Term paper Of Ele-102

Topic
Advancements in modulation techniques
submitted to:mr. arvind CHANDAN .no.rb4802A15 regd. No. 10809933 b.tech(me)

submitted by:ankit dua roll

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
History of all great works is to witness that no great work was ever done without either the active or passive support of a person's surroundings and one's close quarters. Thus it is not hard to conclude how active assistance from seniors could positively impact the execution of a project. I am highly thankful to our learned faculty Mr. ARVIND CHANDAN for his active guidance throughout the completion of project. Last but not the least, I would also want to extend my appreciation to those who could not be mentioned here but have well played their role to inspire me behind the curtain.

AT LAST I AM THANKFULL TO HIM FOR HELPING ME IN COMPLETING MY WORK IN TIME.

Modulation
Modulation is the process of varying one waveform in relation to another waveform. In telecommunications,modulation is used to convey a message, or a musician may modulate the tone from a musical instrument by varying its volume, timing and pitch. Often a high-frequency sinusoid waveform is used as carrier signal to convey a lower frequency signal. The three key parameters of a sine wave are its amplitude (volume), its phase (timing) and its frequency (pitch), all of which can be modified in accordance with a low frequency information signal to obtain the modulated signal.A device that performs modulation is known as a modulator and a device that performs the inverse operation of modulation is known as a demodulator (sometimes detector or demod). A device that can do both operations is a modem .

Aim of modulation:
The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog passband channel, for example over the public switched telephone network (where a bandpass filter limits the frequency range to between 300 and 3400 Hz), or over a limited radio frequency band. The aim of analog modulation is to transfer an analog baseband signal, for example an

audio signal or TV signal, over an analog passband channel, for example a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV network channel.Analog and digital modulation facilitate frequency division multiplexing ,where several low pass information signals are transferred simultaneously over the same shared physical medium, using separate passband channels.The aim of digital baseband modulation methods, also known as line coding, is to transfer a digital bit

stream over a baseband channel, typically a non-filtered copper wire such as a serial bus or a wired local area network. The aim of pulse modulation methods is to transfer a narrowband analog signal, for example a phone call over a wideband baseband channel or, in some of the schemes, as a bit stream over another digital transmission system.

Modulation Techniques:
There are some modulation techniques are given below:

Anolog modulation techniques:

In analog modulation, the modulation is applied continuously in response to the analog information signal. A low-frequency message signal (top) may be carried by an AM or FM radio wave.

Common analog modulation techniques are:

Amplitude modulation (AM) :

Here the amplitude of the modulated signal is varied.

a. Double-sideband modulation (DSB)

1)Double-sideband modulation with unsuppressed carrier (DSB-WC) (used on the AM radio broadcasting band)
2)Double-sideband suppressed-carrier

#)SSB suppressed carrier modulation (SSBSC)

transmission (DSB-SC)
3)Double-sideband reduced carrier

Vestigial sideband modulation (VSB, or VSB-AM)

c.

transmission (DSB-RC)
b.Single-sideband

Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)

d.

modulation (SSB,

#)Angle modulation :
a. Frequency modulation (FM) : Here the

or SSB-AM):
#)SSB with carrier (SSB-WC)

frequency of the modulated signal is varied.

b.Phase modulation (PM): Here the phase

shift of the modulated signal is varied .

Digital modulation techniques:

In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is modulated by a digital bit stream. Digital modulation methods can be considered as digital-to-analog conversion, and the corresponding demodulation or detection as analog-to-digital conversion. The changes in the carrier signal are chosen from a finite number of M alternative symbols.

Fundamental digital modulation techniques:

These are the most fundamental digital modulation techniques:

In the case of QAM, a finite number of at least two phases, and at least two amplitudes are used.

In the case of PSK, a finite number of phases are used. In the case of FSK, a finite number of frequencies are used. In the case of ASK, a finite number of amplitudes are used.

In QAM, an inphase signal (the I signal, for example a cosine waveform) and a quadrature phase signal (the Q signal, for example a sine wave) are amplitude modulated with a finite number of

amplitudes, and summed. It can be seen as a two-channel system, each channel using ASK. The resulting signal is equivalent to a combination of s and ASK. In all of the above methods, each of these phases, frequencies or amplitudes are assigned a unique pattern of binary bits. Usually, each phase, frequency or amplitude encodes an equal number of bits. This number of bits comprises the symbol that is represented by the particular phase.

For example, with an alphabet consisting of 16 alternative symbols, each symbol represents 4 bits. Thus, the data rate is four times the baud rate. In the case of PSK, ASK or QAM, where the carrier frequency of the modulated signal is constant, the modulation alphabet is often conveniently represented on a constellation diagram, showing the amplitude of the I signal at the x-axis, and the amplitude of the Q signal at the y-axis, for each symbol.

