APPLICATIONS OF POLYMERS IN BIOMEDICAL, ELECTRONIC AND INDUSTRIAL FIELDS

INTRODUCTION:
A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating structural units. These subunits are typically connected by covalent chemical bonds. Although the term polymer is sometimes taken to refer to plastics, it actually encompasses a large class of natural and synthetic materials with a wide variety of properties. Because of the extraordinary range of properties of polymeric materials, they play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. This role ranges from familiar synthetic plastics and elastomers to natural biopolymers such as nucleic acids and proteins that are essential for life. Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of other natural polymers exist, such as cellulose, which is the main constituent of wood and paper. The list of synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber, Bakelite, neoprene, nylon, PVC, polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and many more. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a polymer used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer. However, other structures do exist; for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being silly putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also commonly present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides (in glycosidic bonds), and DNA (in phosphodiester bonds).

ETYMOLOGY:
The word polymer is derived from the Greek words poly meaning many; and meros meaning "part". The term was coined in 1833 by Jons Jacob Berzelius, although his definition of a polymer was quite different from the modern definition.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT:
Starting in 1811, Henri Braconnot did pioneering work in derivative cellulose compounds, perhaps the earliest important work in polymer science. The development of vulcanization later

in the nineteenth century improved the durability of the natural polymer rubber, signifying the first popularized semi-synthetic polymer. In 1907, Leo Baekeland created the first completely synthetic polymer, Bakelite, by reacting phenol and formaldehyde at precisely controlled temperature and pressure. Bakelite was then publicly introduced in 1909. Despite significant advances in synthesis and characterization of polymers, a correct understanding of polymer molecular structure did not emerge until the 1920s. Before then, scientists believed that polymers were clusters of small molecules (called colloids), without definite molecular weights, held together by an unknown force, a concept known as association theory. In 1922, Hermann Staudinger proposed that polymers consisted of long chains of atoms held together by covalent bonds, an idea which did not gain wide acceptance for over a decade and for which Staudinger was ultimately awarded the Nobel Prize. Work by Wallace Carothers in the 1920s also demonstrated that polymers could be synthesized rationally from their constituent monomers. An important contribution to synthetic polymer science was made by the Italian chemist Giulio Natta and the German chemist Karl Ziegler, who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963 for the development of the Ziegler-Natta catalyst. Further recognition of the importance of polymers came with the award of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1974 to Paul Flory, whose extensive work on polymers included the kinetics of step-growth polymerization and of addition polymerization, chain transfer, excluded volume, the Flory-Huggins solution theory, and the Flory convention. Synthetic polymer materials such as nylon, polyethylene, Teflon, and silicone have formed the basis for a burgeoning polymer industry. These years have also shown significant developments in rational polymer synthesis. Most commercially important polymers today are entirely synthetic and produced in high volume on appropriately scaled organic synthetic techniques. Synthetic polymers today find application in nearly every industry and area of life. Polymers are widely used as adhesives and lubricants, as well as structural components for products ranging from children's toys to aircraft. They have been employed in a variety of biomedical applications ranging from implantable devices to controlled drug delivery. Polymers such as poly(methyl methacrylate) find application as photo resist materials used in semiconductor manufacturing and low-k dielectrics for use in high-performance microprocessors. Recently, polymers have also been employed as flexible substrates in the development of organic light-emitting diodes for electronic display.

POLYMER SYNTHESIS:
Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain. During the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester. The monomers are terephthalic acid (HOOC-C6H4-COOH) and ethylene glycol (HO-CH2-CH2-OH) but the repeating unit is -OC-C6H4-COO-CH2-CH2-O-, which corresponds to the combination of the two monomers with the loss of two water molecules. The distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue.
Microstructure of part of a DNA double helix biopolymer

LABORATORY SYNTHESIS:
Laboratory synthetic methods are generally divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. The essential difference between the two is that in chain growth polymerization, monomers are added to the chain one at a time only, whereas in step-growth polymerization chains of monomers may combine with one another directly. However, some newer methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category. Synthetic polymerization reactions may be carried out with or without a catalyst. Laboratory synthesis of biopolymers, especially of proteins, is an area of intensive research.

BIOLOGICAL SYNTHESIS:
There are three main classes of biopolymers: polysaccharides, polypeptides, and polynucleotides. In living cells, they may be synthesized by enzyme-mediated processes, such as the formation of DNA catalyzed by DNA polymerase. The synthesis of proteins involves multiple enzymemediated processes to transcribe genetic information from the DNA to RNA and subsequently translate that information to synthesize the specified protein from amino acids. The protein may be modified further following translation in order to provide appropriate structure and functioning.

MODIFICATION OF NATURAL POLYMERS:

Many commercially important polymers are synthesized by chemical modification of naturally occurring polymers. Prominent examples include the reaction of nitric acid and cellulose to form nitrocellulose and the formation of vulcanized rubber by heating natural rubber in the presence of sulfur.

POLYMER PROPERTIES:
Polymer properties are broadly divided into several classes based on the scale at which the property is defined as well as upon its physical basis. The most basic property of a polymer is the identity of its constituent monomers. A second set of properties, known as microstructure, essentially describe the arrangement of these monomers within the polymer at the scale of a single chain. These basic structural properties play a major role in determining bulk physical properties of the polymer, which describe how the polymer behaves as a continuous macroscopic material. Chemical properties, at the nano-scale, describe how the chains interact through various physical forces. At the macro-scale, they describe how the bulk polymer interacts with other chemicals and solvents.

