Construction Engineering

CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING
OCTAVIAN G. ILINOIU, Ph.D., C.Eng., Lecturer

Department of Civil, Urban and Construction Engineering Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest
First Edition
-Bucharest 2003-
PREFACE
The construction sector is a major part of the construction industry, with projects ranging in size from the small to the very large, all sharing common factors - workers, machinery and materials, and the required organization and control. The graduate civil engineer must be therefore familiar with the range of these common factors, procedures and techniques in common use, and must be able to plan, and direct construction works. This course book will be limited to presentation of basic principles and process techniques in construction execution. It is intended as an aid and a guide to circumvent some problems encountered in design and execution, outlining present techniques and materials related to construction technology for their evaluation and improvement. The content of this book is arranged in 11 chapters that are summarized below. Chapter 1. Industrialization of Construction Works, provides an introduction in the field of Construction Engineering and method of industrialization of construction works. Chapter 2. Formwork, addresses the design and presents basic information and specifies materials, construction, and removal of formwork, mouldwork and shoring. Chapter 3. Steel Reinforcement, provides information and specifies the materials and workmanship required for manufacturing concrete reinforcement. Chapter 4. Concrete, provides an overview of conventional concrete technology form material science and engineering systems perspective specifically its structure and composition, processing, properties, performance, and the quality control of it. Chapter 5. Batching and Mixing Concrete, is devoted to discussing the proper equipment and procedures for batching and mixing concrete by ensuring uniform quality throughout the mix. Chapter 6. Building Material Transport Machinery and Equipment, presents relevant information regarding proper equipment and procedures for handling and transport of building materials. Chapter 7. Handling and Placing Concrete, presents fundamental concepts in regard of handling and placing techniques required for cast in place conventional concrete and the quality control of it. Chapter 8. Compaction, Vibration and Concrete Finishing, provides a background on the benefits of compaction of concrete and the techniques for undertaking the process on site. Chapter 9. Curing Concrete, provides basic information in relation to related concepts of concrete curing. A review is presented of various curing requirements and techniques for undertaking the process on site and in precast concrete production plants. Chapter 10. Off-site Prefabrication, provides information concerning precast concrete, advantages and limitations, application, techniques and manufacture requirements for different types of elements. Chapter 11. Erection of Precast Concrete Elements, presents theoretical back ground regarding erection of precast concrete units. The primary object of this first volume, and those which follow, is to provide a reference guide to Construction Engineering within the framework of the Civil Engineering Department English Section of the Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest. G. Ilinoiu, 2003
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
These notes are originally based on the ideas of Drs. Radu Popa and Mihai Teodorescu. However, views and comments are the writer's own. The author has presented some positions as starting points for drafting a course book rather than as the only positions that can be adopted. The author gratefully acknowledges the support of a number of organizations, institutions, trade associations and manufacturers and who have given advice, and literature: American Concrete Institute - ACI, USA American Society of Civil Engineers - ASCE, USA American Society for Testing and Materials - ASTM, USA American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials AASHTO, USA ATEX C.V.B.A., Belgium Bell Engineering Group, England BHS Sonthofen, Germany Building Science Insight - BSI, Canada Canadian Building Digest - CBD, Canada Civil Engineering Corps Washington CECW, USA Cement and Concrete Association Australia Center for Innovative Grouting Materials and Technology - CIGMAT, USA EFCO, USA Elba Werk, Germany Heidelberg Cement AG, Germany International Council for Building Research and Documentation - CIB, Canada Institute for Research in Construction - IRC, Canada International Committee on Asian Concrete Model Code National Research Council - NRCC, Canada National Institute of Standards and Technology - NIST, USA Officine Riunite Udine SpA ORU, Italy OSCAM S.p.A, Italia PERI, Germany International Union of Testing and Research Laboratories for Materials and Structures RILEM SC SOMACO SA, Romania SBH Tiefbautechnik, Germany The Engineering Wood Association - APA, USA Thwaites Ltd., England Tremix, Sweden MACON SA, Romania
MAN Nutzfahrzeuge Aktieengesellschaft, Germany Morgan Manufacturing Co., USA Winget, UK
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 Typical dimensioned lumber panel.10 Figure 2-2 Typical plywood sheathing panel ...10 Figure 2-3 Steel panel.......................................11 Figure 2-4 Pan forms ........................................12 Figure 2-5 Plywood panels...............................13 Figure 2-6 Climbing formwork ........................13 Figure 2-7 Sliding formwork............................14 Figure 2-8 Formwork table...............................16 Figure 2-9 Form table assembly .......................16 Figure 2-10 Permanent formwork ....................17 Figure 2-11 Below grade footing forms ...........17 Figure 2-12 Shallow footing............................17 Figure 2-13 Wall formwork..............................18 Figure 2-14 Typical gang panel........................19 Figure 2-15 Typical slab-on-grade edge formwork ..........................................................19 Figure 2-16 Girder form details........................20 Figure 2-17 Spandrel beam form details ..........20 Figure 2-18 Typical example of column formed with plywood panels stiffened with triangular yokes....................................................21 Figure 2-19 Typical steel column formwork....22 Figure 2-20 Typical telescopic joists................24 Figure 2-21 Typical adjustable steel shores .....24 Figure 2-22 Form accessories...........................25 Figure 2-23 Concrete pilot mould ....................26 Figure 2-24 Static metal moulds.......................26 Figure 2-25 Stack wooden mould.....................26 Figure 3-1 Characteristic stress- strain curves () for steel .................................................28 Figure 3-2 Standard types of reinforcing bars PC 52 and PC 60.............................................30 Figure 3-3 Dimensions of wire mesh ...............31 Figure 3-4 Typical profile of SBPA .................31 Figure 3-5 Typical reinforcement spacing section ..................................................................32 Figure 3-6 Chairs and spacers ..........................32 Figure 3-7 Pliers for straightening bars attached to winch. ...................................................33 Figure 3-8 Straightening of steel bars delivered in coils with an electrical chain winch......33 Figure 3-9 Typical strengthening and cutting machine.....................................................34 Figure 3-10 a. b. Rotating drum with screw die arrangement ..............................................34 Figure 3-11 Rolling-mill arrangements ............34 Figure 3-12 Standard hook and stirrup details for reinforcement............................................35 Figure 3-13 a. Bending of bars with two keys; b. Bending of bars with three pins and a key; c. Typical-bending plates..........................35 Figure 3-14 Hook bending machine .................36 Figure 3-15 Typical stirrup bending machine ..36 Figure 3-16 Fixed arm and variable arm meshbending machines .................................... 37 Figure 3-17 Hoop and spiral bending machine 37 Figure 3-18 Typical spiral reinforcement ........ 37 Figure 3-19 Manual shears .............................. 38 Figure 3-20 Electronic measurement model.... 38 Figure 3-21 Typical mesh cutting machine ..... 38 Figure 3-22 Typical arc-welding outfit............ 39 Figure 3-23 Typical automatic/tack welding machine......................................................... 40 Figure 3-23 Splicing of steel reinforcing......... 41 Figure 3-24 Sleeve splice connection .............. 42 Figure 3-25 Typical alternate tying procedure of individual reinforcing bars to produce a mesh ......................................................... 43 Figure 3-26 Detail of column and slab reinforcement intersection.............................. 43 Figure 3-27 Column cages being assembled on site............................................................ 44 Figure 3-28 Typical procedure of wiring main beam reinforcement to stirrups and ties ... 45 Figure 3-29 Typical wiring procedures ........... 46 Figure 3-30 Detail of slab reinforcement......... 46 Figure 3-31 Typical storage of wire in spools . 47 Figure 3-32 Typical storage off the ground of reinforcement ........................................... 47 Figure 3-33 Typical wire coil storage.............. 47 Figure 3-34 Typical arrangement of reinforcement manufacturing shop......................... 48 Figure 4-2 Fresh concrete sliding on chute...... 50 Figure 4-3 Measurement of slump from height of slump cone ............................................... 51 Figure 4-4 Entrained air voids in concrete....... 53 Figure 4-5 Types of concrete shrinkage .......... 54 Figure 4-6 Effects and phases of plastic shrinkage............................................................ 54 Figure 4-7 a. A sectioned clinker nodule, b. Unhydrated ordinary Portland cement particles, field width of 320 microns............... 56 Figure 4-8 Speed of cement components heat hydration .................................................. 58 Figure 4-9 Mechanism of cement setting. Figure shows long needle-like crystals and short crystallike formations of calcium-silicatehydrate gel................................................ 59 Figure 4-10 Schematic view of cement setting 59 Figure 4-11 Compressive strength gain of mineral cement components........................... 59 Figure 4-12 Significance of aggregates grading ................................................................. 61 Figure 4-13 Angularity and surface texture..... 62 Figure 4-14 Moisture conditions of aggregate. 62
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Figure 4-15 Main moisture conditions of aggregate ...........................................................62 Figure 5-1 Twin shaft batch mixer ...................66 Figure 5-2 Single shaft drum mixer..................67 Figure 5-3 Tilting drum mixer..........................68 Figure 5-4 Reversing drum mixer ....................68 Figure 5-5 Forward flow mixer ........................69 Figure 5-6 Backward flow mixer .....................69 Figure 5-7 Vibrating mixer...............................69 Figure 5-8 General layout of concrete plant.....70 Figure 5-9 Mixing tower - Batching plant........71 Figure 5-10 Linear batching center ..................72 Figure 5-11 Cement silo ...................................73 Figure 6-1 Wheelbarrow...................................74 Figure 6-2 Push chart........................................74 Figure 6-3 Forklift truck...................................75 Figure 6-4 Typical types of dump trucks..........75 Figure 6-5 Chute and hopper............................75 Figure 6-6 Typical concrete buckets ................76 Figure 6-7 Belt conveyor..................................77 Figure 6-8 Transit mix truck.............................78 Figure 6-9 Rail cars ..........................................78 Figure 6-10 Truck mounted concrete pump ....79 Figure 6-11. Boom extensions of pump ...........79 Figure 6-12 Typical tower pump detail ............79 Figure 6-13 Pumps for concrete transport ........80 Figure 6-14 Pneumatic pipeline........................80 Figure 7-1 a. Placing techniques for flatwork. .83 Figure 7-1 b. Concrete placing techniques for columns and walls ....................................84 Figure 7-2 Compacting columns ......................85 Figure 7-3 Slab concreting ...............................85 Figure 7-4 Typical types of concreting joints for arches/vaults .............................................86 Figure 7-5 Typical types of construction joints 87 Figure 7-6 Construction joint formed...............88 Figure 8-1 Typical detail of concrete showing sand in a cement paste matrix...................89 Figure 8-3 Sinusoidal motion ...........................91 Figure 8-4 Types of vibration...........................91 Figure 8-5 Typical aspects of concrete compaction during vibration .................................92 Figure 8-6 Hand tapping tools..........................92 Figure 8-7 Typical internal vibrator. ................94 Figure 8-8 a. Internal / poker vibrator. Example of working procedures with vibrator ........94 Figure 8-9 b. Use of poker vibrator ..................95 Figure 8-10 a, b Typical surface vibrator.........96 Figure 8-10 c. Degree of compaction varies across width when surface vibrators are used...........................................................96 Figure 8-11 Typical positioning of clamp vibrators in formwork .......................................96 Figure 8-12 External vibrators..........................97 Figure 8-13 Vibropress.....................................97 Figure 8-14 Compacting by rolling ................. 