Modulator and detector principles of operation:

PSK and ASK, and sometimes also FSK, are often generated and detected using the principle of QAM. The I and Q signals can be combined into a complex-valued signal I+jQ (where j is the imaginary unit). The resulting so called equivalent lowpass signal or equivalent baseband signal is a complexvalued representation of the real-valued modulated physical signal (the so called passband signal or RF signal). These are the general steps used by the modulator to transmit data: 1. Group the incoming data bits into codewords, one for each symbol that will be transmitted. 2. Map the codewords to attributes, for example amplitudes of the I and Q signals (the equivalent low pass signal), or frequency or phase values. 3. Adapt pulse shaping or some other filtering to limit the bandwidth and form the spectrum of the equivalent low pass signal, typically using digital signal processing. 4. Perform digital-to-analog conversion (DAC) of the I and Q signals (since today all of the above is normally achieved using digital signal processing, DSP). 5. Generate a high-frequency sine wave carrier waveform, and perhaps also a cosine quadrature component. Carry out the modulation, for example by multiplying the sine and cosine wave form with the I and Q signals, resulting in that the equivalent low pass signal is frequency shifted into a modulated passband signal or RF signal. Sometimes this is achieved using DSP technology, for example direct digital synthesis using a waveform table, instead of analog signal processing. In that case the above DAC step should be done after this step.

7. Amplification and analog bandpass filtering to avoid harmonic distortion and periodic spectrum

At the receiver side, the demodulator typically performs:

1. Sampling and analog-to-digital

2.

3. 4. 5.

conversion (ADC) (Sometimes before or instead of the above point, for example by means of undersampling). Equalization filtering, for example a matched filter, compensation for multipath propagation, time spreading, phase distortion and frequency selective fading, to avoid intersymbol interference and symbol distortion. Detection of the amplitudes of the I and Q signals, or the frequency or phase of the IF signal. Quantization of the amplitudes, frequencies or phases to the nearest allowed symbol values. Mapping of the quantized amplitudes, frequencies or phases to codewords (bit groups).

6. Parallel-to-serial conversion of the codewords into a bit stream. 7. Pass the resultant bit stream on for further processing such as removal of any error-correcting codes. As is common to all digital communication systems, the design of both the modulator and demodulator must be done simultaneously. Digital modulation schemes are possible because the transmitter-receiver pair have prior knowledge of how data is encoded and represented in the communications system. In all digital communication systems, both the modulator at the transmitter and the demodulator at the receiver are structured so that they perform inverse operations.

Non-coherent modulation methods do not require a receiver reference clock signal that is phase synchronized with the sender carrier wave. In this case, modulation symbols

(rather than bits, characters, or data packets) are asynchronously transferred. The opposite is coherent modulation.

Some other types of common digital modulation techniques:

MSK and GMSK are particular cases of continuous phase modulation. Indeed, MSK is a particular case of the sub-family of CPM known as continuous-phase frequency-shift keying (CPFSK) which is defined by a rectangular frequency pulse (i.e. a linearly increasing phase pulse) of one symbol-time duration (total response signaling). OFDM is based on the idea of frequencydivision multiplexing (FDM), but is utilized as a digital modulation scheme. The bit stream is split into several parallel data streams, each transferred over its own subcarrier using some conventional digital modulation scheme. The modulated subcarriers are summed to form an OFDM signal. OFDM is considered as a modulation technique rather than a multiplex technique, since it transfers one bit stream over one communication channel using one sequence of so-called OFDM symbols. OFDM can be extended to multi-user channel access method in the orthogonal frequency-division

multiple access (OFDMA) and multi-carrier code division multiple access (MC-CDMA) schemes, allowing several users to share the same physical medium by giving different sub-carriers or spreading codes to different users. Of the two kinds of RF power amplifier, switching amplifiers (Class C amplifiers) cost less and use less battery power than linear amplifiers of the same output power. However, they only work with relatively constant-amplitude-modulation signals such as angle modulation (FSK or PSK) and CDMA, but not with QAM and OFDM. Nevertheless, even though switching amplifiers are completely unsuitable for normal QAM constellations, often the QAM modulation principle are used to drive switching amplifiers with these FM and other waveforms, and sometimes QAM demodulators are used to receive the signals put out by these switching amplifiers.

Digital baseband modulation:

The term digital baseband modulation (or digital baseband transmission) is synonymous to line codes. These are methods to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog baseband channel (a.k.a. lowpass channel) using a pulse train, i.e. a discrete number of signal levels, by directly modulating the voltage or current on a cable. Common examples are unipolar, non-returnto-zero (NRZ), Manchester and alternate mark inversion (AMI) coding.

Pulse modulation techniques:

Pulse modulation schemes aim at transferring a narrowband analog signal over an analog baseband channel as a two-level signal by modulating a pulse wave. Some pulse modulation schemes also allow the narrowband analog signal to be transferred as a digital signal (i.e. as a quantized discrete-time signal) with a fixed bit rate,

which can be transferred over an underlying digital transmission system, for example some line code. These are not modulation schemes in the conventional sense since they are not channel coding schemes, but should be considered as source coding schemes, and in some cases analog-to-digital conversion techniques.

Miscellaneous modulation techniques:

The use of on-off keying to transmit Morse code at radio frequencies is known as continuous wave (CW) operation. Adaptive modulation

Space modulation A method whereby signals are modulated within airspace, such as that used in Instrument landing systems.

