Chapter 1: The beginnings of Civilization

Section 1
Hominids: Early humans and other humanlike creatures. Artifacts: Objects made and used by early humans. Culture: Beliefs, knowledge, and patterns of living that a group of people acquire by living together. Limited evidence: Evidence, such as artifiacts, about which little information is given, requiring scientists to make educated guesses. Nomads: People who wander from place to place. Agriculture: Raising of crops for food. Domestication: Taming of animals such as cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs. Hunter-gatherers: Early people who lived by hunting animals and gathering plants for food. Donald Johanson: Led a team in 1974 that found the remains of a hominid skeleton in Ethiopia Lucy: The skeleton that Donald Johanson found who might have lived 3 million years ago. Named after the beatles song Lucy in the sky with Diamonds Mary Leakey: Another Anthropologist that found parts of a skeleton dating back 3.7 millions of years ago. Neanderthals: Early people who lived during the Old Stone Age. Cro-Magnons: Group of early people appearing about 35,000 years ago in Europe. Neolithic agricultural revolution: Shift in human history from food gathering to food producing.

Section 2
Civilization: Complex culture that can produce a surplus of food, establish large towns with a government, and has people who perform different jobs. Irrigation: System of ditches and canals that transports water from a source into an agricultural field. Division of labor: Characteristic of civilizations in which different people perform different jobs. Artisans: Skilled workers. Cultural diffusion: Spread of culture from one area of the world to another.

Chapter 2: The First Civilizations

Section 1
Hieroglyphics: form of ancient writing developed by Nile River valley people by about 3000 B.C. Papyrus: Kind of paper made by Egyptians from the stem of the papyrus plant. Dynasty: Family of rulers whose right to rule is hereditary. Pharaoh: "Great House"; Egyptian rulers title. Empire: Form of government that unites different territories and peoples under one ruler. Polytheism: Belief that many gods exist. Monotheism: Belief in one god. Rosetta Stone: Black basalt stone found in 1799 that bears an inscription in hieroglyphics, demotic characters, and Greek; gave the first clue to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics. Menes: An Egyptian ruler sometime after 3200 B.C, a king of Upper Egypt into one whole. Hyksos: meaning foreigners arrived in Egypt from Asian. Introducing new war tools such as chariots and the compound bow. Hatshepsut: (ruled from 1503 BC to 1482 BC) First and probably only female ruler. She was a co-leader with her stepson. She was a strong leader that kept Egypts borders secure and built trade with other lands. Thutmose III: (Ruled until 1450 BC) continued is stepmothers footsteps bringing Egypt to its highest point of power Amenhotep IV: (1380 to 1362 BC) wanted to bring about a social and religious change in Egypt. He wanted to change to Monotheism to please the god Aton. He changed his name to Akhenaton. He could not change the religion Ramses II: (1279 BC to 12313 BC) Was one of the last strong rulers of Egypt. He kept the Egyptian Empire united and ordered the construction of many temples and monuments

Section 2:
Scribes: Egyptian clerks who read or wrote for those who could not do so for themselves. Mummification: Process of preserving the body with chemicals after death. Caravans: Groups of people traveling together for safety over long distances

Section 3:
Cuneiform: Sumerian writing made by pressing a wedge-shaped tool into clay tablets. Arch: Curved structure over an opening. Ziggurats: Sumerian temples made of sun-dried brick. City-state: Form of government that includes a town or city and the surrounding land controlled by it.

Section 4:
Sargon: Ruled from 2334 BC to 2279 BC, was the most powerful Akkadian Empire. Hammurabi: came to power in 1792, he conquered the majority of the Tigris-

Euphrates Valley. He was known for the Code of Hammurabi which was one of the first set of laws. Some are still used today. There about 282 in total. It mainly consisted of the idea of an eye for an eye however the rich were more lenient.

Nebuchadnezzar: a Chaldean ruler that conquered most of the fertile crescent.

605 BC to 562 BC Cyrus: A powerful Persian leader that expanded the Persian empire.
Barter: Exchange of one good or service for another. Commodities: Goods that have value, especially relating to barter economies. money economy: Economic system based on the use of money as a measure of value and a unit of account. Phoenician alphabet: Alphabet developed by the Phoenicians that became the model for later Western alphabets.

Section 5:
-

Section 6:
Covenant: Solemn agreement. Ethical monotheism: Religion believing in one god, emphasizing ethics. Abraham: Founder of the Hebrew people. Once lived in Sumer. He left and led his people through the desert to the borders of northern Canaan. Twelve Tribes of Israel: Twelve sons of Abrahams grandson Jacob (Israel), from whom modern Jews trace their heritage. Moses: The great leader that led the Jews out of slavery. Exodus: Escape of the Hebrews from Egypt. Saul: A Hebrew king that united the 12 rival tribes of Israel under one king. David: The successor or Saul formed a new dynasty. He conquered the village of Jerusalem, making it its capital and religious center. Solomon: Davids successor, Israel reached its height of power and wealth. He sought to build peaceful and cooperative relations with the other leading powers of the region. Torah: Jewish scriptures that include the first five books of the Old Testament of the Bible. Judeo-Christian ethics: Values first established by the Hebrews that contribute greatly to Western civilization.

Chapter 3: Ancient Indian Civilizations

Section 1:
Monsoons: Winds that mark the seasons in India. Citadel: Strong central fortress of a city.

Section 2:
Raja: Prince who ruled an Indo-Aryan city-state. Indo-Aryans: Indo-European tribes who moved in slow waves into India in about 1750 B.C. Vedas: Great literature of the Indo-Aryan religion. Sanskrit: Indo-Aryan language. Vedic Age: Period of Indias history from 1500 B.C. To 1000 B.C. Brahmins: Special priests of the Indo-Aryan society who knew the proper forms and rules of their complicated religious rituals.