97 Figure 8-15 Standard set of vacuum dewatering installation................................................ 98 Figure 8-16 Compacting by centrifugal force.. 99 Figure 8-17 Trowels (floats) for surface finishing ............................................................... 100 Figure 8-18 Power float ................................. 100 Figure 8-19 Methods of concrete surface finish ............................................................... 100 Figure 9-1 Effect of duration of water curing on the permeability of cement paste ........... 103 Figure 9-2 Variation of concrete strength with curing environment (W/C =0,5)............. 104 Figure 9-3 Spraying on a curing compound .. 105 Figure 9-4 Temporary shelter ........................ 108 Figure 9-5 Typical heating enclosure ............ 108 Figure 9-6 Framed enclosure ......................... 108 Figure 9-7. a. Procedures for casting a structural concrete wall in enclosure;..................... 108 b. Air supported structure ............................... 108 Figure 9-9 Typical protection of fresh cast concrete with heating forms ........................ 109 Figure 9-8 Heating form ................................ 109 Figure 9-10 Typical solution of concrete protection using insulating blankets................. 109 Figure 9-11 a. Heating aggregates before introduction in mix; b. heat source underneath the aggregate pile. .................................. 110 Figure 9-12 Typical curing racks in steamchamber; Precast concrete curing acceleration cycle................................................ 112 Figure 10-1 Reinforced concrete centrifuged pipe ........................................................ 116 Figure 10-2 Layout of Stand setting .............. 118 Figure 10-3 Typical Multiple Beam Tensioning Stand cross section setting for prestressedconcrete units ......................................... 118 Figure 10-4 Layout of Conveyor setting ....... 118 Figure 11-1 Typical trailers ........................... 121 Figure 11-2 Typical job-site casting yards .... 122 Figure 11-3 Typical stack storage of precast stairs units .............................................. 122 Figure 11- 4 Typical lifting devices for precast concrete members .................................. 125 Figure 11-5 Crane clearances ........................ 125 Figure 11-6 Typical tower crane.................... 126 Figure 11-7 Track-mounted crane ................. 127 Figure 11-8 Lorry mounted crane.................. 127 Figure 11-9 Self propelled crane ................... 128 Figure 11-10 Typical gantry crane ................ 128 Figure 11-11 Transfer of prefabricated facade to the working level ................................... 131 Figure 11-12 The precast facade is secured with temporary bracing .................................. 131
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ........................................................ I ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..............................II TABLE OF FIGURES ................................. III TABLE OF CONTENTS...............................V CHAPTER 1. INDUSTRIALIZATION OF CONSTRUCTION WORKS ..........................7 1.1. General Considerations ..............................7 1.2. Construction Industrialization ....................7 1.3. Basic Principles of Industrialization...........7 CHAPTER 2. FORMWORK .........................9 2.1. General Considerations ..............................9 2.2. Form Materials .........................................10 2.2.1. Wood .................................................10 2.2.2. Steel...................................................11 2.2.3. Plastic and Aluminum .......................12 2.3. Classification of Formwork......................12 2.3.1. Classification by Structure and Use ..12 2.3.1.1. Dismountable Formwork ...........12 2.3.1.3. Non dismountable Formwork ....14 2.3.1.4. Patent Formwork........................16 2.3.1.5. Permanent Formwork.................17 2.3.2. Classification by Final Destination ...17 2.3.2.1. Footing Forms ............................17 2.3.2.2. Wall Forms.................................18 2.3.2.3. Floor Forms................................19 2.3.2.4. Column Forms............................21 2.4. Form Liners ..............................................22 2.5. Release Agents .........................................22 2.6. Formwork Removal..................................23 2.7. Shoring Members .....................................23 2.8. Form Accessories .....................................24 2.9. Moulds......................................................25 2.9.1. Classification of Moulds ...................25 2.9.2. Basic Components and Main Types of Moulds.........................................................25 CHAPTER 3. CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT .....................................26 3.1. General Considerations ............................27 3.2. Classification of Reinforcement ...............27 3.3. Material Properties ...................................27 3.4. Standard Bar Diameters and Types of Reinforcement.........................................................28 3.4.1. Plain and Deformed Steel Bars .........30 3.4.2. Welded Wire Mesh Reinforcing .......30 3.4.3. Wires .................................................31 3.5. Reinforcement Concrete Cover ................31 3.6. Fabrication of Steel Bars, Stirrups and Wire Meshes.............................................................32 3.6.1. Straightening of Steel Bars............... 32 3.6.2. Combined Straightening and Cutting Machines .................................................... 33 3.6.3. Reinforcement Bending.................... 35 3.6.3.1. Manual Bending ........................ 35 3.6.3.2. Automatic Bending Machines ... 36 3.6.4. Cutting Devices (Shears).................. 37 3.6.4.1. Mesh Cutting Machines............. 38 3.7. Welding ................................................... 39 3.8. Splicing of Reinforcing Steel .................. 41 3.9. Reinforcement Assembly Workmanship. 42 3.9.1. Assembly of Column Reinforcement 43 3.9.2. Assembly of Wall Reinforcement .... 44 3.9.2.1. Wall Reinforcement Assembled with Individual Bars ............................... 44 3.9.2.2. Wall Reinforcement Assembled with Cages .............................................. 44 3.9.2. Assembly of Beam Reinforcement with Individual Bars ........................................... 45 3.9.3. Assembly of Slab Reinforcement..... 46 3.9.3.1. Slab Reinforcement Assembled with Individual Bars ............................... 46 3.10. Transport and Storage of Reinforcement47 3.11. Reinforcement Manufacturing Shop ..... 47 3.12. Quality Assurance of Reinforcement .... 48 CHAPTER 4. CONCRETE ......................... 49 4.1. General Considerations ........................... 49 4.1.1. Classification and Types of Concrete49 4.2. Properties of Concrete ............................. 50 4.2.1. Properties of Fresh Concrete ............ 50 4.2.2. Properties of Hardened Concrete...... 52 4.2.3. Durability.......................................... 55 4.3. Concrete Materials................................... 55 4.3.1. Cements ............................................ 55 4.3.1.1. Manufacturing Process .............. 55 4.3.1.2. Chemical Composition .............. 56 4.3.1.3. Standard Types of Portland Cement........................................................ 57 4.3.1.4. Physical Properties of Portland Cements.................................................. 58 4.3.1.5. Influence of Portland Cement on Concrete Properties ................................ 59 4.3.2. Aggregates........................................ 60 4.3.2.1. Characteristics of Aggregates.... 61 4.3.3. Additions .......................................... 62 4.3.4. Water ................................................ 64 4.4. Theory of Mixes ...................................... 64 CHAPTER 5. BATCHING AND MIXING CONCRETE ................................................. 65 5.1. General Considerations ........................... 65 5.2. Batching Concrete ................................... 65
5.3. Mixing Concrete.......................................65 5.3.1. Hand Mixing .....................................65 5.3.2. Machine Mixing ................................66 5.3.2.1. Drum Type Concrete Mixers .....67 5.3.2.2. Forced Action Mixers ................68 5.3.2.3. Vibrating Mixers ........................69 5.3.2.4. Turbulent Mixers........................69 5.4. Mixing Times ...........................................70 5.5. Batching and Mixing Plants .....................70 5.5.1. Mixing Tower....................................71 5.5.2. Linear Mixing Center ........................71 5.6. Delivery, Storage and Handling of Aggregate, Water and Cement ..................................73 CHAPTER 6. BUILDING MATERIAL TRANSPORT MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT ................................................74 6.1. General Considerations ............................74 6.2. Categories of Transport ............................74 CHAPTER 7. HANDLING AND PLACING CONCRETE ..................................................81 7.1. Preparation before Placing Concrete ........81 7.2. Basic Principles for Concrete Placement .82 7.3. Concreting Different Types of Members .84 7.3.1. Wall and Column Concreting............84 7.3.2. Slab and Beam Concreting ................85 7.3.3. Arch, Vault and Shell Concreting .....86 7.3. Concrete Joints .........................................86 CHAPTER 8. COMPACTION, VIBRATION AND CONCRETE FINISHING....................................................89 8.1. General Considerations ............................89 8.2. Vibration...................................................90 8.2.1. Basic Characteristics .........................91 8.3. Compaction of Concrete...........................92 8.3.1. Manual Compaction ..........................92 8.3.2. Mechanical Compaction....................93 8.3.2.1. Vibration ....................................93 8.3.2.2. Applying Pressure ......................97 8.3.2.3. Rolling........................................97 8.3.2.4. Vacuum Dewatering...................98 8.3.2.5. Centrifugal Force .......................98 8.4. Under-Vibration and Over-Vibration .......99 8.5. Revibration ...............................................99 8.6. Concrete Surface Finishing ....................100 CHAPTER 9. CURING CONCRETE.......102 9.1. General Considerations ..........................102 9.2. Basic Curing Requirements....................102 9.3. Duration of Curing .................................102 9.4. Curing Under Temperature Ranging from 5 o C to 30 oC.....................................................103 9.4.1. Methods of Concrete Curing ...........103 9.5. Curing Concrete in Extreme Weather Conditions ........................................................... 105 9.5.1. General Considerations .................. 105 9.5.2. Placement of Concrete in Extreme Temperatures ............................................ 106 9.5.3. Hot Weather Concreting................. 106 9.5.4. Cold Weather Concreting ............... 106 9.6. Accelerated Concrete Curing................. 110 9.6.1. General Considerations .................. 110 9.6.2. Effects of Accelerated Curing on Cement and Concrete Structure .................... 110 9.6.3. Classification of Concrete Accelerated Curing Procedures .................................... 111 CHAPTER 10. OFF-SITE PREFABRICATION.................................. 114 10.1. General Considerations ....................... 114 10.2. Industrialization of Factory-manufactured Systems......................................................... 114 10.4. Off-site Precast Manufacturing Technologies................................................................ 115 10.4.1. Code Marking............................... 115 10.5. Concrete Products Precasting Methods 116 10.5.1. Concrete Pipe ............................... 116 10.5.2. Manufacturing Procedures............ 117 10.6. Quality Assurance, Product Certification ...................................................................... 119 CHAPTER 11. ERECTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS ........................ 120 11.1. General Considerations ....................... 120 11.2. Job Planning ........................................ 120 11.2.1. Preliminary Execution Works ...... 121 11.2.1.1. Manufacturing, Transport and Storage of Precast Units ....................... 121 11.2.1.2. Inspection of Units After Transport and Storage ................................... 123 11.2.1.3. Unit Preparation .................... 123 11.2.1.4. Selection of Lifting Devices and Equipment ............................................ 123 11.2.1.5. Scheduling............................. 128 11.2.1.6. Health, Safety and Welfare Regulations ................................................... 129 11.3. Erection of Precast Units .................... 130 11.3.1. Sequence, Schemes and Procedures for Unit Erection....................................... 130 11.3.3. Unit Erection Detailing Sequences131 11.3.3. Connections .................................. 132 11.4. Inspection of Erection and Correction of Dimensional Tolerances ............................... 132 REFERENCES ........................................... 134 ENDNOTE .................................................. 135
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CHAPTER 1. INDUSTRIALIZATION OF CONSTRUCTION WORKS
1.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