MICROSTRUCTURE:
The microstructure of a polymer (sometimes called configuration) relates to the physical arrangement of monomer residues along the backbone of the chain. These are the elements of polymer structure that require the breaking of a covalent bond in order to change. Structure has a strong influence on the other properties of a polymer. For example, two samples of natural rubber may exhibit different durability, even though their molecules comprise the same monomers.

CHAIN LENGTH:
The physical properties of a polymer are strongly dependent on the size or length of the polymer chain. For example, as chain length is increased, melting and boiling temperatures increase quickly. Impact resistance also tends to increase with chain length, as does the viscosity, or resistance to flow, of the polymer in its melt state. Chain length is related to melt viscosity roughly as 1:103.2, so that a tenfold increase in polymer chain length results in a viscosity increase of over 1000 times Increasing chain length furthermore tends to decrease chain

mobility, increase strength and toughness, and increase the glass transition temperature (Tg) This is a result of the increase in chain interactions such as Van der Waals attractions and entanglements that come with increased chain length. These interactions tend to fix the individual chains more strongly in position and resist deformations and matrix breakup, both at higher stresses and higher temperatures A common means of expressing the length of a chain is the degree of polymerization, which quantifies the number of monomers incorporated into the chain. As with other molecules, a polymer's size may also be expressed in terms of molecular weight. Since synthetic polymerization techniques typically yield a polymer product including a range of molecular weights, the weight is often expressed statistically to describe the distribution of chain lengths present in the same. Common examples are the number average molecular weight and weight average molecular weight. The ratio of these two values is the polydispersity index, commonly used to express the "width" of the molecular weight distribution. A final measurement is contour length, which can be understood as the length of the chain backbone in its fully extended state. The flexibility of an unbranched chain polymer is characterized by its persistence length.

MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:

The bulk properties of a polymer are those most often of end-use interest. These are the properties that dictate how the polymer actually behaves on a macroscopic scale.

TENSILE STRENGTH:
The tensile strength of a material quantifies how much stress the material will endure before suffering permanent deformation. This is very important in applications that rely upon a polymer's physical strength or durability. For example, a rubber band with a higher tensile strength will hold a greater weight before snapping. In general, tensile strength increases with polymer chain length and cross linking of polymer chains.

YOUNG'S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY:

Young's Modulus quantifies the elasticity of the polymer. It is defined, for small strains, as the ratio of rate of change of stress to strain. Like tensile strength, this is highly relevant in polymer applications involving the physical properties of polymers, such as rubber bands. The modulus is strongly dependent on temperature.

TRANSPORT PROPERTIES:
Transport properties such as diffusivity relate to how rapidly molecules move through the polymer matrix. These are very important in many applications of polymers for films and membranes.

MELTING POINT:
The term melting point, when applied to polymers, suggests not a solid-liquid phase transition but a transition from a crystalline or semi-crystalline phase to a solid amorphous phase. Though abbreviated as simply Tm, the property in question is more properly called the crystalline melting temperature. Among synthetic polymers, crystalline melting is only discussed with regards to thermoplastics, as thermosetting polymers will decompose at high temperatures rather than melt.

GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE:

A parameter of particular interest in synthetic polymer manufacturing is the glass transition temperature (Tg), which describes the temperature at which amorphous polymers undergo a transition from a rubbery, viscous amorphous solid, to a brittle, glassy amorphous solid. The glass transition temperature may be engineered by altering the degree of branching or cross linking in the polymer or by the addition of plasticizer. The attractive forces between polymer chains play a large part in determining a polymer's properties. Because polymer chains are so long, these interchain forces are amplified far beyond the attractions between conventional molecules. Different side groups on the polymer can lend the polymer to ionic bonding or hydrogen bonding between its own chains. These stronger forces typically result in higher tensile strength and higher crystalline melting points. The intermolecular forces in polymers can be affected by dipoles in the monomer units. Polymers containing amide or carbonyl groups can form hydrogen bonds between adjacent chains; the partially positively charged hydrogen atoms in N-H groups of one chain are strongly attracted to the partially negatively charged oxygen atoms in C=O groups on another. These strong hydrogen bonds, for example, result in the high tensile strength and melting point of polymers containing urethane or urea linkages. Polyesters have dipole-dipole bonding between the oxygen atoms in C=O groups and the hydrogen atoms in H-C groups. Dipole bonding is not

as strong as hydrogen bonding, so a polyester's melting point and strength are lower than Kevlar's (Twaron), but polyesters have greater flexibility. Ethene, however, has no permanent dipole. The attractive forces between polyethylene chains arise from weak van der Waals forces. Molecules can be thought of as being surrounded by a cloud of negative electrons. As two polymer chains approach, their electron clouds repel one another. This has the effect of lowering the electron density on one side of a polymer chain, creating a slight positive dipole on this side. This charge is enough to attract the second polymer chain. Van der Waals forces are quite weak, however, so polyethylene can have a lower melting temperature compared to other polymers.