Section 3:
Epics: Long poems based on historical or religious themes. Caste system: Complex form of social organization that began to take shape after the Indo-Aryan migration. Varnas: Social classes in Indian society. Monism: Belief in the unity of God and creation. Maya: Illusory world of the senses, according to Hinduism. Reincarnation: Belief in the rebirth of souls. Nirvana: Perfect spiritual peace, as taught in Hinduism. Polytheistic: Based on a belief in many gods. Upanishads: Written explanations of the Vedic religion. Bhagavad Gita: Last 18 chapters of the Mahabharata, stressing the idea of proper conduct for ones status. Siddhartha Gautama: he became known as the Buddha or the enlightened one. He was the son of a wealthy prince in India.

Section 4:
Changragupta Maurya: Established the Mauryan Empire Asoka: The successor of Changraputa. He fought bloody battles in his youth to expand his empire. He worked to improve living conditions and built roads. He later converted to Buddhism later in his life Chandra Gupta II: a powerful Gupta ruler

Section 5:
Polygyny: Practice in which a man is allowed to have more than one wife. Suttee: Ancient Indian practice of a woman committing suicide after her husbands death. Inoculation: Practice of infecting people with a mild form of a disease to protect them from more serious illness. Panchatantra: Fables from the Gupta period of ancient India. Nalanda: Famous Buddhist university of ancient India. Aryabhata: was a mathematician born in the late A.D. 400s. He was one of the first people known to have used algebra and to have solved quadratic equations.

Chapter 4: Ancient Chinese Civilizations

Section 1:
Loess: fertile yellow soil. Dikes: Earthen walls built along a river to protect from floods

Section 2: - Bureaucracy: Government organized into different levels and tasks. - Animism: Belief that spirits inhabit everything. - oracle bones: Cattle bones or tortoise shells on which Chinese priests would write questions and then interpret answers from the cracks that formed when the bones were heated. - Dialects: Variations of a language. - Calligraphy: Chinese art of writing. - Xia: Line of kings ruling over a late Neolithic people in the Huang River region of China starting in about 2000 B.C - Shang: Invaders of the Huang River valley who came to power sometime between 1750 B.C. And 1500 B.C. And established the first dynasty in China. - Zhou: People who overthrew the Shang dynasty of China in 1122 B.C. Section 3: - Autocracy: Government in which the ruler holds absolute power. - civil service: Centralized system that runs the day-to-day business of government. - Leveling: Policy in which government uses price controls to balance the economic effects of farm surpluses or shortages. - Qin: Dynasty that came to power in China in 221 B.C., under which the first true empire of China was created. - Han: Dynasty of rulers that ruled a centralized and growing empire in China. - Cheng: founded this new dynasty, taking for himself the title Shih Huang Ti, which means "first emperor." The Qin dynasty lasted only 15 years but produced many lasting changes in Chinese life. In fact, the Western name for "China" is derived from the name of the Qin dynasty - Great Wall of China: Wall built and expanded upon by early rulers of China to protect from invasions. - Liu Bang: a commoner who had become a Qin general, overthrew the empire. Liu Bang founded a new dynasty known as the Han. - Liu Ch'e: The longest-ruling Han emperor. Extended Han rule north into present-day Manchuria and Korea, south into Southeast Asia, and west into central Asia. The Han ruled over an area larger than the Roman Empire. - Silk Road:Trade route stretching from China to the Mediterranean.

Section 4:
Yin: Force that is female, dark, and passive; part of the Chinese belief of dualism or balance in life. Yang: Force that is male, bright, and active; part of the Chinese belief of dualism or balance in life. Confucius: A leading philosopher of the period. He lived from 551 B.C. to 479 B.C. Confucius's followers collected his ideas and teachings in a work called the Analects. Analects: Collection of the ideas and teachings of Confucius.

Laozi: founded the philosophy called Daoism. Daoism took its name from its central idea, the Dao, which is defined as "The Way." Dao De Jing: Compilation of Laozis teachings on Daoism. Legalism: School of Chinese philosophy concerned with politics.

Section 5
Genealogy: Record of a family history Acupuncture: Chinese medical practice of inserting needles into certain areas of the body. Five Classics: Texts used to train scholars and civil servants in ancient China.

Chapter 5: The Greek- city States

Section 1:
Frescoes: Paintings done on wet plaster walls. Polis: Greek word for city-state, which developed around a central fort. Acropolis: Hill or mountain in Greece that included a fort as well as temples and other public buildings Agora: Marketplace in a city-state in Greece. Minoans: Earliest Greek civilization that had developed on the island of Crete by 2000 B.C. Mycenaeans: Civilization on the Greek mainland that conquered the Minoans in Crete in about 1400 B.C.

Section 2:
Myths: Traditional stories about gods, goddesses, and heroes. Oracles: Special places where the ancient Greeks believed gods spoke through priests and priestesses. Aristocracies: Greek city-states controlled by nobles Hoplites: Heavily armed Greek infantry who carried long spears and fought in closely spaced rows. Tyrants: In ancient Greece, rulers who seized power by force but who ruled with the peoples support; later came to refer to rulers who exercise brutal and oppressive power. popular government: Idea that people can and should rule themselves. Democracy: Government in which citizens take part. Iliad: Homers great epic that tells the story of the Trojan War. Odyssey: Homers epic that tells the story of the Greek hero Odysseus on his way home from the Trojan War. Olympic Games: Originally, ancient Greek festival including contests of sports, music, and literature; the modern revival of these games as international athletic competitions.

Section 3:
Helots: conquered people of the Peloponnesus, who became the lowest class in Spartan society. Ephors: Five officials in ancient Sparta who were elected for one-year terms to make sure the king stayed within the law. Metics: People living in Athens who were not Athenian citizens, who could work and who paid taxes but were not allowed to own land or take part in government. Archons: Rulers in ancient Athens who served one-year terms. direct democracy: Form of democracy in which all citizens participate directly in making decisions. representative democracy: Form of government in which citizens elect representatives to run the government for them, rather than each citizen serving directly in the government. Draco: is believed to have created Athens's first written law code around 621 B.C. Draco's laws were so harsh and severe that today we call a harsh law a Draconian law. Solon: who became an archon in 594 B.C., settled the disputes between creditors and debtors by erasing the debts of the poor and outlawing slavery for debt. He freed people who had become slaves to pay their debts.

