and was ken to preserve his Olangchunggola Axis was commanded by Colonel troops. Nepal had been saved but it had been a close Prithvi Dhoj Kunwar with a force of 2,000. Sethya Kaji call and Nepal ended up paying tributes to the Chinese was the main enemy commander with about 50,000 Emperor. The last battle was fought on 5th October troops. There were 8000 troops detailed on the 1792. The Treaty of Betrawoti was concluded and the Dirgacha front and 40000 troops were concentrated in Tingri area. war was over. The Nepalese troops captured Kerung without any confrontation. But the Tibetans were ready to launch Last Nepal-Tibet War (Third Battle) Nepal was enjoying a degree of political a counter attack in their chosen grounds with the massive stability under Jung Bahadur Rana, the founder of the force. Knowing the Tibetan intentions, Jung Bahadur

sent reinforcements-a huge force and cannons under the command of General Jagat Sumser Kunwar and Colonel Bhakta Jung Kunwar. Bom Bahadur marched up to Kukurghat with ease. Battles continued in the Jhanga area for ten days and many Tibetans died. Finally, the Tibetans surerrendered. In Gunta Gadi, a formidable fortress on the top of a vertical mountain, the Tibetans remained strong with approx. 6500 troops. When the Nepalese troops reached close to the fortress, the Tibetans started firing.The climate was very cold and windy. there was also a big snowfall. Many Nepalese soldiers died, more than the Tibetans. This led to the preparation of another plan of attack from two different directions. This was a success. Many Tibetans died, about 600 were captured as Prisoners of War. Another battle took place at Jhunga Gadhi, a very strong rocky mountain fortress capable of housing 10,000 troops. About 6,000 Tibetans were there to defend it. Although the climate was unfavourable for the Nepalese, they tried several times to capture the fortress. There were 1100 Prisoners of War. The battle took away the lives of 1,721 Tibetans and 372 Nepalese. In the case of Kuti, General Dhir Shumsher was leading the troops . He had a battle in Chusan in April 1855. Kuti had been captured and before crossing the Tibetan border he built a fortress in Duguna village near Listi village which also served as a forward logistic base.

The difficult terrain of Tibet

Sona Gumba was a strong fortress in that area where 8,000 Tibetans troops were holed up with cannons. Dhir Shumsher launched a surprise attack but many lives were lost on both sides.Nepal eventually won the hard fought battle and Tibetans started retreating. They finally appeared more willing to have a treaty rather than continue fighting. A diplomatic mission, led by the Chinese, arrived in Kathmandu on 13 th August 1855 for discussions but could not reach a solution,. At that time, Nepalese troops were still in Tibet. The next meeting took place in Sikarjong, Tibet, where Nepalese demanded 90,000 rupees as war compensaion.The Tibetans refused to pay but wanted the withdrawal of Nepalese troops. They were secretly organizing a huge force. Eventually, The Tibetans launched a big counterattack with 15,000 troops on the Nepalese position of Kuti on 1st November 1855. It was a surprise attack and Nepalese troops fell back to Duguna Gadhi and Listi. The Tibetans also launched a big counterattack in Jhunga. But Col Pritiman Kunwar Rana held his position. Jung Bahadur got the message in Kathmandu and he sent reinforcements to both Jhunga and Kuti. General Dhir Shumsher again launched multidirectional attacks against the Tibetan Army in Kuti. The Nepalese won the battles in both the places. To stop the Nepalese offensive the Tibetans agreed to a treaty again.A Tibetan team arrived in Kathmandu in January 1856 and , after a month the Treaty of Thapathali was signed between Prime Minister Jung Bahadur Rana and Kolan Shatra of Tibet. This Treaty was more favourable for Nepal than the treaty of Betrawoti.

Foreign Encounters

Artist's depiction of "Bahadur Colonel" Col Rayamajhi capturing rebel artillery during action in the Sepoy Mutiny in India.