Properties and applications of modulation:

Synchronization:
One of the key difficulties of implementing this technique is that the receiver must be properly synchronized to align the local clock with the beginning of each symbol. Therefore, it is often implemented differentially as differential pulse-position modulation, where by each pulse position is encoded relative to the previous , such that the receiver must only measure the difference in the arrival time of successive pulses. It is possible to limit the propagation of errors to adjacent symbols, so that an error in measuring the differential delay of one pulse will affect only two symbols, instead of affecting all successive measurements.

Sensitivity to multipath interference:

Aside from the issues regarding receiver synchronization, the key disadvantage of PPM is that it is inherently sensitive to multipath interference that arises in channels with frequency-selective fading, whereby the receiver's signal contains one or more echoes of each transmitted pulse. Since the information is encoded in the time of arrival (either differentially, or relative to a common clock), the presence of one or more echoes can make it extremely difficult, if not impossible, to accurately determine the correct pulse position corresponding to the transmitted pulse.

Non-coherent detection:
One of the principal advantages of PPM is that it is an M-ary modulation technique that can be implemented non-coherently, such that the receiver does not need to use a phase-locked loop (PLL) to track the phase of the carrier. This makes it a suitable candidate for optical communications systems, where coherent phase modulation and detection are difficult and extremely expensive. The only other common M-ary non-coherent modulation technique is M-ary Frequency Shift Keying (M-FSK), which is the frequency-domain dual to PPM.

PPM vs. M-FSK:

PPM and M-FSK systems with the same bandwidth, average power, and transmission rate of M/T bits per second have identical performance in an AWGN (Additive White Gaussian Noise) channel. However, their performance differs greatly when comparing frequency-selective and frequency-flat fading channels. Whereas frequencyselective fading produces echoes that are highly disruptive for any of the M timeshifts used to encode PPM data, it selectively disrupts only some of the M possible frequency-shifts used to encode data for M-FSK. Conversely, frequency-flat fading is more disruptive for M-FSK than PPM, as all M of the possible frequencyshifts are impaired by fading, while the short duration of the PPM pulse means that only a few of the M time-shifts are heavily impaired by fading.Optical communications systems (even wireless ones) tend to have weak multipath distortions, and PPM is a viable modulation scheme in many such applications.

Applications for RF Communications:

Narrowband RF (Radio Frequency) channels with low power and long wavelengths (i.e., low frequency) are affected primarily by flat fading, and PPM is better suited than MFSK to be used in these scenarios. One common application with these channel characteristics, first used in the early 1960s, is the radio control of model aircraft, boats and cars. PPM is employed in these systems, with the position of each pulse representing the angular position of an analogue control on the transmitter, or possible states of a binary switch. The number of pulses per frame gives the number of controllable channels available. The advantage of using PPM for this type of application is that the electronics required to decode the signal are extremely simple, which leads to small, light-weight receiver/decoder units. (Model aircraft require parts that are as lightweight as possible). Servos made for model radio control include some of the electronics required to convert the pulse to the motor position - the receiver is merely required to demultiplex the separate channels and feed the pulses to each servo.

More sophisticated R/C systems are now often based on pulse-code modulation, which is more complex but offers greater flexibility and reliability.

Pulse position modulation is also used for communication to the ISO 15693 contactless Smart card as well as the HF implementation of the EPC Class 1 protocol for RFID tags.

Modulation circuit designs can be broadly divided into low and high level:
Low level:
Here a small audio stage is used to modulate a low power stage; the output of this stage is then amplified using a linear RF amplifier.

Advantages:
The advantage of using a linear RF amplifier is that the smaller early stages can be modulated, which only requires a small audio amplifier to drive the modulator. the substantial distortion of the AM envelope. A simple detector at the transmitter output (which can be little more than a loosely coupled diode) recovers the audio signal, and this is used as negative feedback to the audio modulator stage. The overall chain then acts as a linear amplifier as far as the actual modulation is concerned, though the RF amplifier itself still retains the Class C efficiency. This approach is widely used in practical medium power transmitters, such as AM radiotelephones.

Disadvantages:
The great disadvantage of this system is that the amplifier chain is less efficient, because it has to be linear to preserve the modulation. Hence Class C amplifiers cannot be employed. An approach which marries the advantages of low-level modulation with the efficiency of a Class C power amplifier chain is to arrange a feedback system to compensate for

High level
With high level modulation, the modulation takes place at the final amplifier stage where the carrier signal is at its maximum

Advantages:
One advantage of using class C amplifiers in a broadcast AM transmitter is that only the final stage needs to be modulated, and that all the earlier stages can be driven at a constant level. These class C stages will be able to generate the drive for the final stage for a smaller DC power input. However, in many designs in order to obtain better quality AM the penultimate RF stages will need to be subject to modulation as well as the final stage.

Disadvantages:
A large audio amplifier will be needed for the modulation stage, at least equal to the power of the transmitter output itself. Traditionally the modulation is applied using an audio transformer, and this can be bulky. Direct coupling from the audio amplifier is also possible (known as a cascode arrangement), though this usually requires quite a high DC supply voltage (say 30 V or more), which is not suitable for mobile units.