Peisistratus: ruled over Athens as a tyrant. Although Peisistratus improved Athens's economy, he clashed with the nobles. After the rule of Peisistratus's sons, the nobles returned to power. Cleisthenes: seized power in Athens and turned it into a democracy. First, he divided Athens's citizens into 10 tribes. Then he had each tribe choose 50 men. These men formed the Council of Five Hundred.

Section 4:
Terracing: Carving small, flat plots of land from hillsides to use for farming. Import: Good or service bought from another country or region. Export: Good or service sold to another country or region. Pedagogue: In ancient Greece, a male slave who taught a young boy manners. Ethics: Study of what is good and bad, and of moral duty. Rhetoric: Study of public speaking and debating. Sophists: Athenian men who opened schools for boys to study government, mathematics, ethics, and rhetoric.

Section 5: - Persian Wars: Conflicts between Greece and Persia. - Battle of Marathon: Battle during the Persian Wars when Persia invaded Greece. - Battle of Thermopylae: Battle during the Persian Wars in which Spartan troops fought to the death against a much larger Persian force. - Delian League: Alliance of city-states in ancient Greece, with Athens as a leader. - Peloponnesian War: War between Sparta and Athens that broke out in 431 B.C. And lasted for 27 years.

Chapter 6: Greece's Golden and Hellenistic Ages

Section 1:
golden age: Era of cultural progress in Greece in the 400s B.C. Parthenon: White marble temple built in ancient Athens in honor of Athena. Myron and Phidias: were two of history's greatest sculptors. They both lived during the golden age. Myron sculpted the famous figure The Discus Thrower. Phidias created the statues of Athena that decorated the Acropolis and the Parthenon. Praxiteles: lived about 100 years after Phidias. He created a very different kind of sculpture. Phidias had made large, formal works appropriate for the gods.

Section 2:
Philosophy: Study of basic questions of reality and human existence. Aristocracy: Government ruled by an upper class. Dramas: Plays containing action or dialogue and usually involving conflict and emotion Tragedies: Forms of Greek drama in which the main character struggles against fate or events. Socrates: taught that education was the key to personal growth. Unlike other teachers, Socrates did not use memorization as a teaching tool. Plato: a wealthy young aristocrat and the greatest of Socrates's students. After the death of Socrates, Plato founded the Academy, a special school in Athens for teaching philosophy. Aristotle: founded his own school in Athens in 335 B.C. Aristotle believed that every field of knowledge had to be studied logically. He collected as many facts as possible and organized them into systems. Pythagoras: was a philosopher who believed that everything could be explained in terms of mathematics. Hippocrates: who lived between about 460 B.C. and about 377 B.C., is considered to be the founder of medical science. Many historians believe that Hippocrates wrote between 60 and 70 medical studies. Herodotus: was the first historian of the Western world. Herodotus traveled to Babylonia, Phoenicia, and Egypt Sophocles: defended many traditional Greek values. Euripides: was more of a realist than Aeschylus or Sophocles. Like Socrates, he questioned many old beliefs and ideas. Aristophanes: was known for his sharp wit. In Clouds he poked fun at Socrates for his theories about education. Aristophanes also disliked war.

Section 3:
Phalanx: military formation composed of rows of soldiers standing shoulder to shoulder, carrying pikes or heavy spears. Orators: Public speakers. Philip II of Macedon: became king. As a youth Philip had been a hostage in Thebes for about three years. During that time, he had come to admire Greek ways. He had also learned about the organization of Thebes's army. Demosthenes: led Athenian opposition to Philip.

Alexander the Great: As a military commander, Alexander was even more skilled than his father. His military campaigns are among the most admired in history. He was physically strong and brave, and his courage in battle won the loyalty of his troops. They willingly followed him into unknown lands. Alexander crushed the rebellions that broke out in Greece after Philip's death. He then set out to conquer the world. By 331 B.C. Alexander had completely destroyed Persia. In the process, he had conquered Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. Alexander now ruled a huge territory. Hellenistic culture: Greek-like way of life that combined ideas and values drawn from the Mediterranean and Asia.

Section 4:
Zeno: established the Stoic philosophy in Athens in the late 300s B.C. He and his followers believed that divine reason directs the world. Epicurus: was the founder of Epicurean philosophy. He taught that the aim of life is to seek pleasure and avoid pain. Epicurus said that people should limit their desires. Euclid: contributed extremely important work to the development of geometry. He showed how geometric statements flow logically from one another. Archimedes: calculated the value of pi, the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. Archimedes also used mathematics to explain how levers work. He invented many machines, including the compound pulley. Aristarchus: correctly believed that the earth and other planets moved around the sun, but he failed to convince others. Eratosthenes: calculated the distance around the earth with amazing accuracy.

Chapter 7: The Roman World

Section 1:
Republic: Form of government in which voters elect officials to run the state. Dictator: Absolute ruler. Consuls: Chief executives elected to run the government in ancient Rome. Veto: Refuse to approve, as in a bill or law. checks and balances: System of government that prevents any one part of the government from becoming too powerful. Praetors: elected Roman officials who helped the consuls. Censors: Roman officials who registered citizens according to their wealth. Tribunes: Officials elected by Romes popular assemblies. Patricians: Powerful landowners who controlled Roman government and society. Plebeians: Farmers and workers who made up most of the Roman population

Section 2:
Equites: Class of business people and landowners in ancient Rome who had wealth and power. Punic Wars: Three costly conflicts between Romans and Carthaginians over control of the Mediterranean and overseas expansion. Hannibal: one of the greatest generals of all time, assembled a huge Carthaginian army that included foot soldiers, horse soldiers, and elephants. Scipio: Roman general defeated Hannibal and his army