Indian Sepoy Mutiny Kalibox, Sumshere Dal, Jabbar Jung, Pasupati Prasad, The Indians had started their independence Bhairab Nath, Second Rifle, Bhairung and Srinath struggle against the British empire in the 1800s . The Battlions . struggle spread to the Indian Native Armed Forces serving the British .The mutiny began from the Meerut cantonment . The British empire requested Nepal for help. The shrewd Prime Minister and Commander in Chief Jung Bahadur Rana himself took part in the suppression of the mutiny with Col Pahal Man Singh Basnyat and Col Bhairab Narsingh Rana along with some 17,000 Nepalese troops. About 5,000 mutineers were killed and some 500 captured in Gorakhpur, Jompur, Lucknow, Pipre Sahebgunj, Shish Gunj, Balewa and Jalalpur, with this Nepalese expedition . the relation between the British and the Nepalese naturally further improved. On 18th November1860 an agreement between the two governments was signed. The plains lying between Mahakli River and Rapti River, which was lost by Nepal in the 1816 Sugauli Treaty, was returned by the grateful British . The First World War 1914-1918 Officials bidding farewell to troops leaving for The RNA participated with The First Rifle, World War I

Army started in May 1919. Nepalese troops commanded by Gen Baber Shumsher reached India and the British Army received them with a 13 gun salute. The troops were concentrated in Awotabad. Later, the 1st Batt was deployed in Nausera and the 2nd Batt in Marden. Meanwhile, the Amir of Afghanistan had sought Russian assistance. But Russia being engaged in its own internal problems was unable to help and Afghanistan was bound to accept a peace treaty. Nepalese troops were stationed there for three months. The Second World War Medal Awarding Ceremony after the First World War There was an internal treaty between Nepal and Britain about the mobilization of Nepalese The total number of RNA troops deployed to India at soldiers. The units which took part were Sri Nath, the time was 14,000. Troops were armed with the Kalibox, Surya Dal, Naya Gorakh, Barda Bahadur, Kali Martin Henry and Enfield rifles. General Babar Shumsher, General Tej Shumsher and General Padam Shumsher, were the main commanders. The discipline professionalism, adaptability of the Nepalese soldiers was again well respected in the First World War. Waziristhan War Wazirsthan, in the NW Frontier of British India had revolted against British rule. Their Pathan warriors called Masuds" were outstanding fighters and they had vowed to fight the British who were at this moment deeply involved in the First World War. The British requested the Nepalese Army to help neutralize the movement. Mahendra Dal and First Rifle Bn were involved in the suppression of the movement from March 1917. This was a joint military operation - Nepalese 1st Rifle with British 43rd Brigade and the Mahendra Dal Battalion with 45th Bde. The Nepalese Army had to accept many casualties. RNA units, British Gurkha Regiments and British regulars had fought shoulder to shoulder. Many RNA soldiers were decorated with British medals. Afghan War 1919 After the end of the First World War, British India decided to go to war in Afghanistan. Nepal was requested as usual to provide military assistance to the British. Revitalized tactical training for the Nepalese

RNA troops in Afghanistan Bahadur, Mahindra Dal, Second Rifle, Bhairung, Jabbar Jung, Shumsher Dal, Sher, Devi Dutta, Bhairab Nath, Jagannath and Purano Gorakh Battalions. Besides, there were many high ranking Nepalese in the joint Army HQ. Late Commander- in Chief Kiran Shumsher Rana and ex-Commander-in-Chief and present Field Marshall Nir Shumsher Rana were liason officers from the Royal Nepalese Army. When Japan got involved in this war in Dec 1940 the British presence was threatened in the Indian subcontinent. Britian deployed its troops in India and

on the Burma front. Nepalese battalions Mahindra Dal, Sher, Kali Bahadur and Jagannath- were also deployed. These Nepalese battalions fought under the Allied Command. The Jagannath Battalion took part as engineers to construct tracks, bridges, water points etc. Nepalese troops fought with distinction in the 14th Army under Slim and helped force the eventual Japanese retreat. Finally, following the atomic bomb attacks on Hirosima and Nagasaki, Japan surrendered. Most Nepalese troops were withdrawn to Kathmandu in Oct 1945. A grand victory parade was held on 28 Oct 1945 where many Nepalese soldiers, officers and associated British officers were honored for their appreciable preformances.

A petrograph in honour of the Bhairabnath Bn (now an Airborne Unit) etched into the Khyber Pass after fighting in Afghanistan. The Petrograph is still there.