POLYMER DEGRADATION:
Polymer degradation is a change in the propertiestensile strength, color, shape, or molecular weightof a polymer or polymer-based product under the influence of one or more environmental factors, such as heat, light, chemicals and, in some cases, galvanic action. It is often due to the scission of polymer chain bonds via hydrolysis, leading to a decrease in the molecular mass of the polymer. Although such changes are frequently undesirable, in some cases, such as biodegradation and recycling, they may be intended to prevent environmental pollution. Degradation can also be useful in biomedical settings. For example, a copolymer of polylactic acid and polyglycolic acid is employed in hydrolysable stitches that slowly degrade after they are applied to a wound. The susceptibility of a polymer to degradation depends on its structure. Epoxies and chains containing aromatic functionalities are especially susceptible to UV degradation while polyesters are susceptible to degradation by hydrolysis, while polymers containing an unsaturated backbone are especially susceptible to ozone cracking. Carbon based polymers are more susceptible to thermal degradation than inorganic polymers such aspolydimethylsiloxane and are therefore not ideal for most high-temperature applications. High-temperature matrices such as bismaleimides(BMI), condensation polyimides (with an O-C-N bond), triazines (with a nitrogen (N) containing ring), and blends thereof are susceptible to polymer degradation in the form of galvanic corrosion when bare carbon fiber reinforced polymer CFRP is in contact with an active metal such as aluminum in salt water environments. The degradation of polymers to form smaller molecules may proceed by random scission or specific scission. The degradation of polyethylene occurs by random scissiona random

breakage of the bonds that hold the atoms of the polymer together. When heated above 450 C, polyethylene degrades to form a mixture of hydrocarbons. Other polymers, such as poly(alphamethylstyrene), undergo specific chain scission with breakage occurring only at the ends. They literally unzip or depolymerize back to the constituent monomer. The sorting of polymer waste for recycling purposes may be facilitated by the use of the Resin identification codes developed by the Society of the Plastics Industry to identify the type of plastic.

APPLICATIONS: BIOMEDICAL: WATER-SOLUBLE SYNTHETIC POLYMERS:

Poly (acrylic acid) is used in cosmetic, pharmaceuticals, immobilization of cationic drugs, base for Carbopol polymers. Poly (ethylene oxide) acts as Coagulant, flocculent, has very high molecular-weight up to a few millions, used as swelling agent. Poly (ethylene glycol) Mw <10,000; liquid (Mw <1000) and wax (Mw >1000), used as plasticizer, base for suppositories. Poly (vinyl pyrrolidone) used to make betadine (iodine complex of PVP) with less toxicity than iodine, plasma replacement, and tablet granulation. Poly (vinyl alcohol) used for Water-soluble packaging, tablet binder, tablet coating. Polyacrylamide Gel electrophoresis to separate proteins based on their molecular weights, coagulant, absorbent.

CELLULOSE BASED POLYMERS:

Ethyl cellulose Insoluble but dispersible in water, aqueous coating system for sustained release applications Carboxymethyl cellulose acts as super disintegrant, emulsion stabilizer. Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose is used as a binder for tablet matrix and tablet coating, gelatin alternative as capsule material.

HYDROCOLLOIDS:
Alginic acid used in Oral and topical pharmaceutical products; thickening and suspending agent in a variety of pastes, creams, and gels, as well as a stabilizing agent for oil-inwater emulsions; binder and disintegrant Chitosan is used in Cosmetics and controlled drug delivery applications, mucoadhesive dosage forms, rapid release dosage forms. Hyaluronic acid is used for reduction of scar tissue, and in cosmetics. Pectinic acid is used in drug delivery

STARCH BASED POLYMERS:

Starch Glidant, a diluent in tablets and capsules, a disintegrant in tablets and capsules, a tablet binder Sodium starch glycolate is a super disintegrant for tablets and capsules in oral delivery.

PLASTICS AND RUBBERS:

Polyurethane Transdermal patch backing (soft, comfortable, moderate moisture transmission), blood pump, artificial heart, and vascular grafts, foam in biomedical and industrial products Silicones Pacifier, therapeutic devices, implants, medical grade adhesive for transdermal delivery Polycarbonate Case for biomedical and pharmaceutical products. Polychloroprene Septum for injection, plungers for syringes, and valve components. Polyisobutylene Pressure sensitive adhesives for transdermal delivery. Polycyanoacrylate Biodegradable tissue adhesives in surgery, a drug carrier in nano- and microparticles. Poly (vinyl acetate) Binder for chewing gum.

Polystyrene Petri dishes and containers for cell culture. Polypropylene Tight packaging, heat shrinkable films, containers. Poly (vinyl chloride) Blood bag, hoses, and tubing. Polyethylene Transdermal patch backing for drug in adhesive design, wrap, packaging, containers. Poly (methyl methacrylate) Hard contact lenses. Poly (hydroxyethyl methacrylate) used in soft contact lenses

 Acrylic acid and butyl acrylate copolymer High Tg pressuresensitive adhesive for transdermal patches.

BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS:

A biodegradable polymer is a polymer in which the degradation results from the action of naturally occurring microorganisms such as bacteria, algae or fungi. These biodegradable polymers are largely used in medical application where they undergo degradation by chemical hydrolysis. Biodegradable polymers find widespread use in drug delivery as they can be degraded to nontoxic monomers inside the body. Novel supramolecular structures based on polyethylene oxide copolymers and dendrimers are being intensively researched for delivery of genes and macromolecules. Hydrogels that can respond to a variety of physical, chemical and biological stimuli hold enormous potential for design of closed-loop drug-delivery systems. There may be a variety of reasons for the use of biodegradable materials, but the most basic begins with the physician's simple desire to have a device that can be used as an implant and will not require a second surgical intervention for removal. Besides eliminating the need for a second surgery, the biodegradation may offer other advantages. For example, a fractured bone that has

been fixated with a rigid, nonbiodegradable stainless implant has a tendency for refracture upon removal of the implant. Because the stress is borne by the rigid stainless steel, the bone has not been able to carry sufficient load during the healing process. However, an implant prepared from biodegradable polymer can be engineered to degrade at a rate that will slowly transfer load to the healing bone. Biodegradable materials may be the only option for some potential applications. For example, reconstructing functioning blood vessels requires materials that degrade in the body, because nondegradable scaffolds occupy too much volume to allow tissues to regrow completely.

