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TuvanEthnopoetics
AlexandraIsrael Abstract
TuvanEthnopoetics
Tuvanoralepicsareasourceoffascinatingpoeticdevicesanduniquefolk motifs,andthepopularepicBoktuKirish,BoraSheeleiisnoexception.Thefirstpart ofthispaperexploresthefolkmotifsboththosecommontootherculturesand thoseuniquetoTuvanepicsthatappearinBoktuKirish.Proppsworkonthe structureoffolktalesandThompsonsMotifIndexofFolkLiteratureprovevaluable inthiswork,withProppsanalysisdefiningthestructureofthetaleandThompsons exhaustivecatalogueoffolkmotifsidentifyinguniquelyTuvanmotifs. ThesecondsectionexploresTuvanpoeticstructuresusingworkdoneby HymesinhisstudiesofNativeAmericanethnopoetics.Hisframeworkisusedto identifypoeticdevicesandconnectthemtomeaningsinthetext.Thetwoprimary areasoffocusaresoundsymbolismandthestructuraluseoftheemphaticsuffix [daa].Thefinalsectionofthispapersuggeststhattheconnectionbetweensound andmeaninginTuvancouldhaveapplicationstothecognitivestudyoforality. Myhopeisthattheanalysisinthispaperwilldemonstratenotonlythe artisticvalueofTuvantales,butalsotheimportanceofanalyzingthefolkloreof lessstudiedlanguages.Withoutknowledgeofsimilartraditions,thestudyoforal literaturewouldbelimitedindeed. 1.0 Introduction Thestudyoffolkloreisgenerallyconsideredtobefirmlyintheterritoryof
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Kirishdiesfallingoffhishorse,andhissisterisforcedtoenteracontesttowinthe sorceressprincessAngyrChechenasawife,asonlyAngyrChechenisapowerful enoughmagiciantobringBoktuKirishbackfromthedead.ThisgoalinvolvesBora Sheeleidisguisingherselfasherelderbrotherandenteringaseriesofcontests posedbytheprincessfather,ShangKhan,whowantsonlythebravest,strongest mantotakehisdaughterasawife:anarcherycontest,awrestlingcontest,anda horserace.BoraSheeleihastodisguiseherselfasBoktuKirishbecausethemagical princesswillonlybringamanbacktolifeifshebelievesthatheisherhusband,and because,althoughitisneverexplicitlystated,itappearsthatonlymencanenterthe competition. Alongtheway,BoraSheeleisquestisthreatenedbyShangKhans
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andmanyoftheindigenouspeoplesofTuvaandthesurroundingareastilllivea nomadiclifestyle,survivingbyherdingyakandreindeer3.Tuvansocietyis traditionallyBuddhist,withagooddealofshamanismandanimisticworship integratedwithmoretraditionalBuddhistpractices.However,whenTuvawasfirst dominatedbytheSovietgovernmentinthe1930s,evenpriortoannexationbythe SovietUnion,thesepracticeswereliquidatedinfavorofSovietatheism(Levin16). WhiletheindependentTuvangovernmentofthe1920shadstronglysupported Buddhism,bytheearly1930sallBuddhistmonkshadbeenstrippedoftherightto vote,andallbutonepreviouslyexistingBuddhistmonasteryhadbeendestroyed.In recentyears,however,duetomoreliberalpoliciesonthepartoftheRussian
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versions,severalofwhichhavebeenwrittendownandstudiedbylinguistsand folkloristsovertheyears.Thetwomostnotableversionswerebothpublishedby Russianfolklorescholars,andwerecollectedbyXunan-Kara5 and V.Sh. Cham'yan6. Chamyans version is the longest telling of the tale that has been collected, measuring 9440 lines, and it is not a single telling of the tale, but rather sections from different versions that have been combined into a single text. TheversionwithwhichIwillbe workingisaveryshorttellingofthetaleonly381linestoldtoK.DavidHarrison bytheTuvanstorytellerShojdakoolXovalg,whichwaspublishedin2005. 4Alalatu,Toomas.Tuva:AStateReawakens.SovietStudies.44.5(1992).Print. 5-. -, -. : , 1997. Print. 6, .. -, - . : , 1995. Print. 5
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Iwillbeginmyexplorationofthistalewithaverystrictformalistanalysis,
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emphaticsuffixesandthetalesoverallstructure.Apatternofexpressiveprefixesin talesfromtheTakelmatribewasanalyzedbyHymestodemonstratethatthese prefixesareusedtoindicateandintensifycertainstructuralmomentsinthetales.I willarguethatasimilarphenomenonoccurswiththeTuvanemphaticsuffix[daa], whichoccursmanytimesinthetalebuthasnot,asofyet,beenshowntooccurin anysortofstructuredway.Whilethepatternedappearanceofthisparticularaffixis amuchmorespecificexampleoftheoverlapbetweenphonologyandmeaningthan thepresenceofsoundsymbolism,itisstillanimportantone.Theexistenceofthis sortofpatternedaffixationintheTuvantalesupportstheconclusionreachedby HymesinhisdiscussionofTakelmatalesanddemonstratesthatthesesortsof patternsmightbecrosslinguisticallyrelevant,giventheirpresenceinthesetwo verydifferentfolklorictraditions. Thefinalsectionofthepaperwillsuggestpossibleimplicationsofthe
previouslydiscussedlinguistictheorytothestudyofcognitivescience,particularly
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thatofmemory.IwillworkwithRubinstheoryoffolkliteratureandmemoryto demonstratethatthewayinwhichalliterativepatternsinteractwithmeaningvia soundsymbolism,andthewaythattheemphaticsuffix[daa]delineatesthe structureofthetale,canmaketheworkeasiertomemorizeandtransmit,aswellas easierforthelistenertofollow.Theseconnectionswillpavethewayforfurther researchintotheinteractionsbetweenpoeticdevices,meaningandmemory,an areathathasbeengenerallyunderstudied,largelybecauseofpreviousassumptions thatstudiesoffolklorearenottheworkoftrainedlinguists,butrathertheprovince ofanthropologistsorliteraryscholars. 1.1 ReviewofLiterature Whenwritingaboutoralepics,thenaturalplacetostartreadingisAlbert
LordsseminalworkTheSingerofTales7.Thisbookastudyoforalepicsas informedbyLordsworkwiththeSouthSlavicguslars,epicstorytellersfrom easternEuropewasthefirstworktotreatoralepicsaslegitimatetexts,with poeticstructures,motifs,andeverythingelsethatbeingaworkof(oral)literature entails.Lordwasalsothefirstresearchertohypothesizethatsomeoftheseminal worksoftheWesterncanon,suchastheHomericepicsandBeowulf,wereoriginally oralinnature.Usinghisobservationsofthepoeticstructuresutilizedbytheguslars, LorddrewparallelsbetweentheseepicsandtheaforementionedWesternepics,and indoingsorevolutionizedthestudyoforality.However,forthepurposeofthis paper,Lordsworkisnotparticularlyrelevant.Inrestrictinghimselfpurelytothe traditionalWesternepicsandthoseoftheguslars,Lordcreatedaformulaicmodel 7Lord,AlbertB.TheSingerofTales.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2000. Print. 8
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Foleysdiscussionsofthecharacteristicsofanoralworkareusefultomyanalysisof poetics,despitenotbeingastrictlylinguisticanalysis.Foleysbookcontainsa chapteronethnopoetics,therealcenterofthispaper,whichprovidesuseful descriptionsofsome(thoughnotnearlyall)frequentlyemployedpoeticdevicesin thecontextoforalepics,specificallyBeowulf.WhileFoleysdiscussionof ethnopoeticsiscursoryatbest,hedoesacknowledgetheexistenceofmanydifferent formsofpoetics,andexaminessomedevicescommonlyusedinoralepics.In addition,hisanalysisofthepoeticsofBeowulf,whileratherspeculative,isauseful demonstrationofthepracticeofanalysisofthespokencharacteristicsoforaltexts encounteredprimarilythroughwriting.Thisanalysiswillproveusefulbecause, althoughIdohaveaccesstoarecordingofBoktuKirish,duetomylimited knowledgeofTuvanmuchofmyanalysiswillbeperformedusingonlyatextual version.