Section 3:
Triumvirate: Political alliance of three rulers. The Gracchi :Two brothers, Tiberus and Gaius Gracchus, who saw the need for reform in the Roman Republic. Gaius Marius: a Roman general who was elected consul in 107 B.C., brought major changes to the Roman political scene. He created an army of volunteers who were well rewarded with money, newly conquered land, and war loot Lucius Cornelius Sulla: elected consul. After his term expired, he wanted to take a military command that promised to gain him great fame and fortune. Gnaeus Pompey: Joined Licinius Crassus and Caesar. The three formed a political alliance called the First Triumvirate. Cleopatra: a daughter of the ruling Ptolemy family, on the throne as a Roman ally. Marc Antony: a general and an ally of Caesar's, drove out the conspirators and took control in Rome. Then Octavian and Antonyalong with Lepidus, Caesar's second-incommandformed the Second Triumvirate. Marc Antony led an army east, reconquering Syria and Asia Minor from the armies of Brutus and Cassius. Then he joined his ally Cleopatra in Egypt. Meanwhile, Octavian forced Lepidus to retire and built his own power in Italy. Augustus: also known as Octavian was determined to avoid Julius Caesar's fate. When the Senate appointed him consul, Octavian did not present himself as king or emperor Pax Romana: Period of Roman peace from the beginning of Augustuss reign until the death of Marcus Aurelius. Julio-Claudian Emperors: Relatives of Caesar who ruled for 54 years of the Pax Romana following the death of Augustus. Five Good Emperors: Five rulers who led Rome for almost 100 years during the Pax Romana.

Section 4:
Gladiators: Trained fighters, usually slaves, who fought in arenas as entertainment. Aqueducts: Bridgelike structures that carry water. Galen: wrote several volumes that summarized all the medical knowledge of his day. For centuries people thought he was the greatest authority on medicine. Ptolemy:, a scientist and scholar from the great Egyptian city of Alexandria, developed a system of astronomy and geographythe Ptolemaic systembased on the belief that the sun, the planets, and the stars revolved around the earth. Virgil: who lived during Augustus's reign, was the greatest of the Roman poets. His epic poem, the Aeneid, tells the story of Aeneas, a prince of Troy. Horace: wrote of human emotions in odes, satires, and epistles Ovid: wrote love lyrics and the Metamorphoses, a collection of myths written in verse. Tacitus: wrote Annals, a history of Rome under the Julio-Claudian emperors. In this work, Tacitus expresses his criticism of the government set up by Augustus. Plutarch: a Greek, wrote Parallel Lives, a collection of Greek and Roman biographies.

Section 5:
Rabbis: Religious scholars of Judaism. Martyrs: Persons put to death for their beliefs. Bishops: Heads of the Catholic Church in major cities. Patriarchs: Bishops of the administrative centers for the church in the last years of the Roman Empire. Pope: Title assumed by the patriarch of Rome and head of the Catholic Church; from the Latin word meaning "father."

Section 6:
Inflation: Rise in prices caused by a decrease in the value of the medium of exchange. Diocletian: general in the Roman army, was made emperor in A.D. 284. An able administrator, he realized that the empire had grown too large for one person to manage. He appointed a co-emperor and two assistants, or caesars. Constantine: won out and became sole emperor in A.D. 324. Constantine is remembered for many things, including supporting Christianity throughout the empire. Goths: One of a group of Germanic tribes who flooded into the Roman Empire and later revolted, weakening the empire. Vandals: One of a group of Germanic tribes who invaded and destroyed territory in the Roman Empire. Huns: Nomadic people from Asia who attacked the Roman Empire. Attila: launched an attack on Gaul. His troops were defeated by an army of Romans and Visigoths in a great battle near Chlons-sur-Marne. Attila's army quickly broke up, but it was too late to save the Western Roman Empire. In A.D. 476 a barbarian commander overthrew Romulus Augustulus, the last Roman emperor in the West.

Chapter 8: Africa
Section 1:
Savannas: Dry grasslands south of the Sahara Desert in Africa. tropical rain forests: Vast forests that have a great amount of rainfall and vegetation. Jungle: Thick growth of plants found in a tropical rain forest. Linguists: Scholars who study languages. oral traditions: Poems, songs, and stories passed by word of mouth from one generation to another. Matrilineal: Describes a society in which people trace their ancestors and inherited property through their mothers rather than through their fathers. Bantu: Family of closely related African languages.

Section 2:
King 'Ezana: King of Aksum conquered Kush. He set up a thriving kingdom. Like other kings of Aksum, 'Ezana held power over surrounding chiefdoms. He collected tribute from neighboring rulers. At the port city of Adulis his officials collected taxes on trade goods. During his reign 'Ezana converted to Christianity. He made it the official religion of Aksum.

Section 3:
Swahili: African society that emerged in the late 1100s along the East African coast and combined elements of African, Asian, and Islamic cultures Shona: People who migrated onto the plateau of what is known today as Zimbabwe. Tunka Manin: One of the most powerful Ghanaian rulers. commanded an army of 200,000 warriors, well equipped with bows, arrows, and iron-pointed spears. In the late A.D. 1000s, however, Ghana began to decline. Mansa Musa: Mali's power reached its peak under this great ruler. He was a supporter of education, the arts, and public building. Under his rule, the city of Timbuktu became a leading center of learning. Its large university attracted scholars from Egypt and Arabia. Musa is famous for his historic pilgrimage to Mecca, an Islamic holy place in Arabia. He was accompanied by thousands of other pilgrims. Most notably he brought large amounts of gold with him in a great display of West African power and wealth. Mohammed I Askia:, built Songhai into a strong kingdom. Under Askia's rule Timbuktu became a great commercial center. Goods came from Europe, India, and China. The growing number of merchants included Arabs, Jews, Italians, and many others. Timbuktu was also a thriving cultural center. As Mansa Musa had done, Askia supported a revival of Islamic scholarship based around the university there.

Chapter 9: The Americas

Section 1:
Strait: Narrow strip of water that connects two larger bodies of water. Beringia: Land bridge during the Ice Age that provided the means for Asians to travel to the Americas.

Section 2:
Potlatches: Ceremonial gatherings of Native Americans of the Pacific Northwest. Adobe: Sun-dried brick used for building purposes by the Pueblo Indians. Buffalo: Primary animal that roamed the Great Plains of the United States; hunted by the Plains people. Tepees: Cone-shaped tents made of buffalo hide. Hohokam: Group of people who lived in the southwestern United States who abandoned their communities in the 1300s or 1400s. Pueblo: Group of people who lived in permanent settlements in the southwestern United States. Hopewell: Group of people who settled in the Ohio Valley region sometime from about 300 B.C. To 200 B.C. Mississippians: Group that lived in the Eastern Woodlands of North America from about A.D. 700 to A.D. 1550.