The history of technology, in the field of construction, represents man's efforts to control his material environment for his own benefit. Man has been able to do this using tools and applying reason to the properties of matter and energy. For many thousands of years, his progress in technology was made by trial and error, which made possible impressive results. It was only toward the end of the 18th century, once with the Industrial Revolution, that technology started to transform itself form craft skills. to applied science. (Encpl. Britannica)
1.2. CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRIALIZATION

Definition of industrialization: The application of scientific principles to the optimal conversion of natural resources into structures, machines, products, systems, and processes (DEX 1998). Industrialization is concerned with both on-site and off-site methods of construction organized in a systematic way in such that erection can proceed as a continuous operation. This is achieved by careful planning of activities carried out and by setting up a production line to provide an organized flow of components. Much traditional building procedure remains site-bound and labor-intensive. Tradition is still used in the field of wet construction. However, by incorporating factory produced units and components into traditional in situ concrete construction, and by employing mechanical plant and equipment, erection time has been shortened considerably, particularly on work of a repetitive nature. Sometimes the contractor uses part of the site as a workshop or temporary factory for the production of woodwork or pre-cast components. Whether traditional or industrialized, on-site organization of materials, components, and labor is vital in construction procedure; pre-planning of each stage is essential, and adequate time should be allowed for working out details before operations can commence. Preplanning of activities should cover - site layout, work sequence, design, manufacture, and fixing of standardized components, mechanical plant.
1.3. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

The efficiency of industrialized production results from the careful, systematic application of the ideas and concepts outlined above. The following summary lists the basic principles of mass production: - Prefabrication of building components. Many prefabrication technologies deliver a better product because building is done in a quality controlled sheltered environment. Just as importantly, prefabrication can dramatically improve productivity. The method controls construction costs by economizing on time, labor, wages, and materials. - Developing new construction methods like industrial type production to constantly improve efficiency in the scope of improving labor productivity (minimizes the amount of human effort required). 7
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Careful division of the production operations into specialized tasks comprising of relative simple, highly repetitive human motion patterns and minimal handling or positioning of the workpiece that can be easily learned and rapidly performed with a minimum of unnecessary motion or mental readjustment. Developing new and improved construction materials in factory type prefabrication up to the total elimination of the time consuming operations (reinforcement bending, tying wires, welding etc.) within the construction site. These operations must improve construction quality. Simplification and standardization of component parts through: 1. dimensional co-ordination agreement made between the manufacturers of building units and the designers in order to simplify assembly by standardizing sizes;
2. modular design a technique that uses a standard size module (1M = 100 mm) as the fundamental unit for space planning. Larger spaces comprise multiple modules (n x M), while smaller spaces sub modules (M/n). to allow large production runs of parts that are without difficulty fitted to other parts without adjustment. The imposition of other standards (e.g. dimensional tolerances, parts location, material types) on all parts of the product further increases the economic benefit that can be achieved. Carefully designed, construction engineering and management, projects are required to achieve the maximum benefits that application of these principles can provide. Planning begins with the original design of the product; raw materials and component parts shall be adaptable to production and handling by mass techniques. The entire production process is planned in detail, including the flows of materials and information throughout the process. For the industrialization of construction to be efficient, the production flow of components/materials shall be: - Carefully estimated because the selection of techniques depends upon the volume to be produced and anticipated short-term changes in demand. - Large enough, first, to permit the task to be divided into sub-processes assigned to different individuals; second, to justify the substantial capital investment often required for specialized machines and processes; and third, to permit large production runs so that human effort and capital are efficiently employed. - Planed in detail because the large, continuous flow of product from the factory requires distribution and marketing operations to bring the product to the client. Advantages of industrialization in construction: In addition to lowering cost, the application of the principles of industrialization has led to major improvements in uniformity and quality. The large volume, standardized design, and standardized materials and processes facilitate statistical control and inspection techniques to monitor production and control quality. Limitations of industrialization in construction - the resulting system is inherently inflexible, because maximum efficiency is desired; tools, machines, and work positions are often quite precisely adapted to details of the parts produced but not necessarily to the workers involved in the process. Changes in product design may converge toward high costs. Usually, a production line is designed to operate most efficiently at a specified rate. If the required production levels fall below that rate, operators and machines are being inefficiently used; and if the rate goes too high, operators must work overtime, machine maintenance cannot keep up, breakdowns occur, and the costs of production rise. Proper planning can eliminate the problems encountered; flexibility to accommodate changes economically must be planned into the system.
CHAPTER 2. FORMWORK

If concrete is to be poured, in place-monolithically, on the job site some means of support, known as formwork, is necessary to shape, to position it precisely (level and location) and to retain it until it sets. In other words, formwork is a temporary mould into which fresh concrete and reinforcement are placed to form a particular reinforced concrete element with a predetermined strength. A typical breakdown of total construction percentage costs, to produce the required structural element, could be as follows: concrete (materials 28%; labor 12%) = 40%; reinforcement (materials 18%; labor 7%) = 25% and formwork (materials 15%; labor 20%) = 35%. To ensure that the formwork is economical and practical to build, the designer puts forward the following basic technical, economical and functional requirements that should be kept in mind when designing and constructing formwork. a. The economic requirements of formwork are: - Manufacture of forms must lead to low cost of materials, energy, and labor. - Formwork should be as repetitive and as adaptable as possible. They must be able to withstand a good number of reuses without losing their shape. - Designed so that the whole formwork can be assembled and dismantled with unskilled or semi-skilled labor. - Formwork care and maintenance should be done according to specifications. b. The technical requirements of formwork are: - Forms should assure the attainment of the desired shape, size and location of the member in the structure according to the drawings. - Careful selection of finish surface and linings to produce the desired concrete surface result direct from the formwork. - Forms must be strong enough to withstand the pressure of fresh concrete and working loads; and to maintain their shape during the concrete placing operation. - Formwork must be capable of supporting the designed loads any other applied loads during the construction period. - The design must be made so that the forms may be removed without damage to the concrete or to themselves. - Panels should be tightly connected so to minimize gap at the formwork connection to prevent leakage of cement paste. c. The functional requirements of formwork are: - Form sections must be of a size that can be lifted into place without too much difficulty and transported from one job site to another, if necessary. - Formwork must be dismantled and moved as easily as possible so that construction of the building advances. - Units should be interchangeable so that they can be used for forming different members. - Forms must be made to fit and fasten together with reasonable ease. - Forms must be as simple to build, as circumstances will allow.
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Forms must be as light (without any strength reduction) as possible so that one or two workers can handle them. The weight of the panels should not exceed 30-40 kg for those lifted by one worker and 60-70 kg for those lifted by two workers. - Forms must be made so that workers can handle them in regard of safety, respecting the Health, Safety, and Hygiene Regulation in effect. A balance of the above requirements should be achieved, preferably at pretender stage, so that an economic and competitive cost can be calculated.
2.2. FORM MATERIALS

Materials of formwork shall be selected and the formwork system shall be designed and constructed so that the concrete structure has the satisfactory performance required as per design and the safety of workers are guaranteed. Desirable materials for making formwork (e.g. wood, plastic, aluminum, steel, insulating materials) shall have the following properties: sufficient strength, required stiffness, durability, lightweight, reusable, and/or recyclable and volume stability during application.
2.2.1. WOOD
Figure 2-1 Typical dimensioned lumber panel Caption: 1. Longitudinal frame (stud); 2. Transverse frame; 3. Lumber planks. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984. Figure 2-2 Typical plywood sheathing panel Caption: 1. Plywood sheathing; 2. Longitudinal frame (stud); 3. Braces; 4. Edge framing; 5. Holes in edge framing for tie insertion; 6. Noggins. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Wood in the variety of dimensioned lumber or plywood sheathing is a widely used material for formwork panels because of its good strength, lightweight, workability, relative low cost, better flexibility, easier to repair and reusability. Dimensioned lumber (Figure 2-1) used in formwork is usually of the softwood variety (spruce, pine, fir etc.) because of its availability and good strength. Although dimensioned lumber has been used as sheathing material in the past, plywood sheets have replaced it in this application, while dimensioned lumber is now used primarily for framing, bracing, and shoring. Plywood (Figure 2-2) is a sheathing product made of several wood veneers with their grain lying (normal to one another) at right angles and firmly glued together under pressure, producing a panel that has uniform properties in both directions. Plywood produces smooth concrete surfaces and can be used repeatedly, having excellent strength properties, minimizing deflection during concrete pour.
2.2.2. STEEL
Steel angles and bars are used as supporting members for form panels faced with plywood or steel sheathing. Steel forms have the following advantages: very good durability and easy to clean, low cost of erection/ stripping, no distortion with moisture changes, non-inflammability, and limitations: heavy, more difficult to assemble and repair.
Figure 2-3 Steel panel Caption: 1. Frame; 2. Braces; 3. Welded steel sheathing; 4. Pipe; 5. Connecting pipe piece; 6. Socket. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
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Figure 2-4 Pan forms Source: ATEX, 1999.
Pan forms (referred to also as Waffle Moulds) are used in oneor two-way ribbed slabs. Advantages of using pan forms: low cost, speed of erection and striping, simplicity.
2.2.3. PLASTIC AND ALUMINUM

Plastic reinforced fiberglass is a desired material for sheathing do to its reusability, mouldability, lightweight, strength, and toughness. Aluminum expensive compared with the other materials is used as supporting, I and U-shaped, members for form panels. Its advantages are its lightweight and strength. Aluminum sections are used also as beams for supporting slab formwork or as wales on wall formwork.
2.3. CLASSIFICATION OF FORMWORK

The basic components of a formwork are: form panel (comprised of panel sheathing and panel frame), shoring members and form accessories. Forms can be classified in accordance with a number of criteria, such as by: structure and use/reuse of formwork, final destination, materials used, quality of panel sheathing.
2.3.1. CLASSIFICATION BY STRUCTURE AND USE