DENTAL DEVICES:
Biodegradable polymers have found use in two dental applications. Employed as void filler following tooth extraction, porous polymer particles can be packed into the cavity to aid in quicker healing. As a guided-tissue-regeneration (GTR) membrane, films of biodegradable polymer can be positioned to exclude epithelial migration following periodontal surgery. The exclusion of epithelial cells allows the supporting, slower-growing tissueincluding connective and ligament cellsto proliferate.

BIOMATERIALS FOR DELIVERY SYSTEMS:

A range of materials have been employed to control the release of drugs and other active agents. The earliest of these polymers were originally intended for other, nonbiological uses, and were selected because of their desirable physical properties, for example: Poly(urethanes) for elasticity. Poly(siloxanes) or silicones for insulating ability. Poly(methyl methacrylate) for physical strength and transparency. Poly(vinyl alcohol) for hydrophilicity and strength. Poly(ethylene) for toughness and lack of swelling. Poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) for suspension capabilities.

APPLICATIONS OF POLYMERS IN ELECTRONICS:

Since the early 1950s, polymers have been used extensively as passive components in electronic devices because of their light weight, flexibility, corrosion resistance, high chemical inertness, electrical insulation and ease of processing. In 1975, an inorganic conjugated polymer, polythiazyl, (SN)x, was discovered, which possesses metallic conductivity and becomes a superconductor at 0.29 K. However, the idea of using polymers for their electrical conducting properties actually emerged in 1977 with the findings of Shirakawa and co-workers, that the iodine-doped transpolyacetylene, (CH)x, exhibits conductivity of 103 S cm-1. Since then, an active interest in synthesising other organic polymers possessing this property has been initiated. As a result, other polymers having a -electron conjugated structure, such as polyaniline (PANI), polypyrrole (PPy), polythiophene (PT), polyfuran (PFu), poly(pphenylene) (PPP) and polycarbazole (PCz) [3-6] have been synthesized and studied. Engineering thermoplastics and other high-performance polymers play an increasingly vital role in the production of electronic components and microelectronic devices. New resins, additives, and fillers have been developed to meet thin-wall and high-temperature requirements for molded parts, while innovative uses of conductive polymers are expanding the role of plastics in electronics even further.

POLYMERS FOR ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS:

Acetal copolymers (POM) are widely used and have a melting point of 163 C whereas the related acetal homopolymers have a higher melting point of 175 C with greater mechanical strength. However, POM is a strong enough material to be used for the manufacture of coil formers and plastic fasteners of all types where it is resistant to attack by oxidation and where it has a high recovery rate against attack from solvents and fuels. POM has good wear and electrical properties and is resistant to creep. Manufacturers include BASF (Ultraform). IXEF Polyarylamide, which is a form of Nylon, includes some of the stiffest thermoplastics available which are claimed to have properties almost equal to metal. Applications include their growing use in the mobile phone chassis where, despite the case getting smaller and lighter in weight there is still a need for stiffness in order to protect the contents. It is also used in other applications where extra stiffness and precision are needed notably connectors, switches, housings, motor end frames and telecommunication parts.

Liquid crystalline polymers(LCP) also have a noticeable use in electronics. The molecular structure of liquid crystalline polymers is one of their characteristic features. It comprises rigid, rod-like macromodules which align in the melt to produce liquid structures. LCP are fully aromatic copolyesters or copolyesteramides which have become the standard high performance polymers used in certain new electrical/electronic applications notably fuel cells. The annual worldwide demand for polyamides has grown to around six million tonnes. They are selected for use in electrical components because of their good chemical, electrical and mechanical properties, flexibility and relative immunity to fracture. They are inherently fire resistant without the use of flame-proofing agents. Polycarbonate (PC) is a major polymer used in the electronics. The optical disk market is a major PC consumer and, according to Bayer Material Science, it accounts for 800,000 tonnes out of a global market of around 2.4 million tonnes. Injection moulded PC components have an important role in electrical and electronic applications because the material is rigid and dimensionally stable, has a high impact resistance, a wide temperature range, a good resistance to chemicals and, also, the further option of transparency. It also has good insulation properties. Furthermore, in some applications, PC is seen as an alternative to glass and it has been reported that around 80% of vehicle headlamps are now made from PC. Poly Ether Ether Ketone (PEEK) is a semi-crystalline polymer, insoluble in all common solvents and can be used at temperatures of up to 300 C. This is a particular benefit when it is used in applications which involve the use of lead-free solder.