8Foley,JohnMiles.HowtoReadanOralPoem.UrbanaandChicago:Universityof IllinoisPress,2002.Print. 9
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Theformalist,contentbasedanalysisofTuvanoralworkswillbeperformed
withintheframeworkofProppsstructuralanalyses9andThompsonsmotifdriven analyses10.BothProppandThompsonprovideindispensibletoolsforbreaking downthecontentoffolkliteratureintomanageablechunks,whichcanthenbe connectedtocertainphonologicalphenomena.However,bothanalysesarerather imperfectlysuitedtotheanalysisoftheTuvanoraltradition.Proppinparticular dealsexclusivelywithfolkandfairytalesfromtheWesterntradition,andhis analysisisnotpreparedfortheverydifferentandsometimesbizarreoccurrences andplottwistsofBoktuKirish.ThompsonsMotifIndexofFolkLiteratureisalso somewhatweightedtowardtheWesterntradition,andthusdoesnotcontain certainmotifsthatappearinTuvanoralliterature.Thesetwoworks,however,are veryusefulwhenanalyzingthestructureandcontentoffolkliterature,andIconsult bothsources,inspiteoftheirfewdeficiencies. Forthispaper,themostimportantworkonoraltraditionsisDellHymes
folkloricstudy,InVainITriedtoTellYou,11anditsfollowup,NowIOnlyKnowSo Far12.Inthiswork,Hymesaimstobridgethegapbetweenstructurallinguistics,on theonehand,andliteratureandanthropology,ontheother.Hymesstatesinhis introduction,Whenonelooksatlinguisticelementsfromthestandpointoftheir integrationintoahigherlevelofdiscourseintheserviceofahigherfunction,new 9Propp,Vladimir.MorphologyoftheFolktale.Trans.LaurenceScott.Austin: UniversityofTexasPress,2005.Print. 10Thompson,Stith.MotifIndexofFolkLiterature.Bloomingtonand Indianapolis:IndianaUniversityPress,1989.Print. 11Hymes,Dell.InVainITriedtoTellYou:EssaysinNativeAmericanEthnopoetics. LincolnandLondon:UniversityofNebraskaPress,2004.Print. 12Hymes,Dell.NowIOnlyKnowSoFar:EssaysinEthnopoetics.LincolnandLondon: UniversityofNebraskaPress,2003.Print. 10
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relationshipscometolightthatarecontributionstolinguisticsitself(Hymes8);in otherwords,lookingatthelinguisticallygroundedpoeticdevicesinthecontextof thenarrativeandthemotifsusedtherein,wecandiscoverpreviouslyunknownuses andmeaningsofthesedevices.Forexample,inNowIOnlyKnowSoFarHymes arguesthatthestrictversestructureoftheKathlametSalmonsMythis determinedbyananalogueinthegrammarofthelanguage: Somedistinctionsarewithinunits[ofthemorphemes thatmakeuptheverb].Thuswithinthepositionsof subject(ergativeagent),object,andindirectobject, therearepositionaldistinctionsinvolvedinthemarking ofnumber,agencyandreflexiveness.Thelatter differentiationsareanalogoustotheamplificationofthe versepositionsinthethirdstanza[ofSalmonsMyth]. Theycohereasaunitinrelationtotherestofthe structure(Hymes146). Hymessanalysesrangefromextremelybroad,languagewidepatternslikethe connectionbetweenversestructureandverbstructurementionedabove,tomore talespecificpatterns,suchasthepatternofstructuralaffixationinTakelmatales, whichisdiscussedindetailinalatersection.Inthispaper,IwillfollowHymes philosophyinanattempttoshedlightoncertainintriguingphonologicalpatterns foundinTuvanoralepicssomespecifictothetaleortheoraltradition,andsome morewiderangingandrelevanttothegrammarofthelanguageasawholeand thusdrawaconnectionbetweenthepoeticsoftheseepicsandthecontentofthe narratives.
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Anothersourcethatwillaidinforgingconnectionsbetweensoundpatterns
andmeaningisTsursbookWhatMakesSoundPatternsExpressive?13LikeHymes, Tsuranalyzesspecificsoundpatternsinparticular,theacousticqualitiesofvowels andconsonantsthathebelievescontributeadditionallayersofmeaningtospeech. Tsuralsospendsagooddealoftimeanalyzingspatialandtactilemetaphors conveyedusingsoundpatterns,aphenomenonwhichisextremelyprevalentin Tuvan,andwhichIwilldiscussingreaterdetaillaterinthepaper.Tsurswork,like Hymes,willproveusefulbydemonstratingthataconnectionbetweenphonological patternsandmeaningdoesexist,andbygivingexamplesofthisconnection.These exampleswillprovidesomeusefulguidelinesasIlookformeaningfulsound patternsinTuvanoralepics. TwoothersourcesthatIwilldiscusswhendealingwithsoundsymbolism
areHelenVendlersTheArtofShakespearesSonnets14andHinton,Nicholsand OhalasSoundSymbolism15.Vendlerswork,despitedealingwiththedecidedlyun folkloricShakespeareansonnets,isawealthofinformationaboutsoundsymbolism patternsinShakespeare,manyofwhichareconsistentwithsoundsymbolic patternsfoundinBoktuKirish.Hintonetal.,ontheotherhand,providesan overviewofsoundsymbolisminlanguagesaroundtheworld,rangingfromwell knownsoundsymbolicpatternsinEnglishforexample,aninterestingdiscussion byRhodesofauralimageryandsoundsymbolism(Hintonetal.,276292)thatis 13Tsur,Reuven.WhatMakesSoundPatternsExpressive:ThePoeticModeofSpeech Perception.DurhamandLondon:DukeUniversityPress,1992.Print. 14Vendler,Helen.TheArtofShakespearesSonnets.CambridgeandLondon:Harvard UniversityPress,1997.Print. 15Hinton,Leanne,JoannaNichols,andJohnJ.Ohala,eds.SoundSymbolism.New York:CambridgeUniversityPress,1994.Print. 12
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meaninginthecontextofTuvancanbefoundinHarrisonsSouthSiberianSound Symbolism16.Inthispaper,Harrisondocumentsanddiscussesarich,productive systemofreduplicativesoundsymbolismfoundinTuvan.Harrisonsanalysisfound thatusingdifferentvowelsinareduplicativeformaddsdifferentshadesofmeaning tothereduplicatedphrase,andthatthesemeaningsareremarkablyconsistent,no matterthewordbeingreduplicated.Inaddition,Harrisonfindsstrongsound symbolicpatternsinconsonants,patternswhichareapplicabletomyanalysisof soundsymbolisminBoktuKirish.IhopetouseHarrisonsanalysisofthelayersof meaningprovidedbythedifferentvowelsoundstoinformmyownphonological analysisofTuvanoralliterature.Becausethisbriefpaperismyonlysourcethat actuallydealswithTuvanphonology,itwillproveextremelyusefulinapplying HymesphonologicalanalyseswhichdealonlywithNativeAmericanlanguages toTuvan. Inadditiontosimplydrawingaconnectionbetweenphonologicalpatterns,I
alsointendtoshowthecognitiveimportanceofpoeticdevices.InhisbookMemory
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inOralTraditions17,Rubinsdetailsthewaysinwhichpoeticdevicesaidinthe memorizationofepics.ThequestionofhowBoktuKirishs400lines,nottomention oralepicssuchasthe25,000lineIliad,12,000lineOdyssey,andthe500,000line KyrgyzManas,couldpossiblybecommittedtomemoryisonethathaslongbaffled literaryscholarsandcognitivescientistsalike.Inhisbook,RubinsadaptsLords formulaictheoryofHomericepicbygeneralizingitintoabroadertheory,onethat cantakeintoaccounttheconstraintsinherentindifferentpoetictraditions.The formulaictheoryinitsoriginalformisuselessinthediscussionofTuvanepics,asit dealsonlywiththeHomericconstraintsofmeterandtheme.Rubinsadapted theory,however,allowsustomakeuseofotherprevalentTuvandevicessuchas soundsymbolismandalliterationandignoredevicesthatarenotpresentinTuvan oralepics,suchasrhyme. Whenstudiedincombinationwithfolkmotifsandpoeticdevices,Rubins
17Rubin,DavidC.MemoryinOralTraditions:TheCognitivePsychologyofEpic, Ballads,andCountingoutRhymes.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1995.Print. 14
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Theformalistanalysisportionofthispaperwillbecarriedoutaccordingtwo
frameworks:themorphologicalframeworksetoutbyValdimirProppinhisseminal workTheMorphologyoftheFairytale,andthefolkmotifframeworkdetailedinStith ThompsonsMotifIndexofFolkLiterature.Proppsanalysisisusedtoanalyzethe plotstructureofBoktuKirish,whileThompsonsanalysisallowsforananalysisof thefolkmotifsthatappearintheTuvanepic.Bothframeworksareusefulinthat theyallowforcomparisonsbetweenTuvanepicsandtheWesternfolktradition; however,aheavyfocusonWesterntalesmakesProppandThompsonanimperfect analyticaltool. 2.1 ProppsMorphologicalAnalysis Proppswork,whichwasoriginallypublishedin1928,analyzestheplot
afairytale,asIveintroduceditinthispaperasanoralepic.Whilethestoryofthe TuvanheroBoktuKirishandhis(arguablymore)heroicsisterBoraSheeleiis
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tothoseoffairytalesfromtheWesterntradition,suchasBoraSheeleisneedto completethreetasksinordertowinthehandofAngyrChechen,themagical princess,andtheeverpopularmotifofthetalkinganimalhelper,whichisfamiliarto usfrommanytraditionalfairytales(nottomentiontheirDisneyadaptations).Both ofthesemotifscanbefoundinthetraditionalRussianfairytalePrinceIvan,the Firebird,andtheGreyWolf18:PrinceIvanmustperformthreetaskskidnapping PrincessElena,stealingthehorsewiththegoldenmane,andfinallystealingthe FirebirdandheishelpedinallhistasksbytheGreyWolf.Theoverlapbetweenthe structureofBoktuKirishandthatofPrinceIvandemonstratesthevalidityof analyzingtheTuvantaleaccordingtotheProppianframework. AnotherfactorthathasinfluencedmychoicetoanalyzeBoktuKirishusing
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morphologicalframework.Thecharactersfitthesevenarchetypalroles(dramatis personae)designatedbyPropp(Propp7980),withsomeinterestingdoubling.The onlycharacterswhoclearlyfitoneroleareShangKhanstreacherousspy,the villain,andBoraSheelei,thehero.ThecharacterlabeledbyProppasthedonor,the providerofamagicalagent,couldbesaidtobeeitherAngyrChechen,themagical princess(whoisalsothemagicalagent)orShangKhan,herfather.However,Angyr ChechenandShangKhanalsoclearlyfilltherolesoftheprincessandherfather. Meanwhile,thetalkinghorseAjanKulaafillstherolesofbothhelperanddispatcher (hesendsBoraSheeleionherquest,andthenhelpsheraccomplishit).This doublingofrolesprovidesforaninterestingpermutationofProppsbasictale structure. Ihavealreadymentionedtheestablishmentoftheinitialsituation,inwhich
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arealsonotpresentinthistale;however,thenexttwofunctions,difficulttaskand solution(XXVandXXVI)canbesaidtooccurseveraltimes,justnotinthispartofthe story.Iwouldarguethatthisshortcycleisrepeatedthreetimes,witheach repetitioncorrespondingwithoneofthetasksBoraSheeleimustcompletetowin thehandofAngyrChechen.Forthearcherycontest,thedifficulttaskissimply winningthecontest;forthewrestlingcontest,thetaskisappearingtobeahairy chestedman,andthesolutionisachievedthroughtheapplicationofabearskin;and forthefootrace,thedifficulttaskisthenecessityforBoraSheeleitodisguiseher femalegenitals,andthesolutioncomesintheformofhergooseheadpenis.This methodoftreblingaseriesoffunctionsiscompletelyacceptableinPropps schematic:Proppmaintainsthatataleremainsasingletaleintheeventofthe treblingofentiremoves(Propp94). TheendofBoktuKirishfitsnicelyintoProppsstructure.FunctionsXXVII
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BoktuKirish,intheorderinwhichtheyappearinthetale: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) initialsituation:Thesiblingswealth,goodfortuneandskillare established. absentation(I):BoktuKirishleavesthecamptogohunting. lack(VIIIa):BoktuKirishiskilled. mediation(IX):AjanKulaatellsBoraSheeleithatshecansaveher brotherbywinningthehandofAngyrChechen. counteraction(X):BoraSheeleidisguisesherselfasBoktuKirish. departure(XI):BoraSheeleiandAjanKulaaleavetoparticipateinthe contest. firstfunctionofthedonor(XII):ShangKhanannouncesthatwhoever triumphsinthethreecontestswillmarryhisdaughter. theherosreaction(XIII):BoraSheeleiproceedstocompeteinthe competition. difficulttask(XXV):BoraSheeleimustwinthearcherycompetition.