2.3.1.1. DISMOUNTABLE FORMWORK Prefabricated forms (referred to also as Traditional Wall Formwork) consists of standard size framed panels tied together over their backs with horizontal members called wales that provide resistance to the horizontal pressure of fresh concrete. There main advantage is that they are can be reused many times at a convenient cost. A standard procedure for site formwork assembly is as follows: - Forms shall conform to the shape and dimensions shown on the drawings and shall be accurately set to line and grade. All sheathing in contact with concrete surfaces shall be sized to uniform thickness and free from wane, warp, splits, loose knots or other defects which will prevent obtaining a smooth, tight form. - Forms shall be erected one side of the wall formwork, ensuring its correct alignment, plumbing, and/or strutting. - Forms shall be tightened by means of slotted wedge that passes through the lower end of the slot. Joints in the lining shall be filled with patching plaster or other plastic filler. Lining material may be re-used if it is in satisfactory condition, well cleaned and re-oiled - Insertion and positioning of steel reinforcement cage before the formwork for the other side is erected and fixed. 12
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Correct spacing of forms at specified distance from one another by using plastic spacer tubes in which ties are inserted. Positioning of horizontal members (wales) to increase the overall rigidity of the formwork panels and to align them. Insertion of ties between wales, covering them at the outside with plate washers to ensure that the loads are evenly distributed over the wales. Forms for walls, etc., shall have large cleanout openings at their lowest points, which shall not be closed until just before placing concrete. All forms shall be thoroughly cleaned and soaked with water immediately before filling.
Figure 2-5 Plywood panels Caption: 1. Plywood panel; 2. Base plate; 3. Wale; 4. Plate washer; 5. Nut; 6. Tie rod, 7. Pipe spacer; 8. Plastic cone; 9. Shoe; 10. Clamp; 11. Wedge; 12. Concrete kicker. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
Climbing Formwork is a method of casting a concrete wall in known vertical lift heights (approx. 1m) using the same forms in a repetitive fashion to obtain maximum usage from a minimum number of panels. A standard procedure, for site operations, is as follows: - Positioning of the first concrete lift against a 300 mm high kicker. - Casting the concrete and allowing it to harden after which the forms are removed. - Resumption of the same operations (casting and curing) for the next 1 m lift until the required height has been reached.
Figure 2-6 Climbing formwork Caption: 1. Pair of steel studs; 2. Working platform; 3. Adjustable brace; 4. Tie; 5. Loop tie; 6. Plumbing member (strut); 7. Plywood panel; 8. Clamp. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING 2.3.1.3. NON DISMOUNTABLE FORMWORK a. Sliding formwork (referred to also as Slip Formwork) represents a formwork system that slides continuously up the face of the concrete wall that is being cast. The climbing operation is possible do to a series of hydraulic jacks that operate on jacking rods. The formwork system presents the following advantages: they cast the structure monolithically and jointless, very good durability and easy to clean, no distortion with moisture changes, and limitations: heavy, more difficult to assemble and repair, the wall should have a uniform thickness (with a minimum number of openings), and a height of at least 20 m to make the cost of equipment, labor and planning economical. Because of these factors, this method is suitable for constructing water towers, chimneys, bins, silos, and multi-story buildings that have repetitive floors.
Figure 2-7 Sliding formwork Caption: 1. Form panel with steel face; 2. Steel framed yoke; 3. Hydraulic jack; 4. Jacking rods; 5. Upper interior platform; 6. Upper exterior platform; 7. Lower interior platform; 8. Lower exterior platform; 9. Buck; 10. Window opening; 11. Control equipment for horizontality inspection; 12. Control equipment for vertical plumbing inspection; 13. Electrical installation; 14. Water installation. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
The sliding formwork is comprised of the following basic parts: 1. Side panels forms, made of timber or steel, usually 1,20 m in height, with an overall sliding clearance of 6 mm by keeping the external panel plumb and the internal panel tapered so that it is 3 mm in at the top and 3 mm out at the bottom, giving the true wall thickness, in the center position of the form. 2. Horizontal wales stiffen the side forms along to resist the lateral pressure of concrete and transfer the loads of working platforms to the supporting yokes. 3. Yokes assist in supporting the suspended working platforms and transfers the platform and side form loads to the jacking rods. 4. Working platforms are usually provided to ease the work of the concrete team, for storage of materials, for finishing operations and to carry jacking and control equipment. 5. Hydraulic jacks are anchored at the base of the structure and embedded in the concrete below the forms. The jacks may be hydraulic, electric, or pneumatic.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING The jacks used are usually specified by their load bearing capacities and consist of two clamps operated by a piston. The clamps operate on a jacking rod of 25 to 50 mm diameter. The upper clamp grips the jacking rod and the lower clamp, being free, rises, pulling the yoke and platforms with it until the jack extension has been closed. The lower clamp now grips the climbing rod while the upper clamp is released and raised to a higher position when the lifting cycle is recommenced. If the jack rod is to be reused, it is withdrawn from the wall after the forming is complete. This is made possible by sheathing the rod with a thin pipe, which is attached at its top end to the jack base and moves up with the forms. The sheath prevents concrete from bonding to the jack rod and leaves it standing free within the hardened concrete. In some cases, the rod is left unsheathed and remains as part of the reinforcing. The 2,5 to 4,0 m lengths of rod are usually joined together with a screw joint arranged so that no joints occur at the same level. A standard procedure regarding site operations is as follows: - Formation of a concrete, 300 mm high, kicker incorporating the wall and jacking rod starter bars. - Anchorage of vertical reinforcing rods at the base of the structure that extends upward between the inner and outer form. As the form rises and reaches the top of the first set of rods, new lengths are added as concreting continues. - Assembly of wall forms fixed together with yokes, upper working platforms, and jacking device. - Placement of first concrete lift. The commencing rate of climb must be slow (150450 mm/hr.) to allow time for the first batch of concrete to reach a suitable maturity before emerging from beneath the sliding formwork. - When openings are required to be produced in the wall bucks are inserted in the section of the wall. - If a concrete projection from the wall is required, it must be added after the forming is complete. A pocket is formed in the wall with dowels bent in so as not to interfere with the operation of the forms. After the forming is complete, the dowels can be bent out, the forms for the projection built around them, and the structure cast. The success of a slip-forming operation depends on good planning, design, and supervision so that the operation may in fact, be as continuous as possible. Some of the major factors contributing to successful slip form construction are: - Round-the-clock working which will involve shift working and artificial lightning to enable work to proceed outside normal daylight hours. - Careful control of concrete supply to ensure that stoppages of the lifting operation are not encountered. This may mean having standby plant as an insurance against mechanical breakdowns. - Suitably trained staff accustomed to this method of constructing in-situ concrete walls. - The proper concrete mix design and careful control of the concrete to maintain the proper slump and set, in spite of changing temperatures. - Adequate facilities for supplying concrete to the forms at any height and an adequate concrete supply. - A supply of reinforcing steel at hand and experienced workers to do the fabricating as work progresses. - Reliable forms, designed to stand the stresses placed on them by the constant heat of liquid concrete. b. Table formwork is used when casting large repetitive floor slabs in high-rise structures. There main objective is to reduce the time factor in erecting, striking and re-erecting slab
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING formwork by creating a system of formwork which can be struck as an entire unit, removed, hoisted and repositioned without any dismantling.
Figure 2-9 Form table assembly Figure 2-8 Formwork table Caption: 1. Steel adjustable props; 2. Horizontal struts; 3. Inclined Source: EFCO 2001. bracing; 4. Stringer; 5. Deck joists; 6. Plywood decking; 7. Wheel; 8. Handling loops; 9. Base plate. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
The procedure for assembling a form table is as follows (Figure 2-9): Positioning the stringer on the ground as required by the shop drawings. Bolting the deck joists to the stringer with bolts. Laying the plywood on the joists and nailing them tighter by driving them directly into the lightweight steel. Positioning the adjustable steel props as support members (suitably braced) to carry the framed formwork decking (a framed wheeled arrangement can be fixed to the rear end of the table form so that the whole unit can be moved forward with ease). Maneuvering the form into position by attaching the handling loops to the crane hook. Balancing in horizontal position and lowering on to the recently cast slab for repositioning. Adjustment for aligning and leveling of form. Casting the new concrete slab and after hardening removal of formwork. Final extraction of forms by maneuvering them clear of the structure to a point where they can be attached to the crane that lifts and repositions them to there new location. Provisions regarding existence of a working platform at the external edge of the slab that means elimination of independent scaffolds. 2.3.1.4. PATENT FORMWORK
Patent formwork (referred to also as System formwork) is usually identified by the manufacturer's name. It has the same common aim and similarity as traditional formwork, satisfying most of the technical, economical and functional requirements by the simplification, standardization and dimensional co-ordination of forms and by easy methods of positioning, securing and bracing them.
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2.3.1.5. PERMANENT FORMWORK In certain circumstances, formwork is left permanently in place because of the difficulty and cost of removing it once the concrete has been cast. Other times, it is used as both formwork and outer cladding especially in the construction of in-situ reinforced concrete walls. The external face or cladding is supported by the conventional internal face formwork, which can in certain circumstances overcome the external support problems often encountered. This method is, however, generally limited to thin small modular facing materials (insulating board, gypsum board, precast stone or concrete), the size of which is governed by the supporting capacity of the internal formwork.
Figure 2-10 Permanent formwork Source: ACI Construction Engineering Journal.
2.3.2. CLASSIFICATION BY FINAL DESTINATION