Section 3:
Chinampas: Raised fields made by the Aztec with mud taken from the bottoms of lakes. Quipu: kind of knotted string used as a memory aid by the Inca. Olmec: Earliest culture of Mexico, beginning in about 1200 B.C. Chavn: Earliest people of Andean South America. Maya: One of the most advanced early people in the Americas, occupying most of the Yucatn Peninsula. Toltec: People who invaded central Mexico from the north in about A.D. 800. Aztec: Wandering warriors who gradually came to rule central Mexico. Inca: Civilization in the Andes Mountains in South America that by the end of the 1400s included much of what is now Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile. Quechua: Inca language, still spoken today by millions in South America.

Chapter 10: The Byzantine Empire and Russia

Section 1:
Dowry: Money or goods a wife brings to a marriage. Icon: Holy picture of Jesus, the Virgin Mary, or a saint. Iconoclasts: People who opposed the use of icons in worship. Heresy: Opinion that conflicts with official church beliefs. Excommunication: Official edict that bars a person from church membership. Mosaic: Picture or design made from small pieces of enamel, glass, or stone Justinian: An emperor, who ruled from A.D. 527 to A.D. 565, led the Byzantines in this revival. Justinian's accomplishments made this one of the greatest periods in Byzantine history. Justinian Code: Collection of laws that formed the basis for Byzantine law under Emperor Justinian. Theodora: Justinians wife and advisor, urged Justinian changed Byzantine law to affect the status of women. He altered divorce laws to give greater benefit to women. He also allowed Christian women to own property equal to the value of their dowry. Belisarius: general of the army. An experienced commander, Belisarius also led the troops that crushed the Nika Revolt. He won former Roman lands back from the Germanic tribes. Thus during Justinian's reign the Byzantine Empire reached its greatest size. Greek fire: Flammable liquid used as a weapon by the Byzantine navy. Iconoclastic Controversy: Debate between opponents and defenders of icons in the Byzantine Church; one of the issues that led to the split of the Christian church in 1054. Cyril and Methodius: Christian missionaries. They tried to teach the Bible to Slavs in central and eastern Europe. The Slavs had no written language, so Cyril and Methodius created an alphabet for them. This alphabet came to be known as Cyrillic. Many Slavic peoples today use Cyrillic or an alphabet derived from it. Hagia Sophia: Great, decorative Byzantine church in Constantinople. Ottoman Turks: Asian people who conquered Constantinople in the 1300s and established a large empire.

Section 2:
-

Steppe: Large, grassy plain stretching across eastern Europe and central Asia that is ideal for agriculture.
Boyars: Nobles who advised the prince in each Kievan city. Taiga: Russian region north of the steppe having great forests, much rainfall, and cold, long winters. Rurik: leader of a people called the Rus, took control of Novgorod in A.D. 862. Rurik and his successors soon came to rule over Kiev as well as over Slavic tribes along the Dnieper River. The region under their control came to be called the Rus. Rus: People led by Rurik who came to rule Kiev and the Slavic tribes along the Dnieper River. Yaroslav the Wise: Yaroslav I ruled from A.D. 1019 to A.D. 1054, a great period in Russian history. He built many churches and introduced Russia's first law code Pravda Russkia: Russias first law code, created by Yaroslav I. Vladimir I: sent observers to Christian church services in several places. His officials were impressed with what they saw at the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. They admired the services and rituals of Orthodox Christianity.

Section 3:
Czar: Title taken by Ivan the Terrible; Russian for "caesar." third Rome: Moscow; Russian Orthodox interpretation of the citys leading role in bringing spiritual light to the world. Polovtsy: Turkish people who after 1055 controlled the area south of Kiev in Russia. Ivan III: also called Ivan the Great, ruled as Great Prince. By this time Moscow had begun to assert its independence from the Mongols. Ivan the Terrible: Ivan was an able administrator who sponsored the development of a modernized legal code. He renewed trade with western Europe and opened the vast territory of Siberia to Russian settlement. During his reign, Ivan built the power and authority of the Russian monarchy.

Chapter 11: The Islamic World

Section 1: Bedouins: Nomadic Arab herders of sheep and camel. Hijrah: migration of Muhammad and his followers in A.D. 622, marking the first year in the Muslim calendar. Jihad: teaching of Islam to defend the faith. Mosques: Muslim places of worship. Islam: Religion based on Muhammads teachings and ideas that began spreading throughout Arab tribes in the A.D. 600s. Muslims: Followers of the religion of Islam. Qur'an: Holy book of Islam. Muhammad: born into a poor clan of Mecca's ruling tribe. Like many Arabs in Mecca, Muhammad made a living as a caravan trader. Later the founder and leader of Muslims

Section 2:
Caliph: Title meaning "successor to the Prophet" used in government and religion in Islamic society Imams: Spiritual leaders who, according to some Shiah Muslims, should be direct descendants of Muhammad. Sultan: Ruler of the Turks who claimed to serve the Muslim caliph. Abu Bakr: given the title caliph meaning "successor to the Prophet." During his rule, Abu Bakr helped to bring the Arabic tribes together. Umar: succeeded Abu Bakr as caliph. 'Umar was a strong leader with a well-run government. Under 'Umar, Muslim expansion continued and people began to share in the empire's wealth. Sunni: Branch of Islam formed in the A.D. 600s who believed agreement among Muslim people should settle religious and worldly matters. Shi'ah: Branch of Islam formed in the A.D. 600s that believed only imams should decide religious and worldly matters. Sufi: Muslim mystics who tried to live simple lives. Rabi'ah al-'Adawiyah: tried to live simple lives centered on God. Tariq: led a Muslim army to Spain. They crossed the Mediterranean at the great rock that guards the strait between Africa and Europe. Moors: Muslims who made Spain their home in the A.D. 700s.

