ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We sincerely acknowledge with deep sense of gratitude to our project guide Mr. Vinayak for the guidance and encourage he gave us for the preparation of this project without him the project would have been difficult. We are highly obliged to Mr. Arun Chopra, H.O.D.(Elecronics) for his noble spontaneous and timely help that carried out us throughout our endeavour and finally made a grand success. We also thank the staff of our electronics department for all the cooperation and friendly treatment given to us during project. We are also thankful to our colleagues and all those have extended the necessary help during the course of our work .

ABSTRACT
Engineering is not only a theoretical study but it is a implementation of all we study for creating something new and making things more easy and useful through practical study. It is an art which can be gained with systematic study, observation and practice. In the college curriculum we usually get the theoretical knowledge of industries, and a little bit of implementation knowledge that how it is works? But how can we prove our practical knowledge to increase the productivity or efficiency of the industry? Dont take the chance of becoming victim of burglary, which is often accompanied by violence. Protect our family and valuables with this security system that will let us rest our head knowing that should anyone trying to break into our home, an alarm will go off and the police will be alerted immediately. The circuit is able to count whenever the light is blocked and it maybe applicable to many fields. Adding some small components may use the circuit as burglar alarm, or to count key presses.

PAGE INDEX

Page No.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1. 2.

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION HOME SECURITY SYSTEM

1. INTRODUCTION
In designing some precious things security is of prime importance. Security is becoming essential day-to-day due to increasing theft. Security should not be expensive then the think to be secured. This project guides us with a low cost security. To protect our house or any precious things from thieves or

trespassers for designing any thing new security should be viewed first. This project gives us a security system, which insures safety and security very conveniently. It is simple as it wcrks on a simple laser beam and a proper mirror arrangement around the thing to be secured. By networking the laser beams through reflections of mirror and by blowing the alarm if any one crosses the beam and indicating security in danger. In this circuit a counter is activated when a continuously supplied light is been blocked. It uses a counter IC CD 4033.An LDR enhances the counting process.This circuit an be used for various applications such as to count products going over a belt, and for counting persons passed at a point etc The project is done as a prototype and its Real one can display a three to ten digit numbers and can count unto thousands. The system convenience comfort of the user it uses the most advance technology. Innovation quality assurance and reliability are silent features of system.
4

2.HOME SECURITY SYSTEM

2.1 METHODS OF HOME SECURITY
The past method of security included of Burglar Alarm The details of these system are as follows BURGLAR ALARM In this system invisible radiation like ultra violet rays or infrared rays fall continuously on photodetector. When burglar crosses the path of beam, the current in photodetector is cut off. The relay in the circuit is set in such manner as to be operated due to this break in current and it starts the ringing of an alarm bell. 1) Burglar Alarm using Photo conducting cell :Here is simple circuit, which uses photoconductive cell LDR (light dependant resistor). The LDR is made up of cadmium selenide or cadmium sulphide. Its resistance is very high when it is dark and its resistance falls

considerably when it is illuminated. This light dependent properly of LDR is used in construction of Burglar alarm system. When LDR is illuminated by light from the resistance of LDR drops to few ohms and transistor emmiter base junction in forward biased. This make the transistor to go in saturation and sufficient current flow through the relay coil

this current is sufficient to actuate the relay. The between in relay ckt will not work .
+Vcc Bulb
AC

LDR Relay
R2 R1

Bell

Circuit Diagram of a Burglar Alarm

AC Supply

But when light from bulb is interrupted by burglar the LDR resistance become very high. The base emitter voltage is very small. This small voltage is insufficient to forward bias the base emitter junction of transistor. The transistor is in cut off state. The current through relay coil is not sufficient and relay current operate the bell and hence an indication of alarm. Stating that there is some one to interrupt the light.

2. Burglar Alarm Using Photo emissive Cell.

6

We shall consider here the automatic burglar alarm. The photo electric or photo emmisive cell forms part of grid circuit of triode, in plate circuit of which there is relay which works burglar alarm. As long as light in incident on cell the electrons keep the grid of triode more negative and hence, the relay is not operated. Hence bell B does not ring. But as soon as some intruder or burglar breaks into house and on entering comes in way of invisible beam, the grid becomes less negative. The plate current increases and sets the relay. The bell starts ringing and will continue ringing till the relay is reset. Burglar alarm can be also be built with the help of LDR in conjunction with 555 timer. Disadvantage of security :1) This security system is Costly. 2) This security system cannot cover a large area under security. 3) Circuit Design is typical. 4) Security system is applicable for limited purpose only. 5) Numbers of Batteries Required to run the system is more.