2.3.2.1. FOOTING FORMS
Figure 2-11 Below grade footing forms Caption: 1. Poaling boards; 2. Horizontal sheathing; 3. Vertical sheathing; 4. Spreaders; 5. Wales. Source: Suman R.,1988.
Figure 2-12 Shallow footing
Continuous footing against excavations
forms
cast
Caption: 1. Traditional wooden panel; 2. Wood pegs; 3. Spreader, 4. Battens; 5. Plywood panel; 6. Wales.
A standard procedure for execution of footings is as follows: Positioning according to design to avoid loss of bearing area and eccentricity. Excavation of the last 100 mm of a footing cast in earth immediately before the concrete is placed. Lining of trenches with wax paper or polyethylene film to prevent earth-absorbing water from the concrete. Because the footing is below grade, no surface finish is necessary.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING 2.3.2.2. WALL FORMS The basic wall forms components are: Panel sheathing, to shape and retain the concrete until it sets. Studs, to form a framework and support the sheathing or Wales, to keep the form aligned and support the studs. - Braces, to hold the forms erect under lateral pressure. - Ties and spreaders, to hold the sides of the forms at the correct spacing. Several basic methods are available which will enable a wall to be cast in large quantities, defined lifts or continuous from start to finish: built in place forms, prefabricated forms and giant panels respectively gang forms. a. Built-in-Place Forms are built in place when the design of the structure is such that prefabricated panels cannot be adapted to the shape or when the form is for one use only and the use of prefabricated panels cannot be economically justified.
Figure 2-13 Wall formwork Caption: 1. Formwork panel; 2. Base plate; 3. Adjustable steel prop; 4. Working platform; 5. Plate washer; 6. Tie rod; 7. Spacer; 8. Guardrail; 9. Reinforcement; 10. Sole plate. Source: Popa R., teodorescu M., 1984.
a. Sheathing; b. Studs; c. Wales.
Note: When studs are used in form construction, wales are placed outside of them and held in place by nails, clips, or wale brackets nailed to the studs. When there are no studs, wales are placed against the plywood sheathing. In such a case, strongbacks-vertical members tied together in pairs with long ties through the form-are set and braced to provide vertical rigidity. A standard procedure to assemble a built in place wall form may be as follows: - Proper location on the foundation or slab from which the wall will rise. - Sole plate anchoring on either the foundation or slab with preset bolts. - Fastening of plywood sheathing to the studs. The first panel should be set and leveled at the highest point of the foundation to establish alignment for the remainder - Insertion of ties as sheathing progresses, between the double-sided wales. - When one side of the form has been completed, the other may be built in sections and set in place, with the tie ends being threaded through predrilled holes. - Panels will be bolted or clamped to adjoining sections. 18
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Braces will be attached to the sole plate, form the wales or strongbacks. Braces may act in compression only, in tension only or in both, as when forms are braced on one side only heavy wire or cable is suitable for bracing that will be in tension only. Tightening of ties where possible and where not or not allowed, external bracing must be provided to securely support both forms. Plumbing of formwork, by adjusting the braces. If braces are not adjustable, the wall must be plumbed as the braces are installed and anchored. If one form is plumbed as soon as it is built, there is no need to plumb the opposing one. The ties and spreaders will plumb the second form automatically. b. Giant Panels and Gang Forms. High walls, in which the concrete will have to be placed in two or more stages or lifts, will normally be formed by the use of giant panels (panels much larger than the normal standard size) or by gang forming. These large forms are built or assembled on the ground by fastening together a number of steel (wood)-framed panels and bracing them strongly to withstand crane handling.
Figure 2-14 Typical gang panel Caption: 1. Form sheathing; 2. Stud; 3. Wales; 4. Steel strut. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
2.3.2.3. FLOOR FORMS The design of forms for concrete floors depends a great deal on whether the floor is a slab-on-grade or a structural slab supported on a steel or concrete structural frame. 1. Slab-on-Grade Forms are forms for concrete slabs placed on grade are usually quite simple. A standard procedure to produce a good slab-on grade from is as follows: - Concrete will be placed on compacted earth or gravel leveled base (the granular material serving as a capillary break under the slab where moisture in the subgrade be a problem). - Plank, plywood, or steel forms will be required for forming the edges (steel edge forms are commonly used on larger jobs and for highway work). - The forms will be held in place by wooden pegs. - Usually a vapor barrier will be placed under the slab on grade. Figure 2-15 Typical slab-on-grade edge formwork
Caption: 1. Screed; 2. Slab edge form; 3. Cast concrete. Source: Suman R., 1988.
Reinforcement in slabs on grade may or may not be specified depending on the slab area and the use of control joints. Normally the amount of steel that is specified for slabs on grade is for crack control rather than to increase the strength of the slab. Proper placement of the reinforcement in the slab is important if it is to be of value. If a single layer of rein-
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING forcement is specified, its location should be 50 mm below the top surface of the slab to help control cracking in the top of the slab. The reinforcement will be placed on its proper location according to the drawing on chairs, bolsters, and spacers made of either metal or concrete. Temporary wooden guides named screeds will be positioned in the slab area to help in bringing the concrete to the correct grade. When concrete has been placed to the correct level, the screed is removed and the depression filled. If the slab is to be placed in sections, construction joints must be made between them, which will transmit shear from one to the other (see Concrete Placement).
2. Structural Slab Form general procedure assembly is as follows: - Positioning of the girder or beam form bottom. - Girder side forms will overlap the bottom form and rest on the shore heads and the sides of the column form. - Side forms will be held in place by ledger strips nailed to the shore heads with double-headed nails. - Larger girders will have the side Figure 2-16 Girder form details forms vertically stiffened to prevent Caption: 1. Girder; 2. Panel end support; 3. Stringer; 4. buckling. Prop; 5. Ledger; 6. Brace; 7. Prop; 8. Shore head; 9.
Panel sheathing. Source: Andres C., 1998.
When constructing the girder and beam forms each part must be removed without disturbing the remainder of the form; strike-off formwork will commence with the beam and girder sides, followed later by the column forms, and finally by the beam and gird bottoms. Spandrel Beam Forms (deep beams that span openings in outer walls) need to be carefully formed. Form alignment must be accurate to produce an attractive wall. Shore heads are often extended on the outside to accommodate the knee braces used to keep the forms aligned. The extended shore head also frequently supports a catwalk for workers.
Figure 2-17 Spandrel beam form details Caption: 1. Stud; 2. Tie back; 3. Plywood sheet; 4. Ledger; 5. Joist; 6. Slab for sheathing; 7. Tie; 8. Wales; 9. Brace; 10. Ledger; 11. Shore head; 12. Double shores. Source: Andres C., 1998.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING 2.3.2.4. COLUMN FORMS Column forms are often subjected to greater lateral pressure than wall forms because of their comparatively small cross section and relatively high rates of placement. It is therefore necessary to provide tight joints and strong tie support. As column sizes increase, either the thickness of the sheathing must be increased or vertical stiffeners must be added to prevent sheathing deflection. In Figure 2-19, horizontal stiffening are used (ties of this type are generally referred to as yokes).
Figure 2-18 Typical example of column formed with plywood panels stiffened with triangular yokes. Source: Pestisanu C., 1995.
A standard procedure to assemble a column form may be as follows: - Locate column forms accurately by using templates, they are carefully located by chalk line or paint and anchored in position. - Mark the location of each yoke on the side of the panel. Assemble three sides together, set the partially completed form in place, and add the fourth side later (this would probably be done in setting column forms for a job where the reinforcement is already in position). - Anchor them at their base, and keeping them in a vertical position are prime considerations by using braces. - Provision of a cleanout opening at the bottom of the form so that debris may be removed before concrete placing begins and to allow the placing of concrete in the bottom half of the form without having to drop it from the top. - Final check of column forms position, plumbing, bracing, and ready to support the ends of the girder and the beam forms that will be built to them. Note: The length of the column form is determined be subtracting the thickness of the bottom of the girder form that the column is to carry from the column height indicated on the plans or in the column schedule. Modular steel panel forms provide several ways to form columns of various shapes and sizes. Generally, modular panels provide a fast and more accurate column form than jobbuilt forms. The form consists of four panels, of various widths and lengths (maximum forming height of 7.20 m and maximum edge of column 95 cm, 1.5 to 3 mm steel sheathing) that are fastened together at each corner with wedge bolts or clamps. A standard procedure to assemble a steel column form may be as follows: - Selection of proper type and thickness of sheathing. - Location of forms accurately by using templates, they are carefully located by chalk line or paint and anchored in position. - Marking the location of each yoke on the side of the panel. - Inspection of yokes to ensure that they withstand bending and shear and that deflection will not exceed 1,5 mm. - Four-panel assembly by fastening them together on each corner, which sets partially, completed form in place. - Assembly of yokes on the top of the first panel height. 21 -
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Stacking the rest of the panels until reaching the desired height and positioning the rest of the yokes on their upper frame. Final check of column forms position, plumbing, bracing, and ready to support the ends of the girder and the beam forms that will be built to them.
Figure 2-19 Typical steel column formwork Caption: 1. Steel panel; 2. Inclined brace; 3. Yoke; 4. Filler panel. Source: IPC.
2.4. FORM LINERS

Form liners serve two purposes: - To improve stripping of the form from the concrete surface without damaging the sheathing material or the concrete. - To produce a desired texture on exposed concrete surfaces. For a smooth finish plywood, steel, and fiberglass are usually used, while for textured finish, plastic and rubber liners are used but are usually limited to a single application.
2.5. RELEASE AGENTS

Release agents (referred to also as Bond Preventives) have traditionally been used as coatings to formwork to prevent adhesion of the concrete. These include oils, emulsions, chemical release agents, and waxes. Liquid bond preventives can be applied by hand or power-operated sprayer. Sprayer application requires less material and produces a smoother, uniform coating. Main limitations of different agents used: discoloration, residual deposits, or failure to prevent bond conducting towards possible destruction of the concrete.
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2.6. FORMWORK REMOVAL

The removal (referred to also as strike-off or stripping) of formwork shall be carried out by ensuring the strength of concrete and the stability of the remaining formwork. The rate of hardening is temperature dependent and affects the timed removal of formwork, which will more than double in winter conditions. A special attention should be given, after form removal, to the construction member because it will bear the whole design load, which is very important especially for long-span members in flexure. The following values of concrete hardening levels are recommended for striking off: 2,5 N/mm2 for the lateral parts of the formwork; 70% of the concrete class for the inferior formwork parts of slabs and beams, with a span of minimum 6,0 m; 85% of the concrete class for the inferior formwork parts of slabs and beams, with a span of maximum 6,0 m. The shores will be removed when the following values of concrete strength percentage is achieved: 95 % for members with maximum spans of 6,00 m; 112 % for members with spans of 6,0...12,0 m; 115 % for members with spans grater than 12,0 m. Forms shall be designed so that removal may be made in the following order: side of beams and girders, slab and joist forms and beam and girder bottoms. During formwork strike off the following rules must be followed: - The parts and connections of the forms shall be so arranged that removal will be simple, protecting the concrete from damage and the form panel so that it may be reused without extensive repair. - The procedure will be supervised by the engineer, when casting defects are seen (honeycombing, caverns etc.) that can influence the stability of the structure the works will be stopped until repair and rehabilitation. - When forms adhere to the concrete, separation should be achieved by inserting wooden wedges and not by forcing the crowbars against the concrete. - Beam and joist bottoms shall remain in place until final removal of all shoring under them. - Formwork shall not be removed until the concrete maturity has developed sufficiently so to support all loads placed upon it. The time varies depending on the structural function of the member and the rate of strength gain of the concrete (concrete class, type of cement, w/c (mass ratio of water to cement), temperature during curing). - Joist forms shall be designed and removed so that the shores may be removed temporarily to permit removal of joist forms but must be replaced at once. The shores and joists will be dismantled beginning from the middle of the members span, continuing symmetrically up the supports. - The Engineer shall approve the sequence and pattern for removal of shores and for reshoring before any of this work is done. Shores and reshores shall be in the same position on each floor to provide a continuous support from floor to floor; at no time shall large areas of new construction be required to support their own weight even temporarily. - The unfastening of accessories will be done steadily without shocks.
2.7. SHORING MEMBERS

Shoring members are used to support concrete forms and their contents. They can be divided into two major categories: horizontal shoring and vertical shoring. 23
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING a. Horizontal shores (also referred to as telescopic joists or centers) have the following characteristics: - Are manufactured from wood or high-tensile steel with clear spans from 1,8 to 9m. - According to their load and span, they can bear a specified load. - They can be precambered to compensate any deflections when loaded. - They require shoring and bracing. - An assembled unit is lightweight and can be carried by one laborer.
Figure 2-20 Typical telescopic joists Source: Chudley R., 1999.
b. Vertical shores are those that support the horizontal ones from a firm base below (e.g. concrete slab). - Vertical wood shores may be single wood posts, with wedges at the bottom to adjust the height, double wood posts, two-piece adjustable posts, or T head shores. - Vertical steel shores may be adjustable pipe shores or shores made up of prefabricated metal scaffolding. Scaffold-type shoring, is usually assembled into towers by combining a number of units into a single shoring structure.
Figure 2-21 Typical adjustable steel shores Source: Teodorescu M. 1998, EFCO 2002.
2.8. FORM ACCESSORIES
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Along side the basic components of formwork a number of products are available to aid in making forms stronger and erecting them faster. These products include the following items: ties, spreadFigure 2-22 Form accessories ers, wedges, corner Caption: a. Panel clamp; b. Scaffold tubes secured with wire lashing; c. brackets, clips, Cone; d. Tie spreader units; e. Plate washer with tie clamp; 1. Plywood panel; keys, column 2. Steel clamp; 3. Wood wedge; 4. Steel shaped clamp; 5. Bolt screw; 6. Lash clamps, shores, with bolt; 7. Shore; 8. Cross bracing. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984. form rods, concrete inserts, and many others.
2.9. MOULDS
All concrete sections made with poured-in-place concrete require some temporary means of support for the freshly mixed, plastic concrete. As in the case of precast sections, some means of support is necessary to hold the concrete in place during its curing period; this temporary framing is known as a mould.
2.9.1. CLASSIFICATION OF MOULDS

a. By structure and use - dismountable (some components of the mould can be dismantled for removal) and non-dismountable (removal is achieved by griping or expulsion of precast units). b. By the position it has in the technological flow: - Stationary: used primarily in the stand prefabrication technology. - Portable: it moves from one workstation to another like in conveyer prefabrication technology or flow of aggregates. c. According to the loads that they bear: - Non-bearing moulds. The only loads they bear are weight of mould, concrete, pressure of concrete on lateral faces and weight of reinforcement. - Bearing moulds. They bear both the loads stated above and those of the tensions given by the prestressed reinforcement. d. According to the solution adopted of heating the concrete - heating moulds and nonheating moulds (that are introduced after formation into steam rooms). e. According to the number of units that are formed in the same mould - individual moulds (1 element), coupled moulds (2 elements) and batteries of moulds (several elements). d. According to the materials used for fabrication: The choice of materials is mainly a question of economical justification on individual projects. They can be of metal, wood, plaster, concrete etc.
2.9.2. BASIC COMPONENTS AND MAIN TYPES OF MOULDS