(10) solution(XXVI):BoraSheeleiwinsthearcherycompetition. (11) reconnaissance(IV)anddelivery(V):ShangKhansspydiscoversthat BoraSheeleiisawoman. (12) difficulttask(XXV):BoraSheeleimustwrestleshirtless,andsomehow disguiseherbreasts. (13) solution((XXVI):BoraSheeleicoversherbreastswithbearskin,and winsthewrestlingcompetition. (14) difficulttask(XXV):BoraSheeleimustracenaked,andsomehow appeartohaveamansgenitals. 21
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(15) solution(XXVI):BoraSheeleimakesfalsegenitalsoutoftheneckand beakofagoose,andwinstherace. (16) provisionorreceiptofamagicalagent(XIV):BoraSheeleiwinsAngyr Chechenshandinmarriage. (17) victory(XVIII):ShangKhansspyisdiscredited. (18) punishment(XXX):ShangKhansspyisbanishedfromthekingdom. (19) return(XX):BoraSheeleibringsAngyrChechenbacktothesiblings camp. (20) liquidation(XIX):AngyrChechenbringsBoktuKirishbacktolife. (21) transfiguration(XXIX):BoraSheeleidropsherdisguise,and reappearsasawoman. (22) wedding(XXXI):BoktuKirishandAngyrChechenareunited,andlive ontorulethelandstotheNorth. Aswecanseefromthislist,many(althoughnotall)ofProppsfunctionsappearin BoktuKirish,demonstratingthat,althoughthistalecomesfromatraditionthatis verydifferentfromthatofWesternfolkandfairytales,itcontainsmanysimilarities totalesthataremorefamiliartoaWesternaudience.ThefactthatsomeofPropps functionsdonotappearinBoktuKirishissimplyaresultofthefactthatPropps frameworkwaswrittenusingaveryspecificfolktraditionthatofRussianfairy talestoinformhisdecisions.Wewouldexpecttofindsimilardeviationsfrom Proppsstrictframeworkinotherfolklorictraditions,suchastheNativeAmerican folkliteratureexploredinHymesanalysis. 2.2 ThompsonsMotifIndexAnalysis TheProppiananalysisofBoktuKirishhelpedbreakdownthestructureofthe
taleintoidentifiablechunks.However,whilethebasicstructureofthetaleisnow
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cataloguesmotifsthatappearinmanydifferentfolktraditionsbycategorizingthem intogroups;forinstance,onegroupdealswithmotifsthatinvolveanimals,another dealswithfamilyrelationships,athirddealswithmagicalhelpers,andsoon.A motifitselfisbasicallyachunkofinformationthatappearsinatale;itcanbea character,aplace,anaction,etc.TheMotifIndexisquitelengthy;itrunstosix volumes,oneofwhichissimplyanindexfortheothers.InthispaperIexamine someofthemoreandlesscommonmotifsfoundinBoktuKirish;someofthese motifsarecommonlyfoundinfolkliteraturefromothertraditions,whileothersare previouslyundocumentedanddonotappearinThompsonsindex. Thefirstmotifthatappearsinthetaleisanextremelycommonone,
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helper,specificallythatofthehelpfulhorse,classifiedasmotifB401(ThompsonVol. 1432).Thismotif,likethegoldenagemotif,isfoundinahugevarietyoffolk traditions:accordingtoThompson,helpfulhorsesappearinEuropean,Filipinoand Indianmyths,justtonameafew.AjanKulaaistheepitomeofthehelpfulanimal;he tellsBoraSheeleihowtosaveherbrother,hesuggestsshedisguiseherselfasaman, andheknowswhattodowhenhertruegenderisabouttobeexposed.Inaddition tothebasichelpfulhorsemotif,AjanKulaasactionsconformtoseveralother animalhelpermotifs.WhenthereaderfirstencountersAjanKulaaheisweeping overthebodyofBoktuKirish: (24) 43.When[BoraSheelei]hadlaidoutthedivingbones,shesaw(that) 44.herelderbrother,onanorthernslopenamedArzaityintheAla mountains,45.haddied.46.AndhishorseAjanKulaastoodcryingat hisside,soitseemed. ThisdescriptionfitsmotifB301.4.3,faithfulhorsejoinsinkeen[expressionofgrief] atherosdeath(ThompsonVol.1423).Then,whenBoraSheeleidoesnotknow howtobringherbrotherbacktolife,AjanKulaatellsherhowtowinthehandofthe sorceressAngyrChechen,whichconformstomotifB505.2,animaltellsherowhere tofindmagicobject(ThompsonVol.1442).
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BecauseIalreadyperformedaProppiananalysisonthistale,Iwillbelargely
motifsnottomentionthemanyothermotifsitshareswithotherfolktraditions alsocontainscertainmotifsthatappearnowhereinThompsonsseemingly exhaustiveindex.Forexample,althoughthemotifofawomandisguisingherselfasa manisextremelycommonamongfolktraditions,therearenomotifsthatspecifya womandisguisingherfemalegenitaliaasmalegenitaliausinganymethod,much lesstheheadandneckofagooseasBoraSheeleidoes: (25) 275.Thenherhorsesaid:276.Asforthat,itsjustfine.277.Wayover thereinastripedmountainforestcalledArzaity,278.onitsnorthern sideinalakeareswimmingalotofwhitegeese.279.Amongthose whitegeese,280.theresawhiteganderwithabigredbilllikeafist. 281.Havingkilledthatwhitegander,282.andpeeledoffitsskin,take thewhitegandersparts,283.andmakefromthemamanstesticles, 284.andtakeitsfistlikebigredbeak,285.togetherwithitsneck,and makefromthemamansgenitals,286.andwhenyouvemagically gluedshutyourwomansgenitalswiththem,287.thatsthat! ThismotifwhichisextremelybizarretoaWesternlistener,butwhichgivesno pausetoanindividualaccustomedtotheTuvanfolktraditionisextremelyunique
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thesimilaritiesbetweenthestructureandcontentofthetaleandthatofbetter knownWesterntalesandepics,butalsoshowstheplaceswhereBoktuKirish divergesfromthesebetterknowntales.Thisanalysisisusefulinthatitallowsusto analyzethetalethroughcomparison,usingthetaleswithwhichaWesternreaderis familiartoelucidatethestructureandcontentofatalethat,atfirstglance,might seemveryforeign.ThedivergencesbetweenthestructureoftheTuvantaleandthe structuresofthesebetterknowntalescanbeusedtoaskquestionsaboutthewayin whichTuvancultureinfluencesTuvanoralliterature:forexample,isitsignificant that,inBoktuKirish,lackisbroughtaboutnotthroughtheworkofavillain,but ratherthroughatragicaccident,anaccident,noless,forwhichAjanKulaa,the helper,istoblame?Thisquestions,andothersofitstype,arenotwithinthescopeof thispapertoanswer,buttheycouldcreateinterestingtopicsforfuture anthropologicalresearch. Asfarasthelinguisticscopeofthispaperisconcerned,somemightquestion
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ofsoundsymbolismcomesinthenextsection.Alinguisticanalysis,however,is meaninglesswithoutknowledgeofthelargerstructureofthetale.