POLYPARAPHENYLENE TEREPHTHALAMIDE:
Marketed by Teijin as Aramica this engineering film with a para-aramid structure features superb rigidity and modulus which is reported to be amongst the highest found in organic films. Other properties are reported to be high heat resistance similar to that of polyimide, with heat stability similar to that of ceramics. Consequently these properties facilitate the production of thinner circuit boards and lighter weight components than polyimide film which is reported to have been the preferred choice to date. Applications include fine chip on film components and layer insulating and reinforcement materials. Polypropylene is a relatively low cost material available in different grades for different applications and is claimed to be a thermoplastic with a well-balanced relationship between toughness, stiffness and hardness with the additional benefits of high heat resistance, excellent

resistance to chemicals, low water absorption and permeability to water vapours, easy and flexible to process and of low density. These qualities enable PP to be used for a wide variety of electrical and electronic applications including battery containers, cable retention clips, screws, nuts and washers. Polytetrafluoroethylene is a fluoropolymer. The market for fluoropolymers worldwide is reported to be around 100,000 tonnes of which approximately 40% is consumed in the US and approximately 10% is consumed in Japan. PTFE accounts for some 70% of total demand for fluoropolymers which are increasingly being used because of their outstanding qualities. Fluoropolymers are unique amongst polymers in respect of their chemical and thermal stability, biocompatibility, water resistance and superb dielectric properties, having a dielectric constant of 2.1. Other members of the Teflon family include a polymer of tetrafluoroethylene and hexafluoropropylene (FEP) and a polymer of tetrafluoroethylene and perfluorovinylether (PFA). The 327 C melting point of PTFE is reputed to be one of the highest in organic polymer chemistry. The melting points of FEP and PFA are 260 C and 305 C, respectively. PTFE is used in connectors and printed circuits, especially in hostile environments calling for heavy duty models. It can also be used to produce computer chip packages and shielding gaskets where it can be used in an expanded form. The selection of PCB material is determined by the end use application, and to achieve the required performance, ceramic filled PTFE composites, with or without the addition of woven or non-woven glass fibre, may be used. PTFE may also be used in heavy duty electrical connectors. It can also be used when connectors are moulded on to cables. There has been rapid growth in the market for thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) since they possess the advantages of vulcanised rubber in respect of their processability and their physical properties which may be seen as an ideal blend of plastic and rubber. Elastomers used for connector insulators include polychloroprenes, silicones, fluoro-silicones and heat-setting compounds which enable the special characteristics to be incorporated for example, flame resistance, low toxicity and low smoke. Neoprene is used as spacer material and also for washers where its sealing qualities, good resistance to cracking, rotting, oils and petrol and its good low temperature fl exibility may be beneficial in specific applications.Silicone rubber is used for key pads of handheld devices, process controllers, access control panels, military communications and other equipment. Other options include the combination of plastic keytops with a rubber mat.

Blending, alloying and compounding are especially important in the production of materials to fulfill demanding specifications These involve the addition of various fillers and reinforcements, including glass fibre, in order to build in the desired properties. The production of polymers for the component sector is a specialised business with dedicated suppliers. Polymers are also used in making basic electronic components like transistor, capacitors, diodes and rectifiers etc. The use of polymers in battery construction can be categorised in three distinct ways. For example the polymer may be used in the manufacture of the battery separators used in traditional cells to provide physical separation of the positive and negative plates whilst permitting electron flow through the electrolyte. Polyester and polypropylene fibres may also be used to reinforce the battery plates themselves in traditional cells. The second function is as a battery container material which must resist chemical attack by the electrolyte and give the container mechanical strength. Capacitors are available in a wide variety of shapes, sizes and chemical composition and have had to fall into line with the higher assembly temperature requirements arising from the move to lead-free solders. Specialty polymers are used in solid aluminium electrolytic capacitors whose characteristics include the ability to provide high microfarad capacitance in relatively small packages. Furthermore they are polarized with + and terminals. As there is a risk of them exploding at the end of their service life a pressure relief vent is built into the capacitor casing. Polypropylene film appears to be replacing polycarbonate film as the material of choice for the manufacture of capacitors using wound film construction. These types do not have a preferred polarity and can withstand higher levels of surge voltage. Membrane Keypads are typically built on a polyester base membrane (PETP, 35 m, copperlaminated) with a polyester spacer membrane, safety chamber and front membrane. The snap disc being gold plated stainless steel. Other designs use electrical contacts made from silver, silver on carbon or carbon only. Keypads may also be made from conductive silicone rubber. Conventional computer keyboards made from ABS, polyester or other polymers, may be covered by a polymer overlay to protect it against dirt, dust, water or other substance present in a hostile environment. Polyester and PVC overlays are used in a wide variety of applications with computer and instrumentation equipment in dental and medical healthcare and other areas. Typical casing materials include PC and polychloroprene.

Polymers used to insulate plugs and sockets include PA and TPE. However, for plugs moulded on to cables the universal polymer choice for plug bodies has been PVC which can tolerate temperatures up to 60 C. Domestic mains sockets are moulded from tough materials designed to withstand abuse during the installation process. Polymers used include PBT which may be used, with glass fibre reinforcement, in the manufacture of lamp sockets where its resistance to discoloration and heat are valuable qualities. In applications where higher temperatures are likely to be encountered, flame retardant PET may be used. Polyester and glass fibre reinforced polyester bodies are a popular choice for industrial plugs and sockets especially those destined to be used in hazardous environments. The main polymer use in chip resistors relates to the encapsulation material which is frequently PA but may be Novolac epoxy or epoxy resin. Silicone rubber encapsulation, which provides a cushioning layer which isolates the resistive element from external stresses, and polymerised moisture protection layers are two other uses of polymers in resistors. Encapsulated resistor capacitor networks utilize epoxy/anhydride conformal body material. Conformal implies a coating of uniform thickness as would be obtained by a dipping process, for example. Small wire wound resistors are made by winding the resistance wire round a proprietary bobbin and then encapsulating it in silicone rubber over which an epoxy shell is moulded. Other resistor formats use foil elements with Kapton/adhesive insulation coated with epoxy enamel. Polymers are also used in RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) and sensors. Teflon is used in the production of sensors. Typical materials for normal switches and fuse holders include Nylon 6.6, glass-filled PPA and PC where transparency is required. Crimped terminals are a popular way to terminate cables. The choice of polymer for the terminals themselves will be governed by environmental circumstances. Normally PVC is used but high temperature applications will call for PA or PC insulators. Similarly polymers have extensive use in the production of electronic components. Few of the polymer electronic devices are discussed below.