The basic mould components are: form sheathing, frame, and shoring elements. 25
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING In designing such details an effort is made to: select standard shapes and sizes for economy of mouldwork, lower operational costs, limit size variations, withstand the required number of reuses within permissible tolerances without excessive maintenance. Concrete moulds - referred to also as pilot moulds because when precasting individual moulds a concrete replica (pilot model) of the final mould is constructed. Several intermediate models, cast from the pilot model, are used to produce the required number of finished moulds.
Figure 2-23 Concrete pilot mould Caption: 1. Mould concrete base; 2. Compacted sand; 3. Concrete mould; 4. Concrete face; 5. Steel angle shape; 6. Edge form; 7. Metal plate; 8. Bolt.
Metal moulds - are sometimes used in place of milled woodwork, especially if a detail is repeated.
Figure 2-24 Static metal moulds Caption: 1. Brace frame; 2. Striking of device; 3. Thermal insulation; 4. Heating duct; 5. Prefabricated element; 6. Mould sheet; 7. Sheet frame. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
Plaster moulds are used for various architectural or ornamental details. The moulds are made of casting plaster containing jute fiber and further reinforced by rods, where necessary. A mould can be used only once, as it is broken in stripping. Wooden moulds presents the limitation given by the woods tendency of the wood to swell. For this reason and ease of stripping, it is best not to recess deep into the concrete mass. The most common method of casting concrete using moulds is by using the stack method. It consists of casting one element on top of another, with each successive element utilizing the preceding element as a casting bed. The stack may be started in an excavation to permit a greater number of elements to be poured direct from transitmix trucks. All castings in one stack should have identical dimensions and openings of identical size and location. The stack method conserves space, permits castings to gain added strength before removal, simplifies curing, and eliminates extra handling.
Figure 2-25 Stack wooden mould Caption: 1. Mould base; 2. Mould sheathing; 3. Stud; 4. Tie rods. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
CHAPTER 3. CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT

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It is important to understand that correct sizing and positioning of reinforcement can increase both strength and durability of reinforced concrete, and generally increase the ability of reinforcement to control shrinkage cracking. The combination of concrete and steel in reinforced concrete is mutual beneficial, allowing them to work together as a composite material: - Their coefficients of thermal expansion are approximately equal (steel = 1,2 x 10-5 and concrete = 0,81,2 x 10-5); if this were not so, when subjected to wide temperature changes, reinforced concrete would tear itself apart by internal stress, but they expand or contract by similar amounts, and therefore remain firmly bonded. - The cement paste in concrete bonds strongly to the steel bars, transferring stress from concrete to steel and protecting the steel against fire and against corrosion. Concrete provides an alkaline environment to steel embedded in it, thus protecting the steel from rusting.
3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF REINFORCEMENT

The type of reinforcement used will be selected and fabricated so that the reinforced concrete structure has the satisfactory performance specified in the design, to be capable of sustaining heavy loads over considerable spans. Steel reinforcements may be used in concrete in more than one manner: - Main reinforcement (continuous reinforcement), improves the load-carrying capability of the structure by providing high tensile strength. - Repartition (distributed) reinforcement - also referred to as discontinuous reinforcement, limits cracking by bearing tensile stresses. - Confinement reinforcement limits the transverse volumes increase of concrete in compressed areas, increasing the longitudinal deformation and strength. - Positioning reinforcement, secures other reinforcement against displacement caused by concrete placing.
3.3. MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Reinforcing steels can be divided into two categories: low-strength (mild) and high strength. The low-strength steels are more workable than the high strength ones, but the elongation is higher. The workability of steel is assured by batching (altering the chemical composition of the steel, particularly the carbon content), or by improvement through mechanical working of steel (cold SR 438/4-98 or hot pressing STAS 438/1-89). Characteristic strength is the value of the yield or proof strength (ultimate specified strength) of reinforcement, fy, below which 5% of all possible test results would be expected to fall. The most common steel grades are: OB 37, PC 52, and PC 60 with ultimate strength of 37, 52, and 60 N/mm2.
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Figure 3-1 Characteristic stress- strain curves (-) for steel Caption: OA-elastic region; AB plastic region; C failure. Source: Carare T. 1986
Stress-strain relationship is a measure of the elasticity of the material. If a load is applied to a material, and the material makes a recovery (it returns to is original size once the load is removed), the elastic limit of the material has not been reached. If the material does not recover on the removal of the load, it must have exceeded its elastic limit (yield point) thus remaining permanently deformed (plastic limit). Ductility is the ability of the steel to sustain high strains before failure. As the stress is increased, the steel begins to act in a plastic manner until failure. Altering the chemical composition of the steel, particularly the carbon content, can increase both ultimate tensile strength and yield strength. Necking occurs when material starts to decrees its cross-section and increases its elongation. For OB 37 this limit is shown by the tendency of oscillation or of stagnation of the display testing device while its elongation grows. For PC type steels the necking (tendency of elongation without load increase) is not shown through the equipment monitor, because of this, we measure the limit value for which a certain permanent elongation is recorded.
3.4. STANDARD BAR DIAMETERS AND TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcement is usually provided by steel bars (also referred to as re-bars) or by steel wires welded together to form a mesh or fabric. The types of steel bar for concrete reinforcement must comply with the requirements of STAS 4381/1-89; 4382/2 - 91; 4383 - 89 and STAS 6482/1-73; 6482/2,3,4-80b and NE 012-99. Table 3-1 Reinforcement types and application.
Type of steel Round smooth bars STAS 438/1-89 Drawn smooth wire for reinforced concrete STAS 438/2-91 Welded wire fabric for reinforced concrete SR 438/3/1998 Deformed bars for reinforced concrete STAS 438/1-89 Prestressed reinforcement -Smooth wire STAS 6482/2-80 -Deformed wire STAS 6482/3-80 -Strands Symbol OB 37 STNB STNB PC 52 PC 60 SBP I and SBP II SBPA I and SBPA II Field of applicability Main or distributed reinforcement Main reinforcement of welded wire fabric or welded cages for distributed reinforcement Main reinforcement for concrete grade min C 12/15 Main reinforcement for concrete grade min C 16/20 Main reinforcement for concrete grade min C 25/30
Reinforcement varies as a result of its processing. Types and characteristics are summarized below. 28
Hot Rolled Steel 1. Hot Rolled Structural Steel OB 37 Size Technical Characteristics 6,0; 8,0; 10,0; 12,0; 14,0; 16,0; 18,0; 20,0; 22,0; 25,0; 28,0; 32,0; 36,0; 40,0 mm Yield point 6-12 = min. 235 N/ mm2 14-40 = min. 255 N/ mm2 Tensile strength = max. 360 N/ mm2 Elongation A5 = min 26 % Delivery of reinforcement Grade OB 37 Coiled bundles (40 600 kg) 6 - 12 mm Bundles of bars (8-20 m length) 14 - 30 mm Individual rods > 30 mm
Source: Ductil Steel SA, SR EN 10025
2.
Deformed Steel PC 52, PC 60, PC 90 Size Technical Characteristics 6,0; 8,0; 10,0; 12,0; 14,0; 16,0; 18,0; 20,0; 22,0; 25,0; 28,0; 32,0; 36,0; 40,0 mm Yield point Tensile strength Elongation Grade PC 52 PC 60 PC 90 PC 52 PC 60 2 min. 355 N/mm min. 410 N/mm2 min. 510 N/mm2 min. 590 N/mm2 min. 20 % min. 16 % PC90 min. 590 N/mm2 min. 890 N/mm2 min. 8 % Individual rods > 30 mm > 30 mm > 20 mm
Delivery
Delivery of reinforcement Coiled bundles (40 600 kg) Bundles of bars (8-20 m length) 6 - 12 mm 14 - 30 mm 6 12 mm 14 - 30 mm 10 - 30 mm
Heat Treated Cold Drawn Wire - not for prestressing Source: Ductil Steel SA, SR EN 10025, STAS 889 1. Wire for General Purpose, for Netting and Knitting Black wire for tying 0,60 1,40 mm (STR in Rom. Sarma trasa rascoapta) Drawn wire for concrete (STNB in Rom. Sarma trasa neteda pentru beton) Wire for meshes 4,00 10,00 mm Diameter [mm] 0.20 - 0.80 1.00 - 1.60 1.80 - 2.80 3.00 - 5.00 5.50 - 10.00 Weight [kg] max. 15 40 - 60 60 - 100 80 - 120 80 - 200 Tensile Strength [N/mm2] Tensile Strength [N/mm2] max. 410 max. 440 max. 440 max. 440 max. 440 Inside Diameter [mm] 250 - 300 250 - 400 450 - 650 450 - 650 550 650 Size Technical Characteristics
Delivery
max. 450
Delivery Coiled of 2 - 5 kg, secured in 3-4 places, that can be bundled in 5-10 coils/bundle On metallic or plastic spools: Wire Diameter [mm] 0.40 - 0.80 Wire Characteristic on spool Net Weight 17 - 20 Work Weight 160 Spool Characteristic Inside diam Outside diam Axial diam Height 160 250 22 200
The wire is delivered:
- coils (spools) unpacked; - coils packed in crepe paper secured with adhesive band; - spools packed in crepe paper or with stretch folio.
High tensile steel wire and strand - for concrete prestressing 1 Wire for Concrete Prestressing (plain round, crimped or indented) SBP in Rom. Sarma pentru beton precomprimat; SBPA in Rom. Sarma pentru beton precomprimat amprentat. Size SBP 1,50 7,00 mm; SBPA 5,00 7,00 mm.
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Diameter mm 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.7 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 Cross Sectional Area [mm2] 1.767 3.142 4.910 7.070 10.746 12.570 19.630 28.270 38.480 Unit Weight [kg/1000m] 1.387 2.466 3.853 5.548 8.430 9.870 15.410 22.190 30.210
Technical Characteristics 2. Size Technical Characteristics Delivery
Coiled of 50- 80 kg, secured in 3-4 places. The wire is delivered: coils (spools) unpacked; coils packed in crepe paper secured with adhesive band; spools packed in crepe paper or with stretch folio.
Strand for Concrete Prestressing (TBP in Rom. Toron pentru beton precomprimat) -7 mm wire configurations with tensile strengths that vary between 1670 and 1860 N/mm2; 2,0; 2,5; 3,0; 4,0 mm Symbol 7 2.0 72.5 73.0 74.0 Diameter [mm] 6.1 7.6 9.1 12.2 Cross Sectional Area [mm2] 22.31 34.74 49.93 88.55 Unit Weight [kg/1000m] Min. Max. 0.172 0.187 0.268 0.388 0.693 0.295 0.423 0.739
Delivery Spools with diameter of 900 mm, weight 100-600 kg.
3.4.1. PLAIN AND DEFORMED STEEL BARS