2.2 SYSTEM COMPONENTS & DECRIPTION

1) I.C.555 2) LDR 3) N.P.N. TRANSISTOR 4) CAPACITOR 5) LASER TORCH 6) RESISTANCE 7) ADAPTER 8) SPEAKER 9) MIRRORS 10) FLEXIBLE WIRES

11) Relay (12V, 200 ohm)

2.2.1

IC 555 :IC 555 is a timer IC. It is important in consumer and industrial

applications. The internal block diagram of IC 555 as shown below.

VR Sk Threshold (6)
2/3Vcc

R Q2 C1 R R + _ C2 R 100 Q1 (1) GND S FLIP FLOP Q Out put (3) Buffer Reset (4)

Control Voltage (5) 5K 1/3Vcc trigger (2) 5k

Discharge (7)

The internal block diagram consist of 6 main parts. 1) Resistor divider network. 2) Comparator C1 and C2 3) Flip flop ( Rs FF ) 4) Reset circuitry 5) Discharge circuitry 6) Output buffer

The block diagram consist of two comparators that drives the set (S) and reset terminal of a flip flop which is in turns controls the ON and OFF CYCLE of the discharge transistor Q1. The comparator reference voltages are fixed at 2/3 Vcc for C1 and 1/3 Vcc for C2 by means of voltage divider made of 3 resistors. The reference voltage is applied to control the timing. The timing can be externally controlled by applying voltage to terminal 5. If no such control is required then it is bypassed by a capacitor to ground. The capacitor value is about 0.01 uf. On the negative transition of the pulse applied to the trigger terminal and when the voltage of the trigger terminal pass through Vcc/3
The O/p of C2 comparator changes. This changes the state of the flip-flop

and the O/p of flip-flop is low.

On the other hand, when the voltage applied at the threshold terminal of the

comparator C1 goes positive and passes through the reference 2/3 Vcc, the output of C1 changes and this in turn changes the state of flip-flop and O/p goes high. A separate reset terminal is provided for the timer, which reset the flip-flop externally.

10

 This reset voltage applied externally over ride the effect of the O/p of lower comparator, which sets the FF. The over rinding effect when terminal is less than 10.4 V. When reset terminal is not in use, connected to Vcc.
Transistor Q2 acts as a buffer, isolating the reset terminal from the flip-flop

and transistor Q1.

The output of flip-flop is Q1; which is the O/p stage.

When the flip-flop is reset, the output stage is low and when set, the output is high. A capacitor is connected between discharge and ground.
When Q1 is off, the capacitor charges and when Q1 is on, capacitor

discharges through it.

11

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 555

IC 555 is a 8 pin timer I.C. The pin diag. is as shown below. GND Trigger O/p Reset IC 555 +Vcc Discharge Threshold Control volt

The function of various pins is as following Pin 1 Ground :- All voltages are measured with respect to this terminal. Pin 2. Trigger :- The O/p of timer depends on amplitude of external trigger pulse applied to pin Pin 3. O/p :- There are two ways load can be connected to O/p terminal either between pin 3 and ground (pins) or between pins3 and supply voltage and Vcc (pins) Pin 4 Reset : The device 555 is reset ( disabled by applying is negative pulse to this pin when the reset function is not in use, the reset terminal should be connected to +Vcc to avoid any possibility of flash trigerring. Pin 5 :- Control voltage :- An external voltage applied to this terminal changes the threshold as well as trigger voltage. In other words, by imposing a voltage on
12

this pin or by connecting a potentiometer between this pin and ground, the pulse width the output waveform can be varied. When not used, the control pin should be bypassed to ground with a 0.01 uf capacitor to prevent any noise disturbances. Pin 6 : Threshold :- This is the non-inverting terminal of capacitor C1 which monitors the voltage across the external capacitor. When the voltage at this pin is greater than or equal to 2/3 vcc, the O/p of comparator C 1 goes high, which in turn switches. The output of the timer low. Pin 7 : Discharge : The pin is connected internally to the collector of transistor Q1. When the O/p is high, Q1 is Off and acts as an open circuit to the external capacitor connected between pin 7 and ground. On the other hand, when the O/p is low, Q1 is saturated and acts as a short circuit, shorting out the external capacitor 0 to ground. Pin 8 : Vcc :- The supply voltage of +5v to 18v is applied to this pin with respect to ground (pin 1)

13

555 Timer Operating Modes

The 555 has three operating modes: Astable mode

An astable circuit has no stable state - hence the name "astable". The output continually switches state between high and low without without any intervention from the user, called a 'square' wave. This type of circuit could be used to give a mechanism intermittent motion by switching a motor on and off at regular intervals. It can also be used to flash lamps and LEDs, and is useful as a 'clock' pulse for other digital ICs and circuits. In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the values of R1, R2 and C:

[7]

The high time from each pulse is given by

and the low time from each pulse is given by

where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value of the capacitor in farads. To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a diode can be added in parallel with R2 towards the capacitor. This bypasses R2 during the high part of the cycle so that the high interval depends only on R1 and C1.

14

Monostable mode
A monostable circuit produces one pulse of a set length in response to a trigger input such as a push button. The output of the circuit stays in the low state until there is a trigger input, hence the name "monostable" meaning "one stable state". his type of circuit is ideal for use in a "push to operate" system for a model displayed at exhibitions. A visitor can push a button to start a model's mechanism moving, and the mechanism will automatically switch off after a set time. The output pulse width of time t, which is the time it takes to charge C to 2/3 of the supply voltage, is given by

15

where t is in seconds, R is in ohms and C is in farads. See RC circuit for an explanation of this effect

Bistable Mode (or Schmitt Trigger)

bistable mode or what is sometimes called a Schmitt Trigger, has two stable states, high and low. Taking the Trigger input low makes the output of the circuit go into the high state. Taking the Reset input low makes the output of the circuit go into the low state. This type of circuit is ideal for use in an automated model railway system where the train is required to run back and
16

forth over the same piece of track. A push button (or reed switch with a magnet on the underside of the train) would be placed at each end of the track so that when one is hit by the train, it will either trigger or reset the bistable. The output of the 555 would control a DPDT relay which would be wired as a reversing switch to reverse the direction of current to the track, thereby reversing the direction of the train.

Application of IC 555
1) A stable, Monostable, Bistable Multivibrator. 2) DC to DC converter ( Chopper circuit ) 3) Wave form generator.

17

4) Techometer ( for speed measurement ) 5) Temperature measurement. 6) Analog frequency meter. 7) Voltage regulator. 8) Voltage Control Oscillator (VCO) 9) Schmitt trigger ( sine to square wave generator ) 10) Ramp Wave generator.

2.2.2 LDR :LDR is a semiconductor resistor whose resistance decreases ( conductance increases) when irradiated it is also known as photo resistors, or photo sensitive device and LDR has high resistance under dark condition and low resistance when irrediated by light.

18

Application of LDR :1) Used as photo electric counter like meters, ON-OFF switch etc. Specification :1) Dark resistance > 10 mr, 2) Resistance under light of intensity 1000LUX : 100 to 300 r , 3) Permissible voltage 100V peak. 4) Capacitance < 10 pF.

2.2.3 TRANSISTOR
Transistor is developed in P and N type semiconducting materials from the same crystal by adding corresponding impurities. Transistor consist of two P N Junction formed by sandwitch pattern of either P type or N type material between a pair of opposite type semiconductor materials. It means if two outermost layers are of P-type material present then in between this two, N-type material is sandwitched and if two outermost layer are of N-type material then in between these two P-type material is sandwitched. According to this theory of sandwitching the layer there are two basic types of transistors.

19

(i) N P N type transistor (ii) P N P type transistor. We have used the N P N type transistor details are as follows N P N

The symbolic representation of N.P.N. E

C Block diagram of N P N type trans.