Section 3
Astrolabe: Instrument used to calculate latitude by looking at stars. Minaret: Tower attached to the outside of a mosque, from where a crier would call Muslims to worship. al-Raz: chief physician at the hospital in Baghdad in the early A.D. 900s. Al-Razi was best known for a paper he wrote about smallpox and measles. He was the first to clearly describe these diseases so that doctors could tell them apart. Al-Razi also compiled a huge medical encyclopedia. Ibn Sina: among the best known. One of his textbooks was the encyclopedic Canon of Medicine. He wrote it in the early 1000s. This medical book was used in Europe until at least 1650.

al-Idrisi: sent people to other countries. He asked them to draw the geographic features they saw. Al-Idrisi then combined what they found with existing maps to make new, more accurate maps. Thousand and One Nights: Popular collection of Muslim folktales.

Chapter 12: The Civilizations of East Asia

Section 1:
Grand Canal: Canal constructed during the Sui dynasty that linked northern and southern China for the first time. Li Bo: a Daoist, spent much of his life seeking pleasure. His poems describe life's delights in light, happy elegant terms. Du Fu: on the other hand, wrote about serious subjects. He was a devout follower of the teachings of Confucius. Du Fu's carefully written verses showed his deep concernt for the suffering and tragedy of human life. Empress Wu: who ruled from 690 to 705, was an outspoken supporter of Buddhism. She was a strong leader and an able administrator. Empress Wu was also the only woman to hold the Chinese throne in her own name. Zen: Sect of Buddhism that stresses meditation as a means of enlightenment. Diamond Sutra: Worlds first known printed book, a Buddhist text produced in China in A.D. 868.

Section 2:
Genghis Khan: who lived from about 1162 to 1227. Originally named Temujin, he took the title Genghis Khan, meaning "Universal Ruler," in 1206. He went on to create an immense empire. Kublai Khan: a grandson of Genghis Khan, they conquered the rest of China. They also conquered the area now called Tibet and part of Southeast Asia. They tried but failed to capture Japan. Batu: invaded Europe around 1240. His troops swept across Russia, Poland, and Hungary to the outskirts of Vienna. They plundered city after city, either killing the inhabitants or taking them as slaves. Golden Horde: Name given by Europeans to the Mongol invaders of the 1200s due to the golden color of their tents. Marco Polo: was a famous merchant and explorer. At about the age of seventeen he left Venice with his father and uncle. After three years of difficult travel they arrived in China.

Section 3:
Kami: Japanese gods or nature spirits. Shogun: Chief military and governmental officer in feudal Japan. Samurai: Japanese warriors hired for protection by wealthy landlords in feudal Japan. Seppuku: form of ceremonial suicide of defeated or disloyal samurai to avoid dishonor; also known in the West as hari-kari. Daimyo: powerful local lords in feudal Japan. Shinto: Way of the kami; indigenous religion of Japan involving rituals and prayers to appease nature spirits, and veneration of the emperor. The Tale of Genji : Story of courtly life in Japan written by Murasaki Shikibu in about A.D. 1000; generally considered the worlds first novel. Fujiwara: First family to gain control over the central government in Japan; had power from the mid-800s to the mid-1100s. Minamoto: Clan reigning in Japan beginning in 1156; changed the way governments were run by introducing the shogun control. Ashikaga: Family of shoguns who ruled in Japan for nearly 250 years.

Bushido: Way of the warrior; code of behavior of the samurai, stressing bravery, loyalty, and honor. Yi: Korean dynasty founded in 1392 when Koreans drove out the Mongols; lasted until Korea was annexed by Japan in 1910. Sejong: Korean Epmporer ordered the development of a Korean alphabet. The Koreans borrowed the Chinese invention of movable wood type and then improved upon it. They designed movable type blocks made of metal, which was far more durable and produced sharper images.

Chapter 13: The rise of the middle ages

Section 1:
Medieval: Term that describes the period of western European history known as the Middle Ages. Middle Ages: Period in western European history between the collapse of the Roman Empire and the Renaissance. Clovis became king of one of the Frankish tribes. Clovis and his successors were called Merovingians because Clovis traced his family back to an ancestor named Merovech. Clovis was an able military leader. He and his troops conquered and absorbed other Frankish tribes. Soon they controlled all of northern Gaul. Merovingians: Clovis and his successors, who were generally weak Frankish rulers who left the job of governing to palace officials. Charles Martel: known as Charles the Hammer, became mayor of the palace. Charles Martel's cavalry defeated the Spanish Moors in 732 when they invaded France. This halted the Muslim advance in western Europe, although Muslim raids continued. Carolingians: Line of Frankish rulers established by Pepin IIIs coronation in A.D. 751. Charlemagne: inherited the Frankish throne in 768 and ruled until 814. During the 46 years of his reign, Charlemagne worked to build a "new Rome" centered in what is now France and Germany. As a devout Christian he helped to spread church teachings and Christian beliefs. His rule did much to bring civilization, order, and learning to barbarian Europe during the 800s. Louis The Pious: proved to be a well-educated and religious king but a weak and shortsighted ruler. When Louis died in 840, his sons Lothair, Charles the Bald, and Louis the German agreed to divide the empire among themselves after much dispute. This agreement, signed in 843, became known as the Treaty of Verdun Magyars: Nomadic group who invaded Europe; eventually settled in what is now Hungary. Vikings: Germanic people from Scandinavia who often raided western Europe during the A.D. 800s and 900s.

Section 2:
Feudalism: Political system of local government based on the granting of land in return for loyalty, military assistance, and other services. Fief: Grant of land given to a vassal from a lord. Vassal: Person granted land from a lord in return for services. Primogeniture: system of inheritance from father to eldest son for ownership or possession of land. Manorialism: Economic system during the Middle Ages that revolved around selfsufficient farming estates where lords and peasants shared the land. Serfs: Peasants who were bound to the land where they worked for a lord. Chivalry: Code of conduct that dictated knights behavior toward others. Sacraments: Ceremonies at which participants receive Gods direct favor, or grace, to ward off the consequences of sin. Curia: Group of advisers to the pope drawn from the highest ranks of clergy. Cardinals: Catholic officials ranking next below the pope.