The simplest form of bar surface is the plain (smooth) bar. In order to improve the bond between reinforcing and the surrounding concrete, lugs (or protrusions) are rolled on the bar surfaces (the uneven surface of the reinforcing bars help them to bond tightly to concrete). Consequently, these types of reinforcing bars are called deformed steel bars.
Figure 3-2 Standard types of reinforcing bars PC 52 and PC 60 Source: Carare T. 1986
3.4.2. WELDED WIRE MESH REINFORCING

Another form of concrete reinforcing consists of wire rods, either smooth or deformed, welded into grids, known as welded wire mesh3 (also referred to as welded wire fabric). The welded meshes come as sheets or rolls depending on the diameter of the wire or rod used. Diameters of smooth wire used range from 3 to 10 mm, while deformed rods can range from 4 mm to 10 mm or larger. Spacings (pitches) between wires range from 50 mm to 300 mm. The sheet sizes are manufactured in standard lengths of 4,8 m and widths of 2,4 m; if they are rolled, they have the length up to 10 m. A typical notation of welded wire reinforcing is written as: 14 GQ 246 Where: 14 represent the order number of the mesh. G represents the general use of the mesh. Q represents the shape of the eye. 246 represents cross sectional area of wire (2.46 cm2/m = 246 mm2/m), mm2
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Figure 3-3 Dimen sions of wire mesh Source: Carare T., 1986
Nominal parameters of meshes Length of mesh Lc Width of mesh Bc Width between extreme longitudinal bars B Width between extreme transverse bars L Longitudinal spacings between wires Transverse spacings between wires
Size (mm) 2000-7000 1000-3000 950-2950 1950-6950 from 50 mm to 300 mm from 50 mm to 420 mm
3.4.3. WIRES
Tie Wires are plain, cold drawn annealed steel of 1,5 mm diameter. Other types of wires can be an assemblage of three or more ropes twisted together for extra strength, or a rope made by twisting together several strands of metal wire. This stranded wire rope for concrete (used in prestressing) is made of steel wire manufactured from cold drawn plain carbon steel. The wire can be plain round, crimped or indented with a diameter range of 2 to 7 mm. Consisting of six individual wires twisted about a hemp (core) rope core to form the strand. The function of the core is to provide a firm cushion for positioning the wires in the strands, to maintain a firm rope structure, and to provide some internal lubrication when bending stresses are involved.
Figure 3-4 Typical profile of SBPA
Source: Carare T. 1986. Crimped and indented bars (SBP, SBPA) will develop at greater bond strength than plain round bars and are available in 5, 6, and 7 mm diameters.
3.5. REINFORCEMENT CONCRETE COVER

Two important criteria (provided by STAS 10107/0-904) must be considered in the location of reinforcing bars in a concrete section: 1. Enough cover must be provided to protect the reinforcing steel from the environment against corrosion (rusting). 2. Proper spacing must be provided between the bars to ensure that the concrete to be placed without any blocking of coarse aggregates and an easy flow around the bars so to develop the necessary bond with the bars. 31
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Spacing of reinforcing bars is computed taking into consideration the following limitations: max aggregate = minimum distance between rebars - 5 mm Common spacings of reinforcing bars are as follows: 25 mm for beams; 50 mm for columns; 75 mm for slabs and walls. Not less than 1,4 bar diameters 1,4 maximum aggregate size nor 30 mm Not less than 1,4 bar diameters 1,4 maximum aggregate size nor 30 mm Maximum distance 500 mm
Minimum concrete cover of reinforcing bars is Where: S - Clear concrete cover considered according to environmental restrictions. D - Distance between longitudinal bars To ensure the proper location of the bars or wire mesh, the following types of chairs, bolsters and spacers made of either metal or concrete can be used, Figure 3-5.
Figure 3-5 Typical reinforcement spacing section
Source: Carare T., 1986. Figure 3-6 Chairs and spacers
3.6. FABRICATION OF STEEL BARS, STIRRUPS AND WIRE MESHES

3.6.1. STRAIGHTENING OF STEEL BARS
Hot rolled steel rods delivered in bundles or coils need be strengthened with the help of specific machinery or tools according to the steel type, grade, diameter, and type of delivery. 32
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING The following methods of strengthening can be employed. a. Straightening of steel bars delivered in coils using a normal chain winch. Is used for OB 37 and PC 52 12 mm and for PC 10- 12 mm. The strengthening of rods is usually achieved with a force that must exceed half of the necessary stress needed to reach its yield point R0,2 . The straightening verification is achieved by: - Straightening force: F 0,5x A (bar surface = d2/4) x R0,2. - Elongation: the total elongation must not exceed 2%o. Al< 2 x Length of bar /1000 = 2x50/1000 = 0,10 m= 10 cm. For the commencement of operations, it is necessary to have a 50 m length and 2-3 m wide concrete platform on which to execute the works. On one end, a peg is driven into the ground, on which a cable is fastened, and the other side a manual chain Figure 3-7 Pliers for straightening bars attached to winch is fixed firmly. A plier is secured at winch. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M. 1984. the end of the winch that is connected to reinforcement. Normally the initial length of the steel bars is marked on the platform its original length, and after computing their final elongation there, location will be as well marked. The winch will be operated and the steel bar will increase its length until it reaches the mark on the platform, at that point the operation will be stopped. Only then the steel bar can be considered as being straight. b. Straightening of steel bars delivered in coils with an electrical chain winch.
Figure 3-8 Straightening of steel bars delivered in coils with an electrical chain winch. Source: Carare T., 1986, Popa R., Teodorescu M. 1984.
a. Device for straightening of steel bars delivered in coils; a. Straightening device: 1. Coils; 2. Wedge; 3. Hook plate; 4. Peg; 5. Wheel; 7. Winch; 8. Elongation hook. b. Hook fixing for straightening: 1. Re-bars; 2. Anchorage plate; 3. Hook for straightening; 4. Cable without end. Straightening of steel bars delivered in coils with an electrical chain winch consists of two procedure phases: straightening phase and elongation phase (as described).
3.6.2. COMBINED STRAIGHTENING AND CUTTING MACHINES

These machines are comprised of automatic measurement, strengthening, cutting, and handling devices of large quantities of reinforced concrete rods. They consists of a control console able to interface a remote PC for programming of work orders and a mobile shear able to cut twelve 32 rods at the same time. The machine is available in two basic models, with a hydraulic power of 50 and 100 tons respectively (corresponding to a maximum rod diameter of 32 and 40 mm).
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Measurement and transfer track is complete with an independent retractable measurement that stops at a distance of 0.5 m from each other that are moved by pneumatic pistons that activate a set of levers. This track is equipped with double pneumatic tilting system for unloading of the cut bars. The rods are introduced in the infeed mouth and pulled, along the channel infeed mouth,
Figure 3-9 Typical strengthening and cutting machine Source: OSCAM SpA.
by powered rollers at a speed of 100 m/min. They are measured and cut by a powerful hydraulic shear and then transferred onto the powered roller collection tracks from where they are sent to the workstations. The entire structure rests on a frame fitted with powered wheels for traverse in front of the store and tracks of the bending and storage stations. A primary straightening takes place in several passes through roll stands in open, semi continuous, or fully continuous arrangement. These can use an alternating rolling principle on horizontal and vertical rolls, as shown in Figures 3-10 and 3-11.
Figure 3-10 a. b. Rotating drum with screw die arrangement Caption: 1. Reel; 2. Reinforcement coil; 3. Infeed mouth; 4. Rotating drum with screw die arrangement; 5. Traction wheels; 6. Shear; 7. Automatic measurement device; 8. Frame; 9. Measured rod. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M,. 1984. Figure 3-11 Rolling-mill arrangements Caption: 1. Reel; 2. Coil; 3. Infeed mouth; 4. Traction wheels; 5. Vertical rolling-mill arrangements; 6. Horizontal mill arrangements; 7. Shear; 8. Measurement device; 9. Frame; 10. Rod. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
Source: MCI, 1984.
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3.6.3. REINFORCEMENT BENDING

Reinforcement is fabricated to shapes and dimensions as indicated on Shop Drawings. For the reinforcing bars to withstand the designed loads, they must be worked on by bending them at different angles, in the scope of assuring there crossing form one part to the other of the concrete sections and for assuring a good bond with the concrete. Sometimes section sizes may have to be altered to accommodate the bending of steel. The usual bent diameter is adopted according to the steel type and grade, anchorage conditions and loads (STAS 10107/0-90). Bar bending should not be carried out if the temperature of the steel temperature is below -10C. It is permitted to heat the steel as long as this does not exceed 100C specially when bending bars with bigger diameters that 25 mm.
Figure 3-12 Standard hook and stirrup details for reinforcement
The preliminary works that need be completed before bending starts are: removal of soil, oil spots and paint from the bars; removal of loose rust by light hammering and removal of adherent rust by brushing or wiping with a cloth. 3.6.3.1. MANUAL BENDING Manual bending of steel bars can be achieved by using simple plate and pin devices. The bending procedure consists of simple or successive bending of bars at a given radius (usually indicated in the Shop Drawings). Bending is made at different radiuses using different size pins, according to the nature of bending (e.g. hooks, inclined bars etc.), the profile of the bars and quality of steel.
Figure 3-13 a. Bending of bars with two keys; b. Bending of bars with three pins and a key; c. Typical-bending plates Source: Carare T., 1986.
c
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING 3.6.3.2. AUTOMATIC BENDING MACHINES These machines are produced in a wide range of models for bending of up to 50-mm diameter rods. They are equipped with cycle counter, self-test and up to 90 angle corrector. They are suitable for installation at sites and in prefabrication shops.
Source: Carare T., 1986, OSCAM SpA Figure 3-14 Hook bending machine
These type of bending systems use a central fixed pin, that ensures that the rods are not pulled or stretched during bending, thus assuring high level precision. a. Stirrup Bending Machines are automatic machines for construction of stirrups and shaped parts from coils, particularly suitable for medium production runs.
Figure 3-15 Typical stirrup bending machine Caption: 1. Horizontal rolling mill arrangement; 2. Infeed mouth; 3. Strengthening arrangement; 4. Traction wheels; 5. Shear; 6. Bending arm mechanism. Source: OSCAM SpA.
They are used to bend hot-rolled rods. The two-way bending head also makes it possible to produce multi-sided stirrups. The straightening unit promotes fast, trouble-free modification of diameter without requiring further adjustments. 36
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING The work cycles are programmed, stored, and controlled by a dedicated industrial computer installed on a console complete with buttons and selectors for manual operations. b. Mesh Bending Machines are hydraulically driven machines for bending welded mesh consist of work cycles that are controlled by an electronic appliance with keyboard-type programmer that can record 60 cycles containing up to 10 angles to be carried out in sequence. The scope of this machine is to both flatten the mesh so it will not have reveres bends or tendency to spring back and to bend it.
Figure 3-16 Fixed arm and variable arm mesh-bending machines Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
This type machine is available in a basic fixed-arm version with differently shaped 19to 28-mm bending arbors and a variable-arm version that makes it possible to form difficult shapes without rotating the mesh and to bend the various diameters according to regulations. The standard models have a length of 4 and 6 m that can be modified according to needs, being able to bend up to 12-mm mesh. c. Hoop / Spiral Bending Machines are available in various versions for horizontal or vertical forming of hoops and spirals from straight bars (with a diameter of 6 to 40 mm) or coils. They feature different feed speeds for production of hoops and spirals from a minimum diameter of 300 mm to an unlimited maximum diameter. The bending diameter setting and adjustment device is mechanical-manual or hydraulicautomatic according to the models.
Figure 3-17 Hoop and spiral bending machine Source: OSCAM SpA.
Figure 3-18 Typical spiral reinforcement Source: OSCAM SpA.
3.6.4. CUTTING DEVICES (SHEARS)