TRANSISTOR:
The transistor is the basic building block for integrated circuits. A typical polymer transistor contains 4 layers:

 On the substrate, there is a first contact layer, which is structured to form the base of a transistor with two contacts: source and drain. These contacts are covered by the polymer semiconductor. The next layer is the polymer insulator, which separates the gate contact layer form the semiconductor. The top layer is the gate contact

DIODES:
Diodes are needed for the rectification of alternating currents and for voltage stabilization. The diode is a device with two different electrodes called anode and cathode. In between these electrodes, there is an organic semiconductor layer. In organic diodes, the rectifying contact (so called Schottky contact) between the organic semiconductor and specific metals is used. The charge carriers can pass this metal-semiconductor contact only in one direction. Therefore, the diode allows current flow only in forward direction, whereas in the reverse direction the current flow is blocked.

CAPACITOR:
The capacitor consists of two electrodes which are separated by a dielectric (insulator). Capacitors are able to store energy in form of charge and voltage. In a DC circuit, a capacitor acts like an infinite resistance. In an AC circuit, the capacitive resistance increases with frequency. Due to those properties, capacitors are used in a variety of circuits such as resonance circuits, analog filters, and rectifiers.

INVERTER:
A polymer inverter consists of two organic transistors. The output level "out" is always the inverted input level "in". Inverters are the basic circuits for the implementation of logical functions like NAND, NOR, NOT. Every computer is built up of many complex compositions of these logical functions containing thousands of inverters.

RING OSCILLATOR:
The ring oscillator is a relatively simple circuit consisting of a series of several inverters. The output of each inverter stage is connected to the input of the following stage. The output of the last stage is connected to the input of the first one. Supplied with a DC voltage, it starts to oscillate at a certain frequency. Therefore, it can be used in integrated circuits to generate a clock signal.

RECTIFIER:
Rectifiers are necessary to convert alternating currents into direct currents. The simplest form of a rectifier is to load a capacitor over a diode. As the diode allows current flow only into one direction, the input AC voltage causes into a pulsating DC current flow through the diode, which loads the capacitor. At the output a smooth DC voltage drops across the load resistor.

APPLICATION IN INDUSTRIAL FIELDS:

Macromolecular science has had a major impact on the way we live. It is difficult to find an aspect of our lives that is not affected by polymers. Just 50 years ago, materials we now take for granted were non-existent. With further advances in the understanding of polymers, and with new applications being researched, there is no reason to believe that the revolution will stop any time soon. Few of the applications of polymers in industrial fields are given below.

ELASTOMERS:
Rubber is the most important of all elastomers. Natural rubber is a polymer whose repeating unit is isoprene. This material, obtained from the bark of the rubber tree, has been used by humans for many centuries. It was not until 1823, however, that rubber became the valuable material we know today. In that year, Charles Goodyear succeeded in "vulcanizing" natural rubber by heating it with sulfur. In this process, sulfur chain fragments attack the polymer chains and lead to cross-linking. The term vulcanization is often used now to describe the cross-linking of all elastomers. Much of the rubber used in the United States today is a synthetic variety called styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR). Initial attempts to produce synthetic rubber revolved around isoprene because of its presence in natural rubber. Researchers eventually found success using butadiene and styrene with sodium metal as the initiator. This rubber was called Buna-S -- "Bu" from butadiene, "na" from the symbol for sodium, and "S" from styrene. During World War II, hundreds of thousands of tons of synthetic rubber were produced in government controlled factories. After the war, private industry took over and changed the name to styrene-butadiene rubber. Today, the United States consumes on the order of a million tons of SBR each year. Natural and other synthetic rubber materials are quite important.

PLASTICS:
Americans consume approximately 60 billion pounds of plastics each year. The two main types of plastics are thermoplastics and thermosets. Thermoplastics soften on heating and harden on cooling while thermosets, on heating, flow and cross-link to form rigid material which does not soften on future heating. Thermoplastics account for the majority of commercial usage. Among the most important and versatile of the hundreds of commercial plastics is polyethylene. Polyethylene is used in a wide variety of applications because, based on its structure, it can be produced in many different forms. The first type to be commercially exploited was called low density polyethylene (LDPE) or branched polyethylene. This polymer is characterized by a large degree of branching, forcing the molecules to be packed rather loosely forming a low density material. LDPE is soft and pliable and has applications ranging from plastic bags, containers, textiles, and electrical insulation, to coatings for packaging materials. Another form of polyethylene differing from LDPE only in structure is high density polyethylene (HDPE) or linear polyethylene. This form demonstrates little or no branching, enabling the molecules to be tightly packed. HDPE is much more rigid than branched polyethylene and is used in applications where rigidity is important. Major uses of HDPE are plastic tubing, bottles, and bottle caps. Other forms of this material include high and ultra-high molecular weight polyethylenes. HMW and UHMW, as they are known. These are used in applications where extremely tough and resilient materials are needed.