Section 3:
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Monasticism: Way of life in convents and monasteries where nuns and monks withdraw from the world and its temptations. Abbot: Head of a monastery who controlled and distributed all property. Abbess: Head of a convent who served a role similar to an abbot. canon law: The code of law in the Catholic Church. Interdict: The Catholic Churchs punishment of a region, involving closing churches and withholding sacraments. Heretics: People who denied the truth of the official churchs principles or who preached beliefs not approved by the church. Tithe: Church tax collected from Christians in early times that represented one tenth of their income; later became a gift to the church representing one tenth of a persons income. Simony: practice of buying high positions in the Catholic Church, common during the Middle Ages. Saint Benedict: created rules to govern monks' lives. Monasteries and convents all over Europe adopted these standards, called the Benedictine Rule. Saint Patrick: is credited with bringing Christianity to Ireland in 432 Saint Augustine: led a group of monks to England. Eventually all of England accepted Christianity. Augustine became the Archbishop of Canterbury, and Canterbury became the center of the Christian church in England. Inquisition: Institution of the Roman Catholic Church that sought to eliminate heresy by seeking out and punishing heretics.

Section 4:
Shires: Governmental districts in early England; governed by a shire-reeve (sheriff). common law: Law based upon customs and judges decisions rather than upon written codes. Alfred the Great: came to the throne of Wessex determined to drive the Danes from the island. Alfred made a temporary peace after being defeated by the Danes. He spent the next five years building a powerful army and a fleet of fighting ships. Edward the Confessor: was part Anglo-Saxon and part Norman. The powerful Duchy of Normandy was located in northwestern France. When Edward died without leaving an heir in 1066, a distant relativeDuke William of Normandyclaimed the English throne. The Anglo-Saxons refused to recognize his claim. Instead they selected Edward's brother-in-law, Harold of Wessex, to be king. William the Conqueror: soon overcame armed Anglo-Saxon resistance to his rule. In the years after the conquest, the Normans' laws, customs, and language were introduced in England. Henry II: who ruled from 1154 to 1189, also made decisions that increased royal authority. Instead of performing feudal military service for the king, his vassalsthe noblescould pay him a fee. He would use the money to hire mercenaries, or soldiers from different places. Thomas Becket: the Archbishop of Canterbury, refused to allow his clergy to be tried in royal courts. Becket and Henry, who had once been good friends, became bitter enemies over the issue. Four of the king's knights, believing that they were helping Henry, murdered the archbishop in his cathedral. Eleanor of Aquitaine had land in the French lands that were given to Henry when they married, moreover, involved England in new conflicts with the French. Magna Carta: Great Charter, English document that made law the supreme power and became a cornerstone of constitutional government.

Simon de Montfort: a powerful lord who led the revolt, aimed to build middle-class support for the nobles' cause. In this way, de Montfort reasoned, both the middle class and the nobility could combine forces against the king

Section 5
Otto I: a powerful and forceful ruler, became known as Otto the Great. Otto worked to develop a strong kingdom in Germany like that of the Capetians in France. However, the German king was also interested in Italy. In 951 Otto moved to seize territory in northern Italy Henry III: between 1046 and 1056 represented the height of imperial power. Henry, like Charlemagne, viewed the church as a branch of the imperial government. He expected the church to actively support the empire and its ruler. Henry IV: to the imperial throne. Powerful German nobles saw Henry's youth as an opportunity to regain their independence and feudal powers. The church, too, moved to restore the power it had lost during Pope Gregory : was both devout and able. He worked to bring spiritual reform to the church by increasing the power and authority of the papacy. Gregory believed that the church was the supreme spiritual and temporal power on the earth. Frederick Barbarossa: ruled Germany from 1152 to 1190. Frederick, like other emperors before him, sought to gain control of Italy. Innocent III: greatly strengthened the church and increased its worldly power. Innocent was a skillful political leader who, like Gregory VII before him, believed in the supreme earthly power of the papacy. To Innocent, emperors and kings were no more than servants of the church. Because of this belief Innocent felt that he had the authority to settle all political, as well as spiritual, problems.

Chapter 14: The high middle ages

Section 1:
Seljuq Turks: Muslim people from central Asia who gained control of Palestine, or the Holy Land to Christians, during the late 1000s. Crusades: Expeditions by Christians to regain the Holy Land from the Muslims. Saladin: A Muslim leader that gained control of Jerusalem. Three European rulersHoly Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, King Philip II of France, and King Richard I of Englandthen led separate armies in the Third Crusade.

Section 2:
barter economy: Economy of exchanging goods and services for other goods and services without using money. domestic system: Method of production that takes place in the workers home rather than in a shop or factory. Usury: policy of charging high interest on loans. Capital: Wealth that is earned, saved, and invested to make profits. market economy: Economy in which land, labor, and capital are controlled by individual persons.

Section 3:
merchant guild: Association of merchants and workers created to protect their rights to trade and to help out members and their families. craft guilds: Associations of skilled workers that set standards for working conditions. Apprentice: One who learns a skill under a master. Journeyman: Skilled worker who was paid wages by a master. middle class: Class of skilled workers between the upper class and the poor and unskilled workers. Black Death: Terrible plague that swept through Europe, beginning in 1347.

Section 4:
vernacular languages: Everyday speech that varies from place to place. Troubadours: Traveling singers who entertained people during the Middle Ages. Scholasticism: Medieval philosophy attempting to bring together faith and reason. Dante Alighieri: commonly known simply as Dante, was born in the region of Tuscany, Italy, in 1265. He wrote his poems using the Tuscan form of Italian. People throughout Italy read Dante's works. In that way, the Tuscan dialect became Italy's written language. Today Dante is thought of by many historians and other scholars as the father of the Italian language. Geoffrey Chaucer: writing and imagination had a great influence on literary styles and approaches. Chaucer was born in England about 1340 and spent much of his life in service to the English crown. He fought in France and, for about 10 years, served as a diplomat throughout western Europe. He was elected to the English Parliament in 1386. Peter Abelard: an important philosopher of scholasticism, taught in Paris in the 1100s. Abelard wrote a book called Sic et Non ("Yes and No"), which raised many questions about the church's teachings. In it he included quotations from the Bible, statements from popes, and writings of church philosophers. Abelard showed that many of them conflicted with one another.