The rod-cutting machine is suitable for job sites and prefabrication shops, with medium-small production runs that do not require high-level automation.
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Figure 3-19 Manual shears Source: Carare T., 1986, OSCAM SpA.
They are electro-hydraulic portable tools for rod cutting. The electric motor drives a small hydraulic pump that supplies the cutting cylinder. The cutting length is set by positioning a mobile locator along a roller track against which the rods are driven by using an electric winch with a steel cable. The cutting unit consists of a special shear mounted at the end of the track. The machine is complete with powered wheels for sideways movement. Two models are available: manual model (manual movement of the measurement locator) and electronic measurement model (automatic positioning of the measurement locator controlled by a computer). The range includes a large number of models for cutting of up to 25-mm diameter rods. Electro-mechanical machines available in various models for cutting of 6- to 42-mm diameter rods (they are able to cut the maximum diameter also in the case of high strength materials). These machines are able to cut the rods from the minimum to maximum diameter without any adjustment. A hydraulic model is also available with an up to 60-mm cutting capacity.
Figure 3-20 Electronic measurement model Source: OSCAM SpA.
3.6.4.1. MESH CUTTING MACHINES Hydraulic mesh-cutting machine consists of a mobile cutting head with two pairs of opposing blades for cutting in both directions. Feed speed can be adjusted up to a maximum of 25m/minute to adapt to the different diameters and mesh width. Cuts mesh 4 to 6m in length, and up to maximum diameter of 12 mm.
Figure 3-21 Typical mesh cutting machine Source: OSCAM SpA.
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3.7. WELDING
Welding is technique of jointing metals by heating with/or without the application of pressure and filler metal. The main techniques used for welding are: 1. Electric arc uses an electric current in conjunction with a filler rod. 2. Gas uses a hot flame from a torch to melt the metal in conjunction with a welding or filler rod. 3. Resistance Spot/Seam uses electrodes on either side of metal sheets to be joined. All these methods use high amounts of energy, resulting in heat to locally melt and fuse two pieces of metal, at the same time ensuring continuity of the metallic bonding and crystal structure across the join. As welding effectively makes a larger piece of the same material, there are repercussions in having one large piece. When the welded areas cool, stresses can be generated which interfere with bonding, ultimately causing cracking. Defects can spread across large areas of material, do to this some components have to be designed so that large sheets are joined by riveting in this case cracks cannot then jump across separate components. Note: Welding reinforcement on site is not encouraged, only particular weldable steels can be used, and welding should be restricted to fixing reinforcement in position between crossing members, or transferring loads to other steel members (in accordance with C28-835 and C 150-846). 1. Metal arc welding with consumable rod electrodes (named also line welding) consists of an arc that burns between the electrode and a rod of suitable composition (heavy cellulose or mineral coating) and the parts to be welded. The metal parts should be properly shaped before the welding takes place by beveling them on both edges when they are to be joined in the same plane or by butt-welding. The metal is fused at both ends of the arc and the fused electrode deposited in the joint in a series of layers until it is properly filled. After each layer, the protective slag formed by the melting of the coating is removed by chipping.
Figure 3-22 Typical arc-welding outfit Caption: 1. Metal parts to be welded; 2. Electric arc; 3. Electrodes; 4. Electrode holder and a suitable shield or helmet for protecting the eyes of the laborer; 5. Electric cables; 6. Welding generator or transformer with a control panel for varying the current, a voltmeter, and ammeter. Source: Carare T., 1986.
Welding may be done with: Direct current - DC (flows in one direction and does not reverse its direction of flow as does alternating current). - Alternating current - AC (an electrical current that reverses its direction at regular intervals, such as 60 cycles alternating current, or 60 hertz) that is usually supplied by a suitable transformer provided with taps to adjust the current. 2. Gas/ Torch welding is carried out by the heat produced by the burning of acetylene with pure oxygen, the flame temperature being about 3,000 C. high enough to melt any metal locally, allowing the metal pieces to be easily fused together. When welding thick materials the edges to be joined must be bevel so to form a V that will be filled up by melting into it a rod of suitable composition. -
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING As the weld proceeds, the rod metal should be added until the surface of the joint is built up a little above the edge of the plates. Impurities and the small amount of oxide that forms during welding remain on the surface, as scale, easily removed after they have been cooled by grinding or machining. 3. Resistance (Tack/Seam) welding is made in a relatively short time (typically 0,2 seconds) using a low-voltage, high-current power source with force applied to the joint through two electrodes, one on each side. The parts to be joined, after proper shaping, are pressed together. A large electric current is then passed through the joint until it has reached the required welding temperature, when further pressure is applied upsetting the joint and completing the weld. The voltage required is so low and the current so high that the only convenient source is a large-turns-ratio transformer, built into the welder and as close as possible to the jaws, which hold the parts and transmit the current to them.
Tack welds are made at regular intervals on sheet metal that has an overlap. Where air tightness is not required, a lap seam may be welded in spots by clamping the seam overlap between two electrodes and passing the necessary electrical current between them and through the overlapping edges of the plates. As the electrical resistance of the surface contact is least in the region under pressure, most of the current and therefore the weld is confined to a spot of about the same area as that of the elec- Figure 3-23 Typical automatic/tack welding machine Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984. OSCAM SpA. trodes. The mechanical strength depends upon the number and size of the spots. Seam welding is a continuous process wherein the electric current is successively pulsed into the joint to form the weld. The overlapping edges of sheet metal are passed between two narrow roller electrodes, the speed, current, and pressure being so adjusted as to 40
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING produce a continuous seam or a series of overlapping spots. This method is usually limited to relatively thin sheets, but is readily applicable to straight seam or to circular seams.
3.8. SPLICING OF REINFORCING STEEL

Reinforcing bars can be fabricated and shipped only in predetermined manageable lengths, but there are times when larger lengths are necessary to ensure their continuity in the structural member. To accomplish this continuity when using small length bars, splicing is necessary. The splices will be made only as required or permitted on the Shop Drawings, or as authorized by the engineer, when so, they shall conform to STAS 10107/0-90 and C 28-837; C 150-84 Norms. Lap lengths shall not be less than 40 times of the reinforcing bar diameter or as shown on the Drawings. All laps shall be staggered (alternating) or be made at points where stress in the steel is less than half the allowable stress. Where laps cannot be staggered or be made at points of reduced stress for physical or any other inevitable reasons, lap length shall be increased. Three types of splices are available to the designer for the splicing of reinforcing steel: welded splices, lap splices, and mechanical splices. Each method has its limitations, and one method should not be substituted for another without approval from the engineer. Normally, welded splices are not recommended when splicing normal reinforcing bars. Because of the large amount of heat required in the welding process, the properties of the bar will be affected in the area of the weld. Cracking of the joint can occur if the weld is not done with the proper preparation of the bar. When required, welding of reinforcing bars shall only be permitted where shown in the Drawings or approved by the Engineers. All welding shall be performed in accordance with the requirements of C 28-83 and C 150-84 Norms or approved equivalent. The lap splice is the most common type of splice primarily because they are cost efficient and simple to manufacture. Splices are considered as either tension lap splices or compression lap splices depending on the stresses that are encountered at the point of splicing. Their lengths are established according to code requirements and must be indicated on Shop Drawings, sufficient lap lengths must be ensured, the provided lap shall be in accordance with STAS 10107/0-90.
Figure 3-23 Splicing of steel reinforcing Caption a. Butt welded splice; b. Strapped weld splice (with cover plate); c. Side lap weld splice; d. Mechanical sleeve splice; e. Lap splice.
Mechanical splices are normally used for large bars as butt type splices where welding, if allowed, would be time consuming and expensive. A mechanical splice usually consists of some type of metal sleeve that is held securely in place by a wedge driven over the sleeve ends. In some applications, the sleeve can be filled with a grout or a molten metal. Mechanical splices can also consist of couplers that are threaded over the bar ends. 41
Figure 3-24 Sleeve splice connection Source: Suman R., 1988, ACI Construction engineering Journal 2002.
3.9. REINFORCEMENT ASSEMBLY WORKMANSHIP

The standard of reinforcement workmanship on site will be such as to ensure the required performance for the structure throughout its service life. General rules that must be followed for correct reinforcement assembly: Reinforcement should be free from mud, oil, paint, retarders, loose rust, loose mill scale, grease or and other substances which can be shown to affect adversely the steel or concrete chemically, or reduce the bond (normal handling and fabrication prior to embedment in the concrete is usually sufficient for he removal of loose rust and scale form reinforcement). - Reinforcing bars shall be accurately placed at the position prescribed, in the drawings, within an acceptable tolerance and sufficiently secured to maintain continuity (displacement) of the cage through the period of placement and curing of concrete. - The location, anchorage length, laps, and splices of reinforcing bars shall be in accordance with the design documents and drawings. - Bar lists and Bending schedules shall be furnished in accordance with design drawings. - The concrete cover value shall not be less or mare than the value specified in the drawings by an appropriate limit, to achieve this chairs and spacers will be used: they will be positioned as follows: slabs - 3 spacers/m2, beams 1 spacer/m, for beams 4 spacers/m2. - Lapping lengths of re-bars will be calculated while splicing of re-bars shall be welded or tied. Tying of re-bars shall be made according to specific rules for type of member (slab, wall, and beam): -
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Slab and wall: the mesh network will have all the marginal intersections, on at least two rows tied; for the rest of the intersections the tying can be made two by two on both directions (alternate);
Figure 3-25 Typical alternate tying procedure of individual reinforcing bars to produce a mesh
Beam: All the intersections between the longitudinal bars and the edges of the stