Three primary functions. It returns excess interstitial fluid to the blood.

. The absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the digestive system and the subsequent transport of these substances to the venous circulation. Defense against invading microorganisms and disease. The Lymphatic System includes

Lymph nodes located along the paths of collecting vessels. Isolated nodules of lymphatic patches in the intestinal wall. Specialized lymphatic organs such as the tonsils, thymus, and spleen.

Lymphoid organs: spleen - is made up of masses of lymphoid tissue which are located around terminal branches of the circulation, 2. thymus - is made up of 2 lateral lobes, which are enclosed in a capsule. Each lateral lobe is made up of many smaller lobules and 3. lymph nodes - Lymph nodes are located throughout the body and serve as filters for tissue fluid. 4. Tonsils The tonsils, once thought of as a useless organ, are actually masses of lymphoid tissue that are designed to filter tissue fluids.
1.

Lymph fluid: Lymph--clear, watery fluid found in the lymphatic vessels. 1. Fluid from the intestines containing proteins and fats, 2. A few red blood cells and 3. Many lymphocytes. Lymph (originally tissue fluid) is collected in the lymphatic vessels and ultimately transported back into the systemic circulation by the pressure in the tissue, skeletal muscle activity and a series of one-way valves

The Immune System: Humoral immunity: Primary response: The very first time the lymphocytes meet a particular antigen, plasma cells produce antibodies to kill the pathogen. Memory B cells remember how to kill the antigen. Secondary response: Exposure to the same antigen later triggers a stronger immune response, because the system is already prepared. Cellular Immunity: T cells kill infected cells in the cell-mediated response. Once inside cells, pathogens are harder to detect. Cell-mediated immunity recognizes and kills the bodys own infected cells. B-cells: Develop in the bone marrow and become antibody-producing plasma cells. Bind antigens to surface-bound antibodies. T-cells: Develop in the thymus; differentiate into T-helper cells or T-cytotoxic cells.Antibodies: Antibodies are soluble proteins that are bound to the surface of cells, as well as unbound in the circulation. There are 5 types (isotypes) of antibodies: IgA: protects mucosal surfaces, IgD: BCell antigen receptor, IgE: involved in allergy, IgG: majority of antibody-based immunity and IgM: key to B-Cell immunity.

Structure of Lymphatic Vessels

Lymphatic vessels resemble veins in structure with these exceptions: o Lymphatics have thinner walls. o Lymphatics contain more valves. o Lymphatics contain lymph nodes located at certain intervals along their course.

Functions of Lymphatic Vessels

Lymphatics play a critical role in homeostasis. o The high degree of capillary permeability permits large molecular weight substances which cannot be absorbed by the blood capillary to be removed from he interstitial spaces. Proteins that accumulate in the interstitial spaces can return to the blood only via lymphatics.

Lymphatic Capillaries 1) blind-ended lymphatic capillaries found between the interstitial tissues and the cardiovascular system 2) Lymphatic capillaries are

Not found in the bones, teeth, and central nervous system. Very permeable

3) Specialized capillaries called lacteals drain fat from the intestine in fatty lymph called chyle

Functions of Lymph Nodes

Defense functions--filtration and phagocytosis o The structure of the sinus channels within the lymph nodes slows the lymph flow through them. This gives the reticuloendothelial cells that line the channels time to remove microorganisms and other injurious particles (soot) from the lymph and phagocytose them. Sometimes such large numbers of microorganisms enter the node that the phagocytes cannot destroy enough of them to prevent their injuring the node.

Tonsils

Masses of lymphoid tissue located in a protective ring under mucous membranes in the mouth and back of the throat. Help protect against bacteria that may invade tissues in the area around the openings between the oral and nasal cavities.

Palatine tonsils--located on each side of the throat. Pharyngeal tonsils--also known as adenoids are near the posterior openings of the nasal cavity. Lingual tonsils--near the base of the tongue Thymus

In an unpaired organ consisting of two pyramid-shaped lobes with delicate and finely lobulated surfaces. Is located in the mediastinum, extending up into the neck as far as the lower edge of the thyroid and inferiorly as far as the fourth intercostal cartilage.

Functions of the Thymus

Thymus performs two important functions: o Serves as a final site of lymphocyte development before birth. The fetal bone marrow forms immature lymphocytes which then move to the thymus. Many lymphocytes leave the thymus and circulate to the spleen, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic tissue. o Soon after birth the thymus begins secreting a group of hormones collectively called thymosin that enable lymphocytes to develop into mature T-cells.

Spleen

Located in the left hypochondrium directly below the diaphragm, above the left kidney and descending colon, and behind the fundus of the stomach.

Functions of the Spleen

As blood passes through the sinusoids, reticuloendothelial cell (macrophages) lining these venous spaces remove microorganisms from the blood and destroy them by phagocytosis.