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PhonologicalAnalysisofPoeticStructures Whenanalyzinganykindofliteraryorpoeticwork,itisimportanttoanalyze
notonlythestructureandcontentofthework,butalsothepoeticdevicesusedby thepoetorteller.PoeticdevicesinTuvanprovideagooddealofmaterialfornew analysis,astheydiffergreatlyfromthetwomostprevalentWesterndevices:rhyme andmeter.Tuvanoralepics,incommonwithmuchotherTuvanfolkliterature,do notuserhyme.Duetothelanguagesextremelyregularcasesystemandverbal conjugationsystem,aswellasanunusuallystrongsystemofvowelharmony,itis remarkablyeasytocreaterhyminglinesinTuvan,andthusrhymingisnot consideredamarkofpoeticskill.Rhymeisoccasionallyusedinmorecontemporary Tuvanpoetry,buttherearealwaysotherpoeticdevicesatwork.Meterisalsorather unimportantinTuvanepics;whileHarrisonbelievesthatBoktuKirishcanbe transcribedusingheptasyllabiclinescansion19,thereisnodistinctmeterwhenthe taleisspoken,anditisuncleariftheaforementionedlinescansionisactuallyinuse inthetale. Intheplaceofrhymeandmeter,BoktuKirishreliesheavilyontheuseof
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Aquicknoteaboutorthography:allTuvanexamplesinthistextarewritten
ofeachcharacterisreasonablywellknowntoanyreaderoftheHomericepics. ThoseofuswhoarefamiliarwithwilyOdysseusandHector,breakerofhorses,will notbesurprisedtolearnthatmanyofthecharactersinBoktuKirisharealways identifiedusingnotonlytheirnames,butalsosomesortofepithetthatdescribes thatcharactersroleinthestory.Mostnotably,BoktuKirishandBoraSheeleis namesareconstantlyaccompaniedbyelderbrotherandyoungersister(fora listingofthemorphosyntactictagsusedinexcerptsfromthetale,seeAppendixB): (26) jaan am boktukiri akz FORM FORM BK elder.brother3 29. AndsoitwasthatelderbrotherBoktuKirish (27) boraeelej ks dmaz BS girl younger.sibling3 33. BoraSheeleihisyoungersister Itisworthnotingthat[bora],asappearsinthenameBoraSheelei,canalsobeused tomeangray.However,inthetale,thisformofgrayonlyappearsinthecontextof
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BoraSheeleisactionswhensherunswiththespeedofagrayhareduringthe footracesectionofthestory: (28) am bora toolajboop xuulup algat now gray hare PROBCV changeCV SBENSSGEN 310. Butwhileshewaschangedintoagrayhare, kiiler=bile arrga taarpas bolganda peoplepl=INScompetePFDATsuitRCPNEG/FbePSTLOC 311. itwasntproperforhertocompetewithpeople. ndaar xuulbajn do.thusPF changeNEGPST 312. So,shedidntactuallychangeintoone, a bora toolajn mankeep apkat but gray hareGEN run3ACCCLOCCVtakeSSGEN 313. butsimplytookontherunningspeedofagrayhare. However,earlierinthetalethetellerreferstograyhorses,andadifferentwordfor grayisused: (29) le bula lglg gray gray horse.herdADJ 20. theherdofgrayhorses. Inthistale,BoraSheeleisnameitselfmightbeanindicationofherpowersof shapeshifting,as[bora]isonlyusedtomeangraywhenitappliestoBoraSheelei, notwhenitappliestograyhorses.Itshouldbenotedthatthesetwoexamplesare theonlyplacesinthetextwhereanywordmeaninggrayisused;however,despite thesmallsamplesize,thepatternhereisclear.BoraSheelei,then,inadditionto beingdescribedbytheepithet[ksdmaz],hisyoungersister,alsohasaname withspecificconnotationsaboutherabilities. Inadditiontoformulaicnames,formulaicspeechpatternsoftenappearin
BoktuKirish.Theclearestexampleofthesespeechpatternscomesatthebeginning
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ofthestory,whenthetellerintroducesthestorywithanextremelyformulaicline thatisakintobutmuchmorecomplexthanthefamiliarWesternformulaonce uponatime: (31) jaanam, ertegini ertezinde, burungunu FORMFORM morningGENearly3LOC long.agoGEN 6. Onceuponatime,intheveryearliestmorningoftime,before murnunda beforeLOC thelong,longago, Thisformulationisacommonone,seeninvariousothertales,eventhoseof differentgenressuchasoriginmythsandscarystories.Inadditiontotheentireline servingasaformulaicbeginningtothestory,thislargechunkofformulaicspeech containsasmaller,evenmoreformulaicpiece;thephrase[jaanam]is,according toHarrison,completelymeaninglessitisglossedsimplyasFORMFORM.However, thephraseispartofthetaleforareason;itisclearlysymbolicofsomethingakinto thetraditionalWesternonceuponatime,whichisthetranslationthatHarrisonuses fortheseenigmaticwords. Thephrase[jaanam]isusedseveralmoretimesinBoktuKirish,inthe
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thetale,theformulaisusedtoendthedescriptionoftheinitialsituationandto jumpstarttheactionofthestory: (33) jaanam birle kattapBoktuKiriakz FORMFORM oneEMPH once BK elder.brother3 38. Onceuponatime,herelderbrotherBoktuKirish rga sndan anap orutka forest mountain.ridgeADLhuntCV goPERFSS 39. wenthuntingontheforestedmountainridge, uutla isokide beriptir completelyEMPHtrackNEGdisappearCVINCHPERFPF 40. anddisappearedwithoutatrace. Atthispoint,itisclearthat,whiletheformula[jaanam]is,inoneway,performing thesamefunctionasitdoesinthefourpreviousoccurrencesthatis,toindicatethe startofanewsectionofthetaleitisalsodoingsomethingslightlydifferent.The previousinstancesofthisphrasewereallusedtosetupthebackgroundofthestory. Inthisinstance,however,thephraseisbeingusedtoindicatetheendofone function,theinitialsituation,andtosignalthebeginningofanother,absentation.Itis clear,then,thatthemeaningof[jaanam]isfluid,andcanchangedependingonthe
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usedinTuvanisalliteration,whichisheredefinedasapatternofrepeated phonemes,mostcommonlyconsonants,giventherobustpatternsofvowelharmony foundinTuvan.Alliterationcanappearincontiguouswordsinthesameline,orat thebeginningsofdifferentlinesinsomesortofpattern.Forthepurposeofthis study,awithinlinepatternofalliterationcanbeasshortasthreeinstancesofthe samephoneme,whilelineinitialalliterationcanbesaidtooccurwhenthree contiguouslinesallbeginwiththesamevowel.Lestitbesaidthatthreeinstancesof asinglephonemedoesnotconstituteapattern,thereisprecedentforthis argument:Vendler,inanalyzingShakespearessonnet18(ShallIcomparetheetoa summersday?),citesapatternofthreeofthesamephonemeasaninstanceof alliteration(Vendler121): (34) Bychanceornatureschangingcourseuntrimmed
Here,Vendlerdemonstratesaclearpatternformedthethreeinstancesof[t].A similarexampleofwithinlinealliterationintheTuvantalecomesearlyinBoktu Kirish,inthesceneinwhichBoraSheeleihasjustlearnedofherbrothersdeath fromhishorse,AjanKulaa: (35) akzn an ap elder.brother3GEN bitter(ness)3ACC swallowCV 61. [BS]swallowedherbitternessaboutherelderbrother, Itisimportanttonotethat,inthisexample,despitetheappearanceofastriking patternofvowels,thevowelsthemselvesarenotpartofthealliteration.Theiruseis
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harmony,extremelypoetic.Thethreewordsthatmakeupthelineclearlyhavevery similarstructures,witheachrootwordcontainingtwosyllables,startingwith[a], whichisfollowedbyeither[k]or[],whichcreatesverystrongrepetitionwithin theline.Thesecondtwowords,[an]and[ap]echothesoundpatternfoundin [akz],elderbrother,whichemphasizestheimportanceofelderbrotherintheline, thuscreatingabeautiful,alliterativelinetoexpressBoraSheeleissadnessoverthe lossofherbrother.Ialsoarguelaterinthepaperthattherepeatedphonemeinthis line,[],isstronglysoundsymbolicandlikelyhelpstoemphasizeBoraSheeleis weepingthroughitsassociationswithbothrunningwaterandspeech.Thislineis similarinitspoeticstotheShakespeareanlineelucidatedbyVendler:herexample istensyllableslongandcontainsthreeinstancesofthesamephoneme,whilethe Tuvanline,whichisslightlyshorterateightsyllables,alsocontainsthreeinstances ofonephoneme,whichclearlyconstitutesapoeticpattern.
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Another,moreextensivealliterationpatternisfoundlaterinthestory,when
BoraSheeleiusesherpowersofshapeshiftingtochangeherappearancetolook likeherbrother.Thispassageisanexampleofbothwithinlinealliterationandline initialalliteration,whichcontainssixteeninstancesofthephoneme[k]injustthree lines: (36) 83. krndkkekrdngen krndkke mirrorDAT look.atCAUSPASSPST mirrorDAT shelookedatherselfinthemirror.Whenshelookedatherself
krdnerge beginPST=DEIC inthemirror, 84. 85. kirbej kara saldg, oon kara keegelig short/thin black beardADJ thick black braidADJ shehadathinblackbeardandathickblackbraidofhair, kadr xavaktg kalanbatgajak=degala steep foreheadADJbald headADJtea.bowl=likestriped herforeheadwassteep,herheadwasshavedbaldinfront,and
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clearerlinktothemeaningofthepassagethaneitherofthetwopreviousexamples canbefoundlaterinthestory,duringthesceneinwhichBoraSheeleihandily dispatchesallheropponentsinthewrestlingcompetition.Inthistwelveline section,eachsetofthreelinesstartswiththesameletter,andeachsetoflines correspondswiththedefeatofoneopponentinthecompetition: (37) 242. dendii rak mge devip keer orta very strongwrestlerperform.eagle.danceCVcomePFwhile Whenaverystrongwrestlercameup,wavinghisarmsinan eagledance
deeldigennidezii=bile degeleeti kiteGEN speed3=INS trip.upSSGEN 243. shetrippedhimwiththespeedofakite, tejin kudu kldr drp top.of.head3ACCdownwardsmakeCAUSPF fallCV 244. anddroppedhimupsidedownontopofhishead. emin orta rak mge ekededipkelir orta very middlestrongwrestler strutCVCLOCPF while 245. Whenanotherverystrongwrestlerstrutteduptoher, ezir kutuerezi=bile eeeenden algati eagle birdGENcourage3=INS heelABL takeSSGEN 246. shetookhisanklewiththecourageofaneagle, etkin ar vadap shoulder3ACC acrossthrow.downCV 247. flunghimoverhershoulder,andthrewhimdown.
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kajgamk rak mge xalp keer orta amazing strongwrestlerrunCV CLOCPF while 248. Whenanamazinglystrongwrestlerranuptoher, xartgankapgaj=bilekattajkakkat falconGENagility3=INS togetherstart.running.toSSGEN 249. sherantowardshimsimultaneouslywiththeagilityofafalcon xajt kldr drp SYMB doCAUSPF make.fall.downCV 250. andmadehimfalldowninaflash. kondugrak mge korgudupkelir orta very strong wrestlerfearCAUSCVcomePFwhile 251. Whenanotherverystrongwrestlerapproached,tryingto frightenher, kojgunnu kapgaj=bilexos de xalaat hareGEN agility3=INSemptyspacethroughrunSSGEN 252. sheslippedbetweenhislegswiththeagilityofahare, kurug erge kuruguldajnkuruldurolurta emptyearthDATtailbone3ACCpainfullysit.downCAUSCV 253. andshemadehimfallverypainfullyonhistailboneonthe bareground. Ascanbeseenfromthisexample,thefirstphonemeofeachlinefollowsavery distinctpattern:ddt,eee,kxx,kkk.Thesesoundsfollownotonlyaspecific phonemicpattern,buttheinitialwordsofeachlinealsofollowapatternwithinthe section.Thispatternisvery,animalname,bodypart.Theonlyoccasionwherethe semanticpatternisviolatedisinthelastlineofthelastsection,inwhichthefinal word,[kurug],isnotthenameofabodypart,butrathermeansemptyorbare.Inthe firstsection,thewordsare[dendii],very,[deeldigenni],kite,and[tejin],topof thehead.Thenextthreesectionsfollowthesamepattern,withtheoneexception mentionedpreviously:[emin],very,[ezir],eagle,[etkkin],shoulder;[kajgamk],
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ofemphaticsuffixesthatdrawattentiontocertainimportantwordsandphrases. Forexample,twoemphaticsuffixesappearinthefollowingline: (38) aa, kr erler=daa beletkenile bergen DISC poor malePL=EMPHprepareCVEMPHAUXPST 139. So,eventhepoorestmenbegantoprepareforthecompetition Inthisexample,emphaticsuffixesappearattachedtobothmenandprepare,thus emphasizing(somemightsayoveremphasizing)thateverymanispreparingfor thecompetition.Thisdeviceservestwopurposes:itaddsdramatictensiontothe story,byshowingthatBoraSheeleiwillfacesignificantcompetitioninherattempt towinAngyrChechenforherbrother,anditremovesthetalefromcommon conversationalstyleandmarksitasbeingaformofart. Anotherexampleoftheuseofemphaticsuffixesthistimeincombination
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(39) senolijiemiini=daa kxindiini=daa youthesetwobreast2ACC=EMPHgirlgenitals2ACC=EMPH 99. Thosetwobreastsofyoursandyourgirlsgenitals, kandaar=daaskertip davas sen do.thusPF=EMPHchangeCAUSCVbe.ableNEG\Fyou 100. youcannotchangeinanyway. ndalza=daajanz=br argalarn nonethelessEMPHdifferentQUANmethodsPLACC 101. However,byusing aglap turgat useVSFCV AUXSSGEN variousmethods, Inthisexample,theemphaticsuffix[daa]isrepeatedfourtimes.Thisrepetition makespossibleanalliterationpatternbuiltaroundthephoneme[d].Thispatternis notasstrongasthealliterativepassagesdiscussedinexamples(35),(36)and(37), featuringonlyeightusagesofthephoneme[d]inthreelines,afigurethatisraised toelevenwhenthephonemesdevoicedcounterpart[t]isincluded.However,this constitutesanalliterativepatternaspertheearlierdefinition,whichonlycallsfor threeinstancesofaparticularphonemeinoneline.Theemphaticsuffix,then,which providesfouroftheeleveninstancesofthealliterativephoneme,istrulywhat makesthepassagealliterative;withoutit,thefrequencyof[d]wouldnotbehigh enoughtodemonstrateaclearpattern. Theemphaticsuffixinthisexample,inadditiontocreatinganalliterative
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drawingthelistenersattentiontoBoraSheeleisinabilitytocompleteherdisguise, itsignalsAjanKulaasabilitytohelphismistressdisguiseherselfcompletely.This suffix,then,signalsachangeinthetopicofAjanKulaasutterance,fromasimple descriptionoftheproblemtosaidproblemssolution.Inthisway,theemphaticis usedtodrawthelistenersattentiontothisshiftintopic,muchinthesamewaythat thespeechformula[jaanam]isusedfirsttomakethelistenerpayattentiontothe descriptionoftheinitialsituation,andthentosignaltheshiftfromthisdescription totheactionofthetale.Thus,inthisexample,theemphaticsuffix[daa]again removesthetalefromthecommonconversationalstyleandaddsdramatictension byfocusingthelistenerontheapparentlyinsurmountablenatureofBoraSheeleis problem;however,italsocontributestothealliterationpresentinthepassage,and workstosignaltheshiftfromdescriptiontoaction. Theuseoftheemphaticsuffix[daa]inthispassageisalsoimportanttoa
structuralpatternthatencompassestheentiretyofBoraSheeleistransformation, andhersubsequentparticipationandvictoryintheKhanscompetition.This
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speech,alliterationandtheuseofemphaticsuffixesarefourofthemostcommon poeticdevicesfoundinBoktuKirishandotherTuvanliterature.Ofthesedevices,I willfocusthemostonalliterationandemphaticsuffixesinthefollowingsection, whereIwillattempttoshowthatalliterativepatternsarenotonlyconnectedto,but addtothemeaningofthelinesorsentencesthroughtheuseofsoundsymbolism, andthattheregularuseofpatternedemphaticsuffixesfollowsthestructureofthe taleinameaningfulway.However,itisimportanttonotethatthesedevicesarenot theonlypoeticdevicesusedinTuvanepics,talesandpoems.BoktuKirish,in additiontothepreviouslymentionedpoeticdevices,alsocontainsarchaicformsand aspecialnarrativepastformthatisonlyusedintales,nottomentionthespecial prosodyandintonationusedbythetellerwhenrecitingthetale(Harrison4).While thesefeaturesareextremelyimportanttothetaleasawhole,theyarenotas prevalentasthepreviouslydiscusseddevices,andthushavelessrelevancetothe largerdiscussionoftherolethatsoundsymbolismplaysinaddingtothemeaningof thetale.
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OfthefourimportantTuvanpoeticdevicesmentionedabove,twoofthem
alliterationandtheemphaticsuffix[daa]haveveryclearadditionalmeanings,and makeimportantcontributionstothetaleasawhole.Alliterativepatternsallowfor theuseofsoundsymbolism;Tuvancontainsarangeandprevalenceofsound symbolismfoundinveryfewlanguages,andthealliterationdetailedaboveallows forthissymbolismtocometotheforefrontofthetale.Thefirstpartofthissection willdiscussthepossibleoccurrencesofsoundsymbolisminthealliterativepatterns thatappearinBoktuKirish.Thesecondpartofthissectionwillshowthatthe emphaticsuffix[daa]playsaveryimportantroleinstructuringthetale,inaddition toitsotherfunctions,whichweredescribedintheprevioussection.Thesetwo examplesoftheconcurrentphonologicalandsemanticfunctionsofthesepoetic deviceswilldemonstratetheimportanceofanalyzingthelinguisticpatternsfound infolkliterature,andthepreviouslyunexaminedfunctionsthatthesepoeticdevices mightserveinstudyingoralepics. 4.1 SoundSymbolism Discussingsoundsymbolisminanysortofauthoritativewayisaverytricky
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linguisticsenseisconcerned,/i/and/u/arethesameheight.Thisindicates, accordingtoTsur,thatcertainperceptualaspectsoftheacousticsignal,irrelevant inprincipletothespeechmode,doenterconsciousnessinspiteofitall(Tsur20). LaPollasresearchalsosupportsthisargument;whenperformingexperimentsin whichEnglishspeakerswereaskedtochoosethewordthatmeantsmallfroma pairofMandarinorCantoneseantonyms,ofwhichonecontainedarisingtone syllable(ahigherpitchedsound)andtheothercontainedafallingtonesyllable(a lowerpitchedsound).TheEnglishspeakershadasimilarrateofsuccessonthis taskasthenativeMandarinorCantonesespeakers,demonstratingthatthis associationisnotlanguagespecific,butratheratleastsomewhatuniversal,22 althoughDifflothwouldprobablyliketotryasimilarexperimentonBahran speakersandseewhattheirsuccessratewouldbe. Vendleralsoarguesforasimilaruseofvowelheightsoundsymbolism,this
timeinShakespearessonnets.Forexample,inSonnet29(Whenindisgracewith fortuneandmenseyes)Vendlershowsthatthestricthierarchicalstructureofthe poemcorrespondstovowelheight,peakingwithaseriesofwordsincluding/i/to representthespeakersrisingstateinthesonnetshierarchy.Vendlerexplainsthat thedramaofthepoemoccursinthespeakersmovinghimselfoutofthefirst (social)worldandtheintothesecond(natural)one;thepuzzleofthepoemishow hemanagedtopullhimselfupbyhisownbootstraps,miredasheisinthesocial world.Theculminationofthisdramaarrivesinthefinallines,whenthespeaker 22LaPolla,RandyJ.Anexperimentalinvestigationintophoneticsoundsymbolism asitrelatestoMandarinChinese.SoundSymbolism.Ed.LeanneHinton,Joanna Nichols,JohnJ.Ohala.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.1994.130147.Print. 45
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canmyloveexcusetheslowoffence),inwhichthephoneme/o/isusedto emphasizetheslowpaceofthespeakersjourney.Vendlerargues,Thelongoofno isreiteratedinthetripleuseofslow,twiceintherhymeposition(slow,no,slow, go),andinthepresenceofmotionandgoing(Vendler251).Thesetwoexamples convincinglysupportthefront/backvowelhypothesis:inthefirst,thehighfront vowel/i/representstheculminationofaclimbthroughthepoemsstrictly hierarchicalstructure,whileinthesecondexamplethemidbackvowel/o/ emphasizestheslowpaceofthespeakersjourney,whichtohimisthegreatest depthofmisery. SimilarsoundsymbolicpatternshavebeensupportedbydatafromSouth
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theconstructionusingthehighfrontvowel/i/isameaningfulconstruction,it symbolizeseitherahighpitchedsound,ahighfrequencysound,orsome combinationofthetwo(allexamplestakenfromHarrison2004): (43) kigirfallingandclangingnoise/smallbellringing (44) xilirfluttering,flappingasaskirtorflaginthewind (45) dildirsoundoffeetshufflingquickly (46) igirsoundofstirrupsjangling
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waythatcorrespondswiththesemanticmeaningofeachthreelinesegment.In particular,thedifferentconsonantsusedinthefirst,thirdandfourthsegmentshave soundsymbolicmeaningsthatcorrespondcloselytotheactionofthetale.For example,Harrisonnotesthatthe[k]phoneme,whichappearsinthefinalsegmentof thisexcerptandonceinthethirdsegment,isoftenindicativeofimpactsounds,as showninexample(47),aswellasthefollowingexamples(Harrison7): (48) kizirtsoundofwoodbreaking;soundofabonebreaking (49) qazrtsoundoflargerocks(falling,etc.)
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wordthatrelatestotheimpactofthewrestlerstailboneontheground:[kurug], whichmeansemptyor,inthiscase,bareasinbareoruncoveredground; [kurguldaj],tailbone;and[kuruldur],painfully.Thesethreewordsareallaboutthe impactofBoraSheeleisopponentstailboneontheground,andtheyallutilizea phonemewithastrongsymbolicmeaningofimpact.The[k]phonemealsoappears inline249,intheevocativeword[kakkat],whichmeansstartrunningtowards. Itisverypossiblethattherepetitionof[k]inthiswordissymbolicoftheimpact soundsmadebyrunningfeet,particularlyinthecontextofthisscene,inwhich symbolismdealingwithimpactsoundsisfoundallovertheplace,andinwhichthe imagerylargelyevokesfallingtotheground. Thephoneme[x]isoftenusedtosymbolizesoundsofturbulence,suchasthe
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everyword: (54) tejin kudu kldr drp top.of.head3ACCdownwardsmakeCAUSPF fallCV 244. anddroppedhimupsidedownontopofhishead.
soundsymbolicaspect,someoftheothercommonTuvanpoeticdevicesnamely formulaicnames,formulaicspeech,andemphaticsuffixesalsohaveadditional
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meaningsprovidedbysoundsymbolism.Forexample,theformula[jaanam], whichappearsnolessthanfivetimesinthefirstsectionofthetale,containsthe evocative//soundwhich,aspreviouslymentioned,issymbolicallyconnectedto speech.Thisformulacomesatthebeginningofthetale,andstartsdifferentsections ofdescriptionoftheinitialsituation.Giventhespeechrelatedmeaningassociated withthe//soundindeed,theTuvanworkforspeech,[tugaa],containsthis phonemeitseemsentirelypossiblethatthisformula,startingasitdoeswiththis evocativesound,iscallingonthelistenertopayattentiontothetellersspeech. However,furtherevidenceisneededtodemonstratethatthisisthecase. 4.2 TheEmphaticSuffix[daa] InhisdiscussionofthepoeticdevicesinNativeAmericanethnopoetics,
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wrestlingcompetitionandthehorserace,soIwillshowcasethepatternasit appearsinthosesectionsfirst.Bothsectionsuseverysimilarwordingtoincludethe emphaticsuffix,whichisattachedtothewordkhan[xaan]duringthe announcementthatputsBoraSheeleisdisguiseinjeopardy: (55) xaan=daa arlkt ndrgen khan=EMPH announcementACC go.outCAUSPST 208. So,theKhanputoutanannouncement: (56) dr DEIC
daartauptu xljeokanagaxreiir tomorroweverybodyshirt NEGnakedwrestlePF 209. Everybodywillwrestleshirtlessandnakedtomorrow! 267. 268. xaan=daa arlkt ndrgenne khan=EMPH announcementACC go.outCAUSEMPH SotheKhanmadeanannouncement: daartauptu alda arr tomorroweverybody naked ride.horsePF Tomorroweverybodywillraceonhorsebacknaked!
TheemphaticsuffixappearsagainafterBoraSheeleihasusedAjanKulaastrickery todisguisethefemaleanatomicalfeatureinquestion,andhasarrivedatthesiteof thenextdayscompetition: (57) kuluguru=daa boor daartaxleinuta heroEMPH what PROBCV shirt3ACC take.offCV 226. thenextday,ourpoorherotookoffhisshirt,
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eachrepetitionofthisbasicstructure:whenthemenaregapingatBoraSheeleis strangeanatomy,andwhenthecontestactuallybegins.Iwillonlyincludeone exampleofeachlocation,theexamplefromthesecondrepetitionofthecompetition structure,thewrestlingmatch: (59) bo=daa xajrakandanuktalgan anaa erle this=EMPH bearABL originatePSTjust still 235. Hemuststillhavesomebearancestry, kii xreiir=daa arga ok person wrestlePF=EMPH meansNEG 236. sotheresnowayamancanwrestlewithhim.
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ofthecontestcycle:themomentatwhichathreattoBoraSheeleisdisguiseis presented;BoraSheeleisarrivaltothecompetition,wearinghernewandimproved disguise;asectionshowingthereactionsoftheotherparticipants,inwhichthey clearlyfallforherdisguiseandareevenintimidatedbyhermasculinity;andthe startofthecontestitself.Bothoftheserepetitionsusethesuffixnotonlytodraw attentiontotheproblemsinherentinBoraSheeleisdisguisebutthewaysthatthese obstaclescanbeovercome,aprecedentlaidoutinexample(39),justafterBora Sheeleistransformation.Theyalsoservetoclearlydelineatethestructureofthe competitionsequenceandtoshowthattheeventsofthetalehingeonBora Sheeleisabilitytosuccessfullydisguiseherselfasaman. Thisdeviceisalsousedinthefirstrepetitionsequence,buttheorderingof
eventsisslightlydifferent,giventhatthereisnodirectthreattoBoraSheeleis disguiseduringthearcherycompetition.However,thesameelementsarepresent despitethedifferentorder:thebeginningofthecompetition,thethreattoBora Sheeleisdisguise,areaction,andherdemonstrationthatsheismasculineenoughto winthecompetition.Inthisscene,thebeginningofthecontextisthefirstsuffix markedevent: (61) aa mrej=daa egeleen okay competition=EMPH beginPST 156. Okay,thecompetitionhasbegun!
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ThebeginningofthecontestisfollowedbythethreattoBoraSheeleisdisguise,this timenotintheformofanannouncementfromtheKhan,butthetauntsoftheother competitorswhoaccuseBoraSheeleiofbeingawomanbywayofinsultingher refusaltoshoot: (62) aa sen=daa anaa epidej EXCL youEMPH just womanDIM 169. Oh!Yourejustalittlewoman,
Thisaccusationisfollowedbyareaction.Themajordifferenceisthattheearlier reactionswerethereactionsoftheothercompetitorstoBoraSheeleisextreme masculinity,whileinthiscasethereactionisthatofBoraSheeleitothetauntsofthe men: (63) aa epi =daa bolgajla EXCL woman whatEMPH COPCNCLEMPH 171. Well,Icanbeawoman,Icanbewhatever, men I
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(64) ndaarga=daa kuluguru kezenip do.thusPFDAT=EMPH hero prepare.to.shootCV 181. Onlyafterthattheherobegantopreparehimself kirip<le>tken INCHPERF<EMPH>CAUSPST forshooting. kr eri=daa boor deerzinkrboktukiri poor maleEMPH whatPROB DISC poor BK 182. Whatcouldthepoorguydo,poorBoktuKirish?
ThisexcerptmarksthebeginningofalongpassagewhichshowsBoraSheeleis superiorarcheryskill,andwhichculminatesinhervictoryinthearchery competition.Itisalsointerestingtonotethattheemphaticsuffixisusedthreetimes previouslyinthepassageoutsidecontextofoneofthesestructurallyimportant moments,whichisnotthecaseintheothertworepetitionsofthecycle.These instancesareasfollows: (65) ags=taa kiini sogunu etpes single=EMPHpersonGEN arrow3 reachNEG\F 159. butnotasinglemansarrowreachedthetargets. (66) 162. atpass=taa klatap turar mndg shootNEG=EMPH walkCV AUXPF thus [BoraSheelei]didnotshoot,butsimplywalkedaroundlike this.
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ofwhichshowthatnoneoftheothermencanmaketheshot,andtheotherofwhich demonstratesthatBoraSheeleihasnotyettriedtoshootareallleadinguptothe passagethatbeginswithexample(38),inwhichBoraSheeleiwinsthecompetition. Examples(59)and(61)showthat,incontrasttoBoraSheelei,noneoftheother competitorsareabletomakeevenoneshot,nomatterhowmanytimestheytry, whileexample(60)emphasizesthefactthatBoraSheeleimakeseachshotonher firsttry,ratherthanafteradayofwastingarrowsliketheothermen.These seeminglyunrelatedappearancesofthesuffix[daa],then,areactuallysimplyan extendedpieceofthestructuredetailedabove. Theemphaticsuffix[daa],inadditiontoelevatingthestyleofthetalefrom
theeverydayandemphasizingcertainimportantfactsoractionsinapoeticmanner, isactuallydeeplyconnectedtothestructureofthetale,inparticularthestructureof thecompetition.Thewordsthatareusedwiththeemphaticsuffixalsoemphasize thewayinwhichmuchoftheactionofthetaleisdrivenbyBoraSheeleisattempt toconvincinglydisguiseherselfasaman,andthethreatthatanimperfectdisguise posestoher.Itisclearfromthisemphaticsuffixpatternthatthesuffixservesa muchgreater,moreimportantpurposethanonemightthinkfromsimplyreading thetaleandnotingsomeofthesurfaceaspectsoftheemphaticsuffix.LikeHymes expressiveprefixes,theTuvanemphaticsuffixservesastructurallyimportant purposebyguidingandstandardizingthestructureofthetale,inadditiontoits moreobviousroleofemphasizingimportantpiecesofinformation.Indeed,this suffixemphasizesinformationonthreedifferentlevels:onthesmallestlevelit emphasizespiecesofinformationoractions;atthemiddleleveltherepetitive
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CognitiveImplicationsofSoundSymbolismandStructuralSuffixes Bothlinguistsandfolkloristshavelongbeeninterestedinthefeatsof
memorizationnecessarytolearnoralepicslikeBoktuKirish,orthemuchlonger epicsfoundinGreek,OldEnglish,andSouthSlavictraditions.Theseseemingly impossible(atleasttoamodernmind)featsareoftenaidedbypoeticandstructural devicessuchasthosedescribedintheprevioussections.Rubinsinparticularargues thatschemasexistforsurfaceformaswellasformeaning,despitethefactthat manytheoristsarguethatsurfaceformschemasareirrelevant,duetothefactthat oralepicsareveryrarely(ifever)transmittedverbatimfromtellertoteller.In addition,Rubinsarguesthatsuchschemasaidmemory,(Rubins72),aclaimthatI willbeexamininginmoredetailasitrelatestothesoundsymbolicalliterationand structuralemphaticsuffixesdescribedabove.Iwillarguefortheroleofthesepoetic devicesinthememorizationandtransmissionoforalepics,andspeculatethatthe waysinwhichthepoeticdevicesareconnectedtothemeaninginTuvanepicscould openupnewareasofstudyinthefieldofcognitivelinguistics,particularlyasit relatestofolkloreandoraltraditions. Rubindividesthepoeticdevicesoforalliteratureintothreeclasses:meaning,
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soundsymbolicinteractmostfrequentlywiththeimageryconstraint.Imageryas definedbyRubinasatale,orpassagefromatale,toldinaseriesofconcrete, imageableactions,accompaniedbyashiftintheactioneveryfewlinesthat providesaspatiallayouttohelpkeeptrackofthestory.Theexampleheusesisone fromtheIliadthatwillmostlikelyseemstructurallyfamiliartoanyreaderofBoktu Kirish: ConsiderthefollowingpassagefromtheIliadinwhich PatroclusiskillingoneofalongseriesofTrojan warriors.Eachofthesekillingswilloccurinaslightly differentpartofthebattlefield(Rubin39). Theparticularpassagealludedtoheredetailstheverystructuredwayinwhichthe talepresentsPatroclusrampagethroughtheTrojanranks.Specifically,eachdeath iscoveredinacertainamountoftimeanddescribedinastructurallysimilar, imagisticway.Thiskindofstructureisextremelysimilartothestructureofthe wrestlingsceneinBoktuKirish,inwhicheachwrestlerisdispatchedinthreelines usingastronglyimagistic,verystructuraldescription.Itseemsverylikelythatthis 62
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symbolismtostrengthentheimageryofthetaleandprovideanadditionalaidto memorization.Forexample,thepreviouslydiscussedassociationswiththreeofthe alliterativephonemesusedinthewrestlingscene[d]withbreakingsounds,[x] withflutteringorflappingsounds,and[k]withimpactsoundsstrengthenthe imageryofthepassage,whichislargelyoffallingandcollision,bydrawing additional,soundsymbolicassociationswiththealreadypresentimageryofthe passage.Inthisway,thesoundconstraintofalliterationinteractswiththeimagery constraintinabeautiful,poeticwaythatdeepenstheimageryofthestoryforthe listenerandaidsmemoryofthepassagefortheteller. TheothermajorpoeticdeviceutilizedinTuvanistheemphaticsuffix[daa],
which,asnotedearlier,alsoservesanimportantstructuralfunctionbydelineatinga particularsequenceofeventsthatoccursthreetimesduringthecompetitionsection
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ofthetale,andbydrawingattentiontothepossibilitythatBoraSheeleisdisguise willbefoundout,amajorsourceofplotdevelopmentinthetale.Thestorystructure delineatedbythissuffixfitsRubinsdefinitionofascript,apredetermined, stereotypedsequenceofactionsthatdefinesawellknownsituation(Rubin24). Whilethescriptoutlinedby[daa]athreattoBoraSheeleisdisguise;the successfulcontinuationofthedisguise;areaction;andthestartofthecontestis notnecessarilyawellknownsituationinthesenseofacommon,everyday occurrence,itisasituationfairlytypicaloffolkliteratureandoralepic,andthusfits thedescriptionofascript,whichisanexampleofthemeaningconstraint. Inthecaseofthisexample,themeaningconstraintisconnectedtothesound
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morelikelythatsuchsystemsexistinotherfolktraditions,butthatthesetraditions havenotbeenstudiedenoughtorevealthesepatterns.Veryfeworaltraditionshave beenwidelystudiedbyWesternscholars,andthestudyoforalepicsisevenrarer, largelylimitedtotheHomericepics,oldEnglishepicssuchasBeowulf,andsome examplesofSouthSlavicandSiberianepics.If,forexample,Westernscholarship weretotakeacloserlookattheKyrgyzManas,thelongestrecordedepicatoverhalf amillionlines,itseemscertainthatitsstructuresanddevicescoulddemonstrate manyuniqueusesofpoetics,aswellasmanypoeticdevicesthathaveapplications tofolklore,linguistics,andcognitivescience.Inaddition,becauseKyrgyzis,like Tuvan,aTurkiclanguage,anyexplorationoftheManaswouldbelikelytoyield TurkicspecificpoeticdevicesthatcouldbeappliedtothestudyofTuvanepics.
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ItisclearnowthattheTuvanoralepicofBoktuKirishdrawsheavilyon
certainpoeticdevices,specificallyalliteration,formulaicnaming,formulaicspeech, andtheuseofemphaticsuffixes,tobothmakethetaleeasiertomemorizeandplace itinapoetic,artisticmilieu,ratherthansimplyrenderingthestoryin conversationalTuvan.However,twoofthesedevices(andpossiblymore)alsohave significantcontributionstothemeaningofthetale,aswellastheform.Alliteration allowsforTuvansextremelyrichsystemofsoundsymbolismtodeepenthe meaningofapassageandprovideadditionalimagerytothetale,whiletheuseofthe emphaticsuffix[daa]notonlyemphasizesimportantinformationinthetale,but servesabroadstructuralpurposebymarkingrepeatedeventsduringtheKhans competitionandshowingthedevelopmentofBoraSheeleischaracter. Thestudyofthesedevicesmayleadtothediscoveryofotherapplicationsfor
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Inadditiontotheconnectionbetweenphonologicallybasedpoeticdevices
andmeaningthroughthemediumofsoundsymbolism,thesepoeticdevicescould alsohelptoilluminatethecognitiveprocessesthatallowstorytellerstoorally performepicsthatarethousandsoflineslong.Itseemsclearthatalliterative patternscanhelpmemorizationbyprovidingeasilyrecognizablepatterns;itstands toreasonthat,ifthesepatternsareconnectedtothemeaningofthetale,thiswould furtheraidmemorizationandrecitation.Itisequallyeasytoseehowtheuseofthe emphaticsuffixtomarkthestructureofthetaleanddrawattentiontoimportant informationcanaidmemorizationbyprovidingaframeworkthatkeepstheteller focusedonthestructureofthetaleandpreventshimfromleavingoutany importantinformation.FurtherresearchintothepoeticdevicesofTuvanoralepics, aswellasthoseusedinotherunderstudiedfolktraditions,couldleadtonew insightsintohumanmemoryandlanguage;insightsthatwouldnotbepossible withoutarigorousstudyofepicsusingbothatraditionalfolkloricapproachanda lesstraditionallinguisticanalysis.Theseinsightswouldalsonotbepossiblewithout knowledgeofthelanguageofasmallbandofnomadicyakherdersinSiberia,who sharestoriesaboutamannamedBoktuKirishandhisheroicyoungersisterBora Sheelei.
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WorksCited Afanasev,Alexander.RussianFairyTales.Trans.NorbertGuterman.NewYork: Pantheon,1945.Print. Alalatu,Toomas.Tuva:AStateReawakens.SovietStudies.44.5(1992).Print. Ballis,William.SovietRussiasAsiaticFrontierTechnique:TanaTuva.Pacific Affairs.14.1(1941).Print. Diffloth,Grard.i:big,a:small.SoundSymbolism.Ed.LeanneHinton,Joanna Nichols,JohnJ.Ohala.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1994.107114. Print. Foley,JohnMiles.HowtoReadanOralPoem.UrbanaandChicago:Universityof IllinoisPress,2002.Print. Harrison,K.David.ATuvanHeroTale,withCommentary,MorphemicAnalysis,and Translation.JournaloftheAmericanOrientalSociety125.1(2005).Print. Harrison,K.David.SouthSiberianSoundSymbolism.Languagesandprehistoryof centralSiberia.Ed.EdwardJ.Vajda.Amsterdam:JohnBenjaminsPublishing Company,2004.Print. Hymes,Dell.InVainITriedtoTellYou:EssaysinNativeAmericanEthnopoetics. LincolnandLondon:UniversityofNebraskaPress,2004.Print. Hymes,Dell.NowIOnlyKnowSoFar:EssaysinEthnopoetics.LincolnandLondon: UniversityofNebraskaPress,2003.Print. LaPolla,RandyJ.Anexperimentalinvestigationintophoneticsoundsymbolismas itrelatestoMandarinChinese.SoundSymbolism.Ed.LeanneHinton,Joanna Nichols,JohnJ.Ohala.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.1994.130147. Print. Levin,Theodore.WhenRiversandMountainsSing:Sound,Music,andNomadismin TuvaandBeyond.BloomingtonandIndianapolis:IndianaUniversityPress, 2006.Print. Lord,AlbertB.TheSingerofTales.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2000. Print. Propp,Vladimir.MorphologyoftheFolktale.Trans.LaurenceScott.Austin: UniversityofTexasPress,2005.Print.
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Rhodes,Richard.AuralImages.SoundSymbolism.Ed.LeanneHinton,Joanna Nichols,JohnJ.Ohala.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1994.276292. Print. Rubin,DavidC.MemoryinOralTraditions:TheCognitivePsychologyofEpic,Ballads, andCountingoutRhymes.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1995.Print. Thompson,Stith.MotifIndexofFolkLiterature.BloomingtonandIndianapolis: IndianaUniversityPress,1989.Print. Tsur,Reuven.WhatMakesSoundPatternsExpressive:ThePoeticModeofSpeech Perception.DurhamandLondon:DukeUniversityPress,1992.Print. Vendler,Helen.TheArtofShakespearesSonnets.CambridgeandLondon:Harvard UniversityPress,1997.Print. -. -, -. : , 1997. Print. , .. -, - . : , 1995. Print. .
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AppendixAProppianFunctions I. VII. VIII. THEVILLAINCAUSESHARMORINJURYTOAMEMBEROFTHEFAMILY (villainy) V. VI. THEVILLAINRECEIVESINFORMATIONABOUTHISVICTIM(delivery) THEVILLAINATTEMPTSTODECEIVEHISVICTIMINORDERTOTAKE POSSESSIONOFHIMORHISBELONGINGS(trickery) THEVICTIMSUBMITSTODECEPTIONANDTHEREBYUNWITTINGLY HELPSHISENEMY(complicity) III. IV. THEINTERDICTIONISVIOLATED(violation) THEVILLAINMAKESANATTEMPTATRECONNAISSANCE (reconnaissance) II. ONEOFTHEMEMBERSOFAFAMILYABSENTSHIMSELFFROMHOME (absentation) ANINTERDICTIONISADDRESSEDTOTHEHERO(interdiction)
VIIIa.ONEMEMBEROFAFAMILYEITHERLACKSSOMETHINGORDESIRESTO HAVESOMETHING(lack) IX. MISFORTUNEORLACKISMAKEKNOWN;THEHEROISAPPROACHED WITHAREQUESTORCOMMAND;HEISALLOWEDTOGOORHEIS DISPATCHED(mediation,theconnectiveincident) THESEEKERAGREESTOORDECIDESUPONCOUNTERACTION (beginningcounteraction) THEHEROLEAVESHOME(departure) THEHEROISTESTED,INTERROGATED,ATTACKED,ETC.,WHICH PREPARESTHEWAYFORHISRECEVINGEITHERAMAGICALAGENTOR AHELPER(thefirstfunctionofthedonor) THEHEROREACTSTOTHEACTIONSOFTHEFUTUREDONOR(theheros reaction) THEHEROACQUIRESTHEUSEOFAMAGICALAGENT(provisionor receiptofamagicalagent) 70
X. XI. XII.
XIII. XIV.
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XVII. THEHEROISBRANDED(branding) XVIII. THEVILLAINISDEFEATED(victory) XIX. XX. XXI. THEINITIALMISOFORTUNEORLACKISLIQUIDATED(liquidation) THEHERORETURNS(return) THEHEROISPURSUED(pursuit,chase) RESCUEOFTHEHEROFROMPURSUIT(rescue)
XXVI. THETASKISRESOLVED(solution) XXVII. THEHEROISRECOGNIZED(recognition) XXVIII. THEFALSEHEROORVILLAINISEXPOSED(exposure) XXIX. THEHEROISGIVENANEWAPPEARANCE(transfiguration) XXX. THEVILLAINISPUNISHED(punishment)
XXXI. THEHEROISMARRIEDANDASCENDSTHETHRONE(wedding)
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AppendixBMorphoSyntacticTags(takenfromHarrison2005) \ Boundarybetweentagsinportmanteauorzeromorpheme morphemeboundary = encliticboundary <> infixedelement 1(SG) firstpersonsingular 2(SG) secondpersonsingular 3 thirdpersonsingular ABL ablativecase(enclitic) ACC accusativecase ADJ adjectivalsuffix ADL adlativecase AGENT agentive ALL allative AMEL ameliorative AUX auxiliaryverb BEN benefactivevoice CAUS causative CLOC cislocative CNCL conciliatorymood COMP complementizer COND conditionalmood COP copula CV converb DAT dativecase DEIC deixismarker DIM diminutive DISC discourse DIST distal DUAL dual(1&2SG) EMPH emphatic EXCL exclamation F futuretense F\1 futuretense1SG FIG figurativeelement FORM formulaicspeech GEN genitivecase IMP imperative INCH inchoativeaspect INS instrumentalenclitic LOC locativecase LEX lexicalitemfoundonlyincompounds,hasnomeaning MOD modal NEG negation NOM nominativecase 72
AlexandraIsrael ORD PASS PERF PF PL PN POST PROB PST QUAN QUES QUOT RCP REC.PST RED SBEN SS SYMB TLOC VSF
ordinalnumber passive perfectiveaspect present/futuretense plural predicatenoun postposition probabilitivemood pasttense quantifier questiontag quotative reciprocal recentpastense reduplicant selfbenefactivevoice samesubject soundsymbolicelement translocation verbstemformant
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