Hyderbad Action - 1948 The British left India in 1947. British India was split into India and Pakistan. Religious violence between the Hindu and Muslim communities erupted in many places. Indian Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru requested Nepal to assist in controlling the situation. The Rana rulers took the decision to send Nepalese troops into India after long discussions. The Battalions which took part were Sri Nath, Kalibox, Kali Bahadur, Ganesh Dal, Shamsher Dal, Naya Gorakh, Barda Bahadur, Devi Dutta, Sher, Bhawani Dal, Bhairab Nath, Mahindra Dal, Second Rifle, Surya Dal, Narshima Dal, Purano Gorakh, Gorakh Nath, Bhairung, Jabbar Jung and Kali Prasad.

disarm the Khampas. A brigade sized RNA taskforce left Pokhara on 15th June 1974. The main battle group was based on Shree Sri Nath Battalion and the effort included units or elements from: Shree Sri Nath Battalion Shree Raj Dal Battalion (Arty) Shree Bhairab Nath Battalion (Para) Shree Kali Prashad Battalion (Engineers) Shree Ganesh Dal Battalion (Signals) Shree First Rifle Battalion Shree Indra Dhoj Company Shree Ahridaman Company Shree Chandan Nath Company

Indian President Reviewing RNA troops after the action

The RNA contingent was led by Maj Gen Sharada SJB Rana. These troops were deployed in many parts of India like Hyderbad, Ranchi, Calcutta, Deharadun, Ramgarh etc. Nepalese troops contributed greatly to the stabilization of the situation. At the request of the Indian government, some RNA troops also partook in the action in Hyderbad which was reined into the Indian Republic. After successful operations in Hyderbad, With the RNA poised to strike, if necessary, Nepalese troops stayed on for eight more months and the Khampa Commander Wangdi agreed to disarm in finally returned back to Nepal in March 1949. 31st July 1974. It soon became evident that Wangdi In the post WW II period, the RNA underwent himself intended to escape, resulting in a series of a major overhaul. This ushered in a new era of cordon and search operations resulting in the capture professionalization and institutionalization of training. As of: ever, the RNA continued to provide noteworthy Rifles - 543 assistance to civil authorities responding to various Bren Guns - 75 natural calamities and disasters. Sten Guns -35 Pistols - 16 Disarmament of the Khampas - 1974 60 mm Mortars - 8 (385 bombs) 57 mm RCL - 7 (320 shells) By the early 70s, some 9000 Khampas Communication sets - 5 (Tibetan tribesmen resisting Chinese authority) had All types of ammunition - 2,02,349. crossed over to Nepal and established various high altitude camps which they used as launch pads for Wangdi, however, initially managed to slip out operations into the Chinese Autonomous Region of through a high altitude mountain pass and moved Tibet. By 1973, these fighters, initially enjoying with his selected party of 50 - 60 towards the substantial foreign material and moral support, decided western border of Nepal, hundreds of kilometers to invest the remote Nepalese District of Mustang as a away. His luck ran out when reports of their attempt firm base. to loot a Nepal Police Post in Mugu (Far Western Nepal) focused the search operations. After various diplomatic initiatives, Nepal was finally compelled to carry out military operations to

The Indradhoj Company served as the Vanguard in the long, difficult mountain advance from Pokhara Naudanda - Hile - Ghodepane - Dana - Ghasa - Lete - Marpha - Jomsom (This is now one of the most popular trekking routes in Nepal).The RNA Air Corps played a crucial role, conducting extremely hazardous resupply and other missions in a largely uncharted, radar less high altitude environment.

He eventually succumbed to a RNA ambush carried out by an element of Shree Ahridaman Company in Tinkerlipu on 15th Sep 1974, bringing this episode to a victorious conclusion for the RNA. It is to the credit of Nepal that the Khampas who opted to remain in Nepal were provide land and have since settled peacefully. ... Thereafter In line with Nepals non-aligned posture and commitment to the UN Charter, the RNA was also contributing significantly to UN Peacekeeping Operations around the world. Similarly, the RNA continued to extend all assistance possible in support of the Nation. Throughout history, the RNA has remained an apolitical institution, forever committed to selfless service of the Nation. Indeed, the history of Nepal, in one sense, is largely a history of the RNA. Today, Nepal faces one of the biggest challenges to her well-being in the form of a vicious insurgency seeking the establishment of a totalitarian Maoist regime. The RNA, as Nepals last line of defense, continues to make all necessary sacrifice in the counter-terror operations to force the Maoists into the negotiating table.

The RNA continues to be one of the top 'Troop Contributing Nations' in UN Peacekeeping. The current RNA contribution totals to roughly 4000 troops including Infantry battalions, an Engineer Coy, Military Police, UN Observers and even a Force Commander!

Today the RNA is contributing to the Global war on terrorism, fighting so called 'Maoist' terrorists who seek to establish a totalitarian communist regime in Nepal as an openly declared first step to the development of a 'Revolutionary Safe Haven' with regional and global implications.