FIBERS:
Fibers represent a very important application of polymeric materials, including many examples from the categories of plastics and elastomers. Natural fibers such as cotton, wool, and silk have been used by humans for many centuries. In 1885, artificial silk was patented and launched the modern fiber industry. Man-made fibers include materials such as nylon, polyester, rayon, and acrylic. The combination of strength, weight, and durability have made these materials very important in modern industry. Generally speaking, fibers are at least 100 times longer than they are wide. Typical natural and artificial fibers can have axial ratios (ratio of length to diameter) of 3000 or more.

Synthetic polymers have been developed that posess desirable characteristics, such as a high softening point to allow for ironing, high tensile strength, adequate stiffness, and desirable fabric qualities. These polymers are then formed into fibers with various characteristics. Nylon (a generic term for polyamides) was developed in the 1930's and used for parachutes in World War II. This synthetic fiber, known for its strength, elasticity, toughness, and resistance to abrasion, has commercial applications including clothing and carpeting. Nylon has special properties which distinguish it from other materials. One such property is the elasticity. Nylon is very elastic, however after elastic limit has been exceeded the material will not return to its original shape. Like other synthetic fibers, Nylon has a large electrical resistance. This is the cause for the build-up of static charges in some articles of clothing and carpets. From textiles to bullet-proof vests, fibers have become very important in modern life. As the technology of fiber processing expands, new generations of strong and light weight materials will be produced.

PROCESSING POLYMERS:
Once a polymer with the right properties is produced, it must be manipulated into some useful shape or object. Various methods are used in industry to do this.Injection molding and extrusion are widely used to process plastics while spinning is the process used to produce fibers. Injection Molding One of the most widely used forms of plastic processing is injection molding. Basically, a plastic is heated above its glass transition temperature (enough so that it will flow) and then is forced under high pressure to fill the contents of a mold. The molten plastic in usually "squeezed" into the mold by a ram or a reciprocating screw. The plastic is allowed to cool and is then removed from the mold in its final form. The advantage of injection molding is speed; this process can be performed many times each second.

EXTRUSION:
Extrusion is similar to injection molding except that the plastic is forced through a die rather than into a mold. However, the disadvantage of extrusion is that the objects made must have the same cross-sectional shape. Plastic tubing and hose is produced in this manner.

SPINNING:
The process of producing fibers is called spinning. There are three main types of spinning: melt, dry, and wet. Melt spinning is used for polymers that can be melted easily. Dry spinning involves dissolving the polymer into a solution that can be evaporated. Wet spinning is used when the solvent cannot be evaporated and must be removed by chemical means. All types of spinning use the same principle, so it is convenient to just describe just one. In melt spinning, a mass of polymer is heated until it will flow. The molten polymer is pumped to the face of a metal disk containing many small holes, called the spinneret. Tiny streams of polymer that emerge from these holes (called filaments) are wound together as they solidify, forming a long fiber. Speeds of up to 2500 feet/minute can be employed in spinning. Apart from pipes, large load-bearing components of unreinforced solid polymers are rarely found because of the low stiffness of these materials. Amorphous thermoplastics (PMMA, PC and PVC-U) are used to form roofing and cladding panels and as glazing. Stresses are low and some rigidity can be achieved by means of webs and ribs, or domed profiles. Thermoplastics are widely used to make durable storage tanks up to dimensions of 5m, particularly for potable water and rainwater. These are most commonly moulded from high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). Larger tanks and vessels of complex shapes are frequently made of glass-fibrereinforced plastics (mainly unsaturated polyester materials). Such complex constructions can also be made from thermoplastics by moulding, or extrusion and welding. Polymer materials are also used for building panels, often of multi-layer sandwich construction to provide rigidity and thermal insulation.

ROPES AND BARS:

Polymer materials achieve maximum stiffness when drawn to extend and orient the primary macromolecular chains. Some stiffening can also be achieved by stretching in two directions at right angles (biaxial orientation). Many semicrystalline thermoplastics are good fibre formers, notably the polyamides (PA), some polyesters, polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and polypropylene (PP). The tensile modulus can be increased by a factor of 10 or more by fibre-drawing. Such polymer fibres can then be bundled into yarns to form strong ropes. The stiffest and strongest of these polymer fibres are the polyaramids. These are now used as cable stays for bridges and as roof rigging, and as prestressing tendons for concrete. These polyaramid ropes have tensile moduli as high as 120 GPa and strengths of about 2 GPa. The durability of these materials in wet

environments brings conspicuous benefits over steel. Polyaramid fibres can provide highperformance reinforcement both in fibre-reinforced polymer composites and also in fibrereinforced cements. There is some creep and stress relaxation. The viscoelasticity of aramid fibres has recently been characterised.

PIPES:
Large-diameter polymer pipes are used widely for water and gas distribution, drainage and sewerage, and for handling industrial effluents and slurries. Polymer materials are also used as liners for sewer repair and pipeline renovation. Smaller-diameter pipes are used in rainwater and waste systems, and for water services. Large-diameter systems for water and sewer systems are predominantly of polyethylene HDPE and of PVC, with some use of polyester glass fibre composite pipes. Smaller-diameter water systems employ a wider variety of materials, including PE, PP, chlorinated PE, PVC (both unplasticised PVC-U and chlorinated PVC-C).

Inspection chamber fabricated from polypropylene by extrusion and welding.