Two major categories of immune mechanisms:

Nonspecific immunity Specific immunity

Specific immunity

Involves mechanisms that recognize specific threatening agents and respond by targeting their activity against these agents--and these agents only. These mechanisms often take some time to recognize their targets and react with sufficient force to overcome the threat. As in any body system, the work of the immune system is done by cells or substances made by cells. Primary types of cells involved in nonspecific immunity.
o

Neutrophils Monocytes Macrophages Natural-Killer (NK) cells The primary types of cells involved in specific immunity are: T-cells B-cells
o o o o

Nonspecific Immunity

Surface Membrane Barrier

Sebum--contains pathogen-inhibiting agents. Mucus--pathogens may stick and be swept away. Enzymes--may hydrolyze pathogens. Hydrochloric acid--may destroy pathogens.

Mechanical barriers - are the first line of defense against harmful agents. Mechanical barriers include the skin, mucus membranes that line passageways that enter the body. Chemical Barriers - tears, perspiration and saliva work to wash away harmful invaders while digestive juices and enzymes destroy bacteria and other toxins from ingested substances. Phagocytosis - is the ability of certain white blood cells to take in and destroy waste and foreign materials. Natural Killer Cells - are able to distinguish cells with an abnormal cellular membrane such as tumor cells or cells infected with a virus and kill them on contact. Inflammation - is the body's effort to get rid of anything that irritates it. If the inflammation is due to pathogens, the inflammation is referred to as an infection.

These inflammation mediators include:

Histamine Kinins Prostaglandins Many of these mediators are substances that attract white blood cells to the area by a process called chemotaxis. Fever - boosts the immune system by stimulating phagocytes, increasing metabolism and decreasing the ability of certain organisms to multiply.

Note: The most numerous types of phagocytes are the neutrophils and the macrophages.

Macrophages are phagocytocytic monocytes that have grown to several times their normal size after migrating out of the blood stream. Natural Killer Cells Are a group of lymphocytes that kill many types of tumor cells and cells infected by different kinds of viruses. Generally kill cells by releasing enzymes that lyse the pathogen's cell membrane or protein coat. Interferon
o o

Several types of cells, if invaded by viruses, respond rapidly by synthesizing the protein interferon and releasing some of it into circulation. Interferon proteins interfere with the ability of viruses to cause disease by preventing the viruses from multiplying in the cell. Three (3) major types of interferon: Leucocyte interferon Fibroblast interferon Immune interferon

Complement o Is the name given to each of a group of about twenty (20) inactive enzymes in the plasma. o Are activated in a cascade of chemical reactions triggered by either specific or nonspecific mechanisms. o The complement cascade causes lysis of the foreign cell that triggered it.

Lymphocytes

Stem cells destined to become lymphocytes follow two (2) developmental paths and differentiate into two (2) major classes of lymphocytes. o B-lymphocytes or B-cells o T-lymphocytes or T-cells B-cells do not attack pathogens themselves but, instead produce antibodies that attack the pathogens or direct other cells, such as phagocytes, to attack them. B-cell mechanisms are often classified as antibody-mediated-immunity. T-cells attack pathogens more directly; T-cell immune mechanisms are classified as cellmediated-immunity.

Antigens--macromolecules that induce the immune system to make certain responses.

Most antigens are foreign proteins. Some may be polysaccharides and some are nucleic acids--i.e. found in cell walls or outer membranes of microorganisms or the outer coats of viruses. Some tumor cells produce antigens that are called non-self antigens.

Classes of Antibodies

There are five (5) classes of antibodies identified by letter names as immunoglobulins M, G, A, E, and D. Ig M (Immunoglobulin M) o Is the antibody that immature B cells synthesize and insert into their plasma membranes. o Is the predominate class of antibody produced after initial contact with an antigen in the blood. Ig G (Immunoglobulin G) o Most abundant circulating antibody. o Normally makes up about 75% of the antibodies in the blood. Ig A (Immunoglobulin A) o Major class of antibody present in the mucous membranes of the body, in saliva, and in tears. Ig E (Immunoglobulin E) o Minor in amount. o Can produce harmful effects such as those associated with allergies. Ig D (Immunoglobulin D) o Present in the blood in very small amounts and its precise function is unknown.

Functions of Antibodies

The function of antibody molecules is to produce antibody-mediated immunity.

This type of immunity is also called humoral immunity because it occurs within the plasma. Antigen-Antibody Reactions o Antibodies fight disease by distinguishing non-self antigens from self antigens. o Recognition occurs when an antigen's epitopes fit into and bind to an antibody molecule's antigen-binding sites. o The binding forms an antibody-antigen complex that may produce one or more effects. It transforms antigens that are toxins into harmless substances. It agglutinates antigens that are molecules on the surface of microorganisms which makes them stick together so phagocytes can engulf them.
o

Types of Specific Immunity

Inherited immunity--immunity to certain diseases develops before birth--also called inborn immunity. o Example--inborn resistance to diseases that affect animals--viral canine distemper. Acquired immunity o Natural immunity--Exposure to the causative agent is not deliberate. Active (exposure)--A child develops measles and acquires an immunity to subsequent infection. Passive (exposure)--A fetus receives protection from the mother through the placenta, or an infant receives protection by way of the mother's milk. o Artificial immunity--exposure is deliberate. Active--injection of the causative agent, such as vaccination against polio, confers immunity. Passive--injection of protective material (antibodies) that was developed by another individual's immune system.