20

Circuit details :The forward bias VEB is applied to Base Emitter Junction of the transistor and reverse bias VCB is applied to Base Collector Junction. Operation :Transistor consist of 3 layer of semi conducting material i.e. N P N forward bias (VBE) is applied in between the emitter and base of the transistor. The electrons of N type region are energized and starts to move towards the opposite charged particles, ( i.e. holes ) present in middle. P type region forward bias is given to N type material, more and more no. of electrons are injected from emitter and starts to flow towards the base is lightly doped hence it is having minimum no. of holes. The electrons cross over Junction J1 then start to combine with the hole present in P-region the no. of holes are comparatively low hence minimum no. of electrons combine with this holes and rest of electrons cross over the Junction J2 and collected at the terminal collector ( i.e. next N type section ) reversed bias VBC is applied to N type region it exert attraction power of electron and so more no. of electrons come in collector region. The movement of electrons in emitter constituted the emitter. Cu. (IE) combination of holes and electrons take place at base this electron go through the holes towards base terminal they constituted small value of base C/N I B, rest of maximum no of electrons comes to collector C/N Ic) this Ic then flows through
21

the external circuit towards emitter the base C/N IB flowes through external circuit. The direction of flow of Ic and IB are same ( flow of Ic and I B are same ( i.e. towards terminal emitter ) so the resultant emitter C/N is the combination of collector C/N IB Hence, IE = IB + IC The unit of resistance is ohm the resistance can be also express as R = /A Where

- specific resistances in m - length in m - cross sectional Area in m2

Classification of resistor :Resistor are made in many shapes and size, wire wound resistor have different values depending upon this specific resistively of the wires. The cross sectional area and length of the wire i.e. use for making heat. Because C/N carrying capability of wires the size of resistor changes depending upon the wattage

Resisters
Fixed 1) Wire wound 2) Carbon 3) Film Adjustable 1) Wire wound 2) Trapped wire wound Potentiometer 1) Wire wound 2) Carbon

22

2.2.4 CAPACITOR
Capacitor can be define as a property of electrical circuit that can apposes the change in voltage. Capacitor storage the energy in the form of

electricity and releases it. When used in the circuit current. Any two metal conductor when separated from each other by a dielectric constitute. Capacitance an electric field is developed between two

charged plates within the space between plates energy stored in the capacitor is in this electric field. The unit of capacitance is farad named after the Michael farads. C = q /V = Where q = charge v = voltage or Where c=
E 0A d
Coloum b Voltage

A = Area in cm2 = Dielectric constant.

d = Distance in cm. Dielectric constant in medium while permits the establishment of lines of forces between oppositely charged plates.

23

There are two types of capacitor used 1] POLISTER 2] ELECTROLYTIC

2.2.5 LASER TORCHE :Laser torch is used for radiations of laser beam which is imposed on mirrors arrange systematically whose reflection surrounds the house and then reflected towards LDR. The laser torch used for these security purpose is 3v.

2.2.6 RESISTANCE :Different resistance of + 4.7 Kr, 220 r, 1 Kr, 47 Kr and 3.3 kr are used in circuit as per the requirement in opposition to flow of current. They are mounted properly 1 PCB, wherever necessary. The direct C/N resistance has a controlling effect in amount of C/N that flows when a certain voltage is applied according to ohmslow I = V/R

2.2.7 ADAPTER :As direct supply from switch board cannot be given to circuit, adapter is used to step down supply voltage and bring it to desired volt i.e. 12 V essential for circuit to run. Adapter is close circuit which consist of step down transformer, rectifier etc.

24

2.2.8 SPEAKER :Speaker is used for siren purpose. which provides a noise whenever security is danger. Speaker is a device which converts varying electrical signal into a proportional sound signal.

2.2.9 MIRRORS :For reflecting laser beam combination of plain mirrors M1 through M4 is used to direct the laser beam around the house to form a net.

2.2.10 FLEXIBLE WIRES :Flexible wires are most important as a complete circuit. On a PCB can only be obtained from wires. Flexible wires are used for connection purpose. The most important purpose is conduction. Flexible wires may have single or multi-strength of metal. They are used as per current capacity. These are

insulated wires and has a low current carrying capacity and soldering metal is used to solder electronic components on PCB with the help of soldering.

2.2.11 Relay (12V, 200 ohm):

A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under control of another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close

25

one or many sets of contacts. It was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be considered, in a broad sense, to be a form of electrical amplifier

Operation:

When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an armature that is mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes or breaks a connection with a fixed contact. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force that is half as strong as the magnetic force to its relaxed position. Usually this is a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.

26

If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a spike of voltage and might cause damage to circuit components. If the coil is designed to be energized with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This "shading ring" creates a small out-of-phase current, which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle. [1] The contacts can be either Normally Open (NO), Normally Closed (NC), or change-over contacts. Normally-open contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called Form A contact or "make" contact. Form A contact is ideal for applications that require to switch a high-current power source from a remote device. Normally-closed contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called Form B contact or "break" contact. Form B contact is ideal for applications that require the circuit to remain closed until the relay is activated. Change-over contacts control two circuits: one normally-open contact and one normallyclosed contact with a common terminal. It is also called Form C contact or "transfer" contact. By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a solid-state relay is made with a thyristor or other solid-state switching device. To achieve electrical isolation, a light-emitting diode (LED) is used with a photo transistor.

27

2.3 WORKING OPERATION OF SYSTEM

Receiver Unit and its working
Description :- In receiver unit we have used IC 555 in A stable multi vibrator there is continuous ON/OFF of pulses. PIN No.4 of IC 555 is RESET. ON this pin we have given O/P of transistor 547. The transistor acts as a switch to RESET. The LDR voltage is given to base of transistor. According to which
Speaker

the RESET period is varied.

LDR CIRCUIT DESIGN OF RECEIVER UNIT

28

Working :When LASER beam falls on LDR through mirrors, the resistance of LDR is negligible. This makes OFF STATE. Thus the O/p of IC 555 gives Low or zero voltage and speaker remains open. As any thief crosses the LASER beam is interrupted. The resistance of LDR become large. This gives base pulse to transistor. Thus IC 555 gets RESET pulse. The O/P goes HIGH or maximum. The speaker gets close and sound is produced. It is reseted by switch. Working Working of IC 555 when used on Astablemode Astable Multivibrator The Figure shows the astable mode of IC 555 with the wave forms. In this mode, capacitor charges towards Vcc through RA & RB Untill Vc = 1/3 Vcc At this point comparator C1 changes the state and capacitor starts discharging through RB This continues until the Vc = 1/3 Vcc At this stage comparator C2 changes the state and the capacitor again starts charging and so on.

29

1K

4.7K

1K

LDR NPN 547

100 F 17K
Speaker

3.3 K

0.01 F

0.01 F

30

CIRCUIT DESIGN WITH RESPECTIVE VALUES

Consider that the capacitor is periodically discharged and charged between 2/3 Vcc and Vcc/3. During the Charging time 0 t Tc, the voltage across capacitor Vc equals,
Vc = 2 / 3Vcc l e 1/( RA + R1 + ) + Vcc / 3 ..

(1)

at t = Tc,, Vc =2/3 Vcc 2/3 Vcc = 2/3 Vcc l e 1c /( RA +RB ) + Vcc / 3 Tc = (RA + RB)C./n(2) Tc = 0.693 (RA+RB).C . (2)

During the discharging time 0 t TD, We have Vc=2/3 Vcc.e-t/RBC At t = TD, Vc = 1/3 Vcc 1/3 Vcc = 2/3 Vcc e-TD/RBC TD = RBC/n(2) TD = 0.693 RBC Total Time. T=TC + TD T = 0.693 (RA + 2 RB) C Duty Cycle. D =
TC 100 T

(3)

(4) (5)

.. (6)

D=

RA + RB 100 . RA + 2 RB

(7)

31

Steps :1) Assume value of capacitor C for Astable Multivibrator lies between 500 pF < C < 100 F 2) Calculation of RB :RB = 1.4(1 d ) f o .C

RB must lie between 1 K < RB < 3.5 M Where, d = duty cycle fo = frequency of astable m.v. 3) Calculation of RA : RA =
RB (2d 1) RA must lie between 1 K < RA < 3.3 M . (1 d )

4) To prevent noise disturbances, bypass capacitor C1 is connected between pin 5 and ground (Pin 1). C1= 0.01 F 5) To eliminate unwanted voltage spike in the output waveform a bypass capacitor C2 of the value 10 F is connected between (Pin 8 and Pin 1). C2 = 10 F 6) Charging Period. Tc = 0.693 (RA + RB).C sec

32

7) Discharging Period. TD = 0.693 (RB.C) sec 8) Total time period. T=0.693 (RA + 2RB).C sec 9) Duty Cycle.
A B %D = R + 2 R 100 sec A B

(R + R )

10) Frequency
fo = 1.44 H ( RA + 2 RB ) C Z

33

2.4 TESTING
Testing of fault For any fault found in the circuit following procedure should be adopted. 1) Check LDR if its Faulty replace it. 2) Check all resisters and capacitors using multimeters. 3) Check IC on IC tester. 4) Loose connections due to dry soldering should be corrected. Testing working of MODEL You Testing the security system first Laser torch is ON and a Laser net work in formed using mirrors as discussed before. After this an obstracle is brought in network to test performance and certainly it is observed that horn blows this signal guides us with reliability of model and indicates about the danger and abouts us regarding security. This also guide us with that how security can be obtain conveniently and chiefly.

34

Speaker
Power supply Laser torch

LDR

Receiver uint

Laser net

MODEL SKETCH OF SYSTEM

2.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages :1) It is cheap and economicl 2) This security system is very reliable. 3) The operation is very easy 4) It has simple in design. 5) Large area can be secure by this system very easily.
35

6) This system is also applicable for many purpose such as guarage, bank, society, industries. 7) It has quick response 8) Maintenance cost is very low. 9) It can use at any condition or atmosphere. 10) Easy to control. 11) It is more reliable and effective than manual security. 12) It require less space for erection (installation) 13) It has good future scope.

Disadvantages :1) In this security system there is disadvantage of a visible laser rays which can alert the theif . 2) Laser rays are harmful for Retina i.e. Eyelsight 3) Disturbance in mirror can also blow the horn

36

3. VISITOR COUNTER
3.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

37

3.2 CIRCUIT EXPLANATION

The circuit is using an op-amp LM 311. The sensor circuit formed using LDR1 activates counter 4033.LDR1 has a resistance of 2.2 kilo-ohms in daylight, which drops below 50 ohms when light beam falls on it. (An LDR of nearly 2cm diameter has been used in this circuit.) Comparator LM311 (IC1) compares the level set at pin 3 (nearly 6V, set using a 47k pot) with the level at pin 2. When light is falling on LDR1, its voltage is above 1V and IC5 has a low output at its pin 1. When no light is falling on LDR1, its voltage drops below 1V and IC1 output at its pin 1 becomes high. The output from the Op-amp is given as the clock for seven segment counter 4033.The counter count 1 for each high going pulse.The 4033 encodes the count to display number in seven segment display CE c5611

38

3.3 COMPONENTS LIST

ICs LM 311,Op-amp 4033 -3 -1

seven segment driver counter

RESISTOR 10k 47k 1k 470 VARIABLE RESISTOR 47k -1 -1 -3 -1

LED

-3

LDR

-1

Seven segment display CE c5611

-1 39

 Power Supply 9v Battery

3. COMPONENTS DETAILS

3.4.1 LM 311
General Description The LM111, LM211 and LM311 are voltage comparators that have input currents nearly a thousand times lower than devices like the LM106 or LM710. They are also designed to operate over a wider range of supply voltages: from standard 15V op amp supplies down to the single 5V supply used for IC logic. Their output is compatible with RTL, DTL and TTL as well as MOS circuits. Further, they can drive lamps or relays, switching voltages up to 50V at currents as high as 50 mA.

40

Both the inputs and the outputs of the LM111, LM211 or the LM311 can be isolated from system ground, and the output can drive loads referred to ground, the positive supply or the negative supply. Offset balancing and strobe capability are provided and outputs can be wire ORed. Although slower than the LM106 and LM710 (200 ns response time vs. 40 ns) the devices are also much less prone to spurious oscillations. The LM111 has the same pin configuration as the LM106 and LM710. The LM211 is identical to the LM111, except that its performance is specified over a 25C to +85C temperature range instead of 55C to +125C. The LM311 has a temperature range of 0C to +70C.

Features

Operates from single 5V supply Input current: 150 nA max. over temperature Offset current: 20 nA max. over temperature Differential input voltage range: 30V
Power consumption: 135 mW at 15V

41

3.4.2 IC 4033
CD4033BMS consists of a 5 stage Johnson decade counter and an output decoder which converts the Johnson code to a 7 segment decoded output for driving one stage in a numerical display. This device is particularly advantageous in display applications where power dissipation low and/or low package count is important. A high RESET signal clears the decade counter to its zero count. The counter is advanced one count at the positive clock signal transition if the CLOCK INHIBIT signal is low. Counter advancement via the clock line is inhibited when the CLOCK INHIBIT signal is high. The CLOCK INHIBIT signal can be used as a negative-edge clock if the clock line is held high. Antilock gating is provided on the JOHNSON counter, thus assuring proper counting sequence. The CARRYOUT (Cout) signal completes one cycle every ten CLOCK INPUT cycles and is used to clock the succeeding decade directly in a multi-decade counting chain. The seven decoded outputs (a, b, c, d, e, f, g) illuminate the proper segments in a seven

42

segment display device used for representing the decimal numbers 0 to 9. The 7 segment outputs go high on selection.

Features High Voltage Types (20V Rating) Decoded 7 Segment Display Outputs and Ripple Blanking Counter and 7 Segment Decoding in One Package Easily Interfaced with 7 Segment Display Types Fully Static Counter Operation DC to 6MHz (typ.) at VDD =10V Ideal for Low-Power Displays

43

 Ripple Blanking and Lamp Test 100% Tested for Quiescent Current at 20V Standardized Symmetrical Output Characteristics 5V, 10V and 15V Parametric Ratings Schmitt-Triggered Clock Inputs Meets All Requirements of JEDEC Tentative Standards No. 13B, Standard Specifications for Description of B Series CMOS Devices

3.4.3 VARIABLE RESISTOR

A variable resistor or potentiometer (colloquially known as a "pot") is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used (one side and the wiper), it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick. Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt). Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (e.g. volume controls on audio equipment), and as control inputs for electronic circuits. For

44

example, a light dimmer uses a potentiometer to control the switching of a TRIAC and so indirectly control the brightness of lamps

3.4.4 RESISTOR
A resistor is an electrical component, which has been manufactured with a specified amount of resistance. The resistors can conduct current in both the directions. Thus the resistors may be connected in an electric circuit without concern for lead polarization. The resistors are mainly used for two purposes,

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namely controlling the flow of electric current and providing desired amount of voltage in electric or electric circuit. The resistors are specified in terms of their resistance values, tolerance, power rating and thermal stability. The actual value of the resistors may be either greater or smaller than that of he indicated value, by a factor given by the specified tolerance. Thus resistors with the specified tolerance. The power rating of a resistors is given by the maximum voltage is can dissipate, with out excessive beating. Since the power rating is proportional to the square of a current, there for current must not be higher than its safe value. If the current exceeds the safe value, the resistance will burn out. Here uses four carbon composition resistors R1, R2, R3, R4,R5 are w. The size of these resistors varies with the power rating. These states carbon composition resistors with power rating of 1or less are widely used in electronic equipment

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3.3.5 LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962,[2] early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

The LED is based on the semiconductor diode. When a diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device,

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releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection.[3] LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for general lighting are more expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They also enjoy use in applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in automotive lighting (particularly indicators) and in traffic signals. Airbus uses LED lightning in their A320 Enhanced since 2007, and Boeing plans its use in the 787. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology.

3.4.6 LDR

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A photoresistor or light dependent resistor or cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell is aresistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referenced as a photoconductor. A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons nough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance. A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, e.g. silicon. In intrinsic devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities, also called dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.

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3.4.7 Seven segment Display

One common requirement for many different digital devices is a visual numeric display. Individual LEDs can of course display the binary states of a set of latches or flip-flops. However, we're far more used to thinking and dealing with decimal numbers. To this end, we want a display of some kind that can clearly represent decimal numbers without any requirement of translating binary to decimal or any other format. One possibility is a matrix of 28 LEDs in a 74 array. We can then light up selected LEDs in the pattern required for whatever character we want. Indeed, an expanded version of this is used in many ways, for fancy displays. However, if all
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we want to display is numbers, this becomes a bit expensive. A much better way is to arrange the minimum possible number of LEDs in such a way as to represent only numbers in a simple fashion. This requires just seven LEDs (plus an eighth one for the decimal point, if that is needed). A common technique is to use a shaped piece of translucent plastic to operate as a specialized optical fiber, to distribute the light from the LED evenly over a fixed bar shape. The seven bars are laid out as a squared-off figure "8". The result is known as a seven-segment LED. We've all seen seven-segment displays in a wide range of applications. Clocks, watches, digital instruments, and many household appliances already have such displays. In this experiment, we'll look at what they are and how they can display any of the ten decimal digits 0-9 on demand.

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3.5 LAYOUT

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3.6 ARTWORK

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REFERENCE
1) Linear integrated circuit. Ramakant Gaikwad 2) Electronics and component Madhuri A. Joshi 3) Linear integrated circuit Prof. N.P. Mawale 4) Electronics for you July 2001 5) OP-Amp Ravindra Chaudhari

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