Surface coatings (paints) are widely used in the construction industry to protect timber surfaces and to prevent or reduce the corrosion of metals. Coatings may be applied on site or during manufacture or fabrication. In almost all these applications, polymer materials provide the coating film and bind the functional or decorative pigments which may be present. If the film is unpigmented and more or less transparent, the coating is often described as a varnish. A great variety of polymers are now used in the formulation of paints and coatings. We can base a broad classification of coating types on the mechanism of film formation or drying. In some coatings (such as chlorinated rubber (CR), PVC and bituminous paints) the polymer is dissolved in a volatile solvent, and the applied coating dries simply by solvent evaporation. There have been strong environmental and safety pressures in recent years to reduce the quantities of volatile organic solvents released in painting operations. However, polymers used in coatings are insoluble in water (as they must be for performance reasons), so that water cannot be used directly as a solvent.

A section through a zinc-rich coating for corrosion protection, showing high concentration of zinc metal particles in the binder (reprinted from M. Morcillo, Journal of Materials Science

ADHESIVES AND SEALENTS:

Polymers are the basis of all engineering adhesives. High-performance adhesives are formulated to set and develop strength by chemical reactions and so are thermoset materials. There are therefore similarities between adhesives and the matrix component of composite reinforced

plastics (and indeed also between adhesives and paints). Thus structural glulam laminated timber (or indeed plywood) may be regarded as an adhesive bonded wood composite. Epoxies are especially versatile and can be formulated for application on many substrates. Other structural adhesives are based on polyester, polyurethane, acrylic and cyanoacrylate polymers. For laminated timber and other wood products, such as particle board made under factory conditions, the long-established adhesives based on ureaformaldehyde (UF) (aminoplastic), phenolformaldehyde (PF), or phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde resin systems are widely used. These resins provide excellent adhesion to timber and proven performance (Dunky, 1998). UF has poor water resistance and the phenolic PF and phenolresorcinol- formaldhehyde adhesives are used for exterior or otherwise severe conditions. All in all, polymers have wide range of applications in industrial fields. A table given below briefly summarizes the use of polymers in various industries for variouus purposes.

Industry
Foundries, Asphalt Plants, Cement Plants

Application
Air/water scrubbers, settling ponds

Charge
Medium Anionic, Medium Cationic

Food Processing, Vegetable Canning, Sugar Cane Processing, Fruit Preparation

Flotation and Settling Tanks, Clarification, Wash Water Systems, Biological Treatment Systems.

Non-ionic, Medium and Strong Anionic

Metal Plating or Finishing

Treatment for Heavy Metals Removal, Copper, Zinc, Iron, Nickel, Cadmium, Non-ionic, Medium Anionic Chromium Removal, etc., and Oil Recovery.

Sand & Gravel Plants, Coal Preparation, Limestone Quarries, Iron Ore, etc..

Mineral Washing and Water Recycling Operations, Dewatering

Medium Anionic and Medium Cationic

Primary Metal

Oil Recovery, Influent Clarification, Scrubber Systems, Thickening, Biological Treatment Systems.

Medium Anionic and Medium Cationic

Paper

Biological treatment, Influent Clarification, Dewatering.

Non-ionic, Medium Anionic, Medium and Strong Cationic

Other Industrial Operations, such as Glass Plants, Chemical Plants, Refineries, etc.

Water Recycling, Oil/water Separators, etc.

Medium Anionic, Medium Cationic

Municipal Potable Water Plants

Drinking Water Clarification, Filtration

Medium Anionic, Medium Cationic Medium and Strong Cationic

Thickening, Centrifugation or Flotation

Sludge Dewatering

In short, polymers have lot of use in our daily lives. All we need to do is to think about the ways of utilizing them. We can think about new methods of synthesizing them.

REFERENCES
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer www.chymist.com/Polymers.pdf www.ecmjournal.org/journal/supplements/.../vol005supp01a33.pdf http://biotech.about.com/od/technicaltheory/a/SmartPoly.htm www.engr.wisc.edu/che/newsletter/.../Article03_polymers.html https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=2776 http://www.csiro.au/science/Polymers-For-Biomedical-Applications.html http://cmbi.bjmu.edu.cn/news/report/2001/nano/pdf/8.pdf http://www-pub.iaea.org/mtcd/publications/pdf/te_1324_web.pdf
www.polyic.com/polymer-electronics.php http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6619/is_8_61/ai_n29202242/ www.tycoelectronics.com/.../503-1015_TE_Halogen_Free_White_Paper.pdf http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-6798-14833/unrestricted/fix1.pdf http://www.g-e-m.com/Data/Presentations/Presentation%20for%20polymers%20and%20plastics.pdf http://plc.cwru.edu/tutorial/enhanced/files/polymers/apps/apps.htm http://www.alken-murray.com/polyapp.htm http://www.physchem.co.za/OB12-sys/polymer1.htm

Chemical and biomedical physics, kinetics and thermodynamics: New prospective by Paul E. Stott, G.E. Zaikov and Viktor F. Kablov Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York Biomaterials, principles and applications by Joon B. Park and Joseph D. Bronzino Biomedical Polymers and Polymer Therapeutics by Emo Chiellini, Junzo Sunamoto, Claudio Migliaresi, Raphael M. Ottenbrite and Daniel Cohn Polymer Electronics A Flexible Technology by Frances Gardiner and Eleanor Carter

Polymers in Electronics by Keith Cousins Polymers as Advanced Materials for Desiccant Applications by A. W. Czanderna Industrial Polymers, Specialty Polymers, and Their Applications by Donald E. Hudgin Handbook of Polymers in Electronics by Bansi D. Malhotra Biodegradable polymers for industrial applications by R Smith