Thomas Aquinas: a monk of the Dominican order. His principal work, Summa Theologiae, summarized medieval Christian thought. Gothic: Style of church architecture characterized by tall spires and flying buttresses that was developed by master builders during the mid-1100s.

Section 5:
Hundred Years' War: War between France and England for the French throne that continued from 1337 to 1453, and introduced the use of new weapons. War of the Roses: War between the York and Lancaster families of England in 1455. Henry Tudor: Kind of the House of Lancaster won the war. He defeated King Richard III of York. However, Henry married a daughter from the House of York. As King Henry VII, he set up a strong monarchy in England once again. Louis XI: followed Charles VII as king of France. Louis made the French monarchy even stronger. He set up a harsh but efficient government with high taxes. Through diplomacy and scheming, he seized the lands of the House of Burgundy. Under Louis, France became a united country Ferdinand and Isabella: Spain became a united nation in 1479. In 1515 Ferdinand and Isabella added the kingdom of Navarre to their territory. Ferdinand and Isabella took powers away from church courts and from the nobles. Fervent Catholics, they did not look kindly on non-Christians in Spain. In 1492 they ordered all Jews to become Christians or leave Spain. Later, they gave the Moors the same choice. Most Jews and Moors did leave the country. Habsburg: Powerful family of European rulers in the 1200s.

Section 6:
Babylonian Captivity: Years that the pope lived in Avignon, France, instead of Rome, Italy (1309-1377). Great Schism: Period of church history from 1378 to 1417 when the church was divided into opposing groups. John Wycliffe: was a priest and teacher at Oxford University. Wycliffe attacked the wealth of the church and the immorality of some of its clergy. He also did not believe in the absolute power of the pope. Wycliffe wanted to replace the authority of the church, which he believed had been undermined, with that of the Bible. He held that individuals should be allowed to read and interpret scripture for themselves, without church intervention. Jan Hus: read Wycliffe's works. Hus was a religious reformer and teacher at the University of Prague. He also criticized abuses in the church. His attacks angered the clergy.

Chapter 15: The Renaissance and Reformation

Section 1:
Humanists: People who specialize in studying the humanities, which includes grammar, history, poetry, and rhetoric. Perspective: Art technique that involves making distant objects smaller than those in the foreground and arranging them to create the illusion of depth on a flat canvas. Renaissance: Movement following the Middle Ages that centered on revival of interest in the classical learning of Greece and Rome; French word meaning "rebirth." Isabella d'Este: filled her palace with paintings and sculptures by the finest Renaissance artists. Francesco Petrarch: who lived from 1304 to 1374. Like many humanists, Petrarch became famous as a scholar and a teacher. He also wrote poetry. His sonnets to Laura, an imaginary ideal woman, are considered some of the greatest love poems in literature. Niccol Machiavelli: a Florentine diplomat and historian, lived from 1469 to 1527. In 1513 he wrote the essay The Prince. Machiavelli sought to describe government not in terms of lofty ideals but in the way it actually worked. He argued that a ruler should be concerned only with power and political success. Leonardo da Vinci: who lived from 1452 to 1519, was a man of many talents. He was an architect, engineer, painter, sculptor, and scientist. He made sketches of plants and animals, as well as detailed drawings of a flying machine and a submarine. Michelangelo: lived from 1475 to 1564. Michelangelo was a brilliant painter. Millions of people have visited the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, the residence of the pope in Rome, to view the frescoes Michelangelo painted on the chapel ceiling. His sculptures of biblical figures such as David also continue to be admired

Section 2:
Johannes Gutenberg: of Mainz, Germany, became the first European to use movable type to print books. Gutenberg used his printing press to print copies of the Bible. Desiderius Erasmus: a Dutch scholar who lived from about 1466 to 1536. As a young man, Erasmus entered a monastery. He later left the monastery so he could pursue his studies of the classics. Erasmus learned about the ideas of the Italian humanists from printed books. Thomas More: an English humanist and friend of Erasmus, took a similar view. Early in life More showed an interest in the classics, and in 1516 he published Utopia. In this work, More condemned governments as corrupt and argued that private ownership of property causes unnecessary conflicts between people. William Shakespeare: stands out as the leading literary figure of the time. Shakespeare built on the traditions established by Marlowe and other playwrights. Shakespeare's great strength lay in his ability to transform well-known stories into dramatic masterpieces.

Flemish school: Group of painters who perfected the technique of oil painting on canvas.

Section 3:
Indulgences: Paid pardons from punishment for sin. Sects: Religious societies of a few people, usually with a preacher as their leader. Predestination: Belief that at the beginning of time God decided who would be saved. Theocracy: Government ruled by religious leaders claiming Gods authority. Reformation: Religious revolution that split the church in western Europe and created a number of new churches. Martin Luther: developed beliefs that later became known as Lutheranism. Luther taught that ceremonies and good deeds made no difference in saving a sinner. The only thing that counted, Luther decided, was an inner faith in God. People could receive salvation only through the grace of God, not through their own actions. Henry VIII: who caused the break between England and the Roman Catholic Church. The break was a political move that had little to do with religious beliefs. Parliament passed a series of laws that created the Church of England, with the king as its head. Also known as the Anglican Church, the Church of England kept the organization and ceremonies of the Catholic Church. John Calvin: emphasized predestination, the idea that at the beginning of time God had decided who would be saved. Predestination was a common belief among Protestant thinkers in the 1500s. Calvin explained the logic of predestination. Those who were predestinedor chosen beforehandfor salvation were called "the elect." Huguenots: French people, including high-ranking nobles, who converted to Calvinism.

Section 4:
Counter-Reformation: Attempt by the Catholic Church, following the Reformation, to return the church to an emphasis on spiritual matters. Council of Trent: Meeting of church leaders in the 1500s to clearly define Catholic doctrines for the Counter-Reformation. Jesuits: Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius de Loyola in 1534. Ignatius de Loyola: founded the Jesuits in 1534.

Section 5:
Broadsides: Single printed news sheets sold to the public. Almanacs: Books that predict the weather and the prospects for growing crops, and also contain such things as calendars, maps, and medical advice. standard of living: Measure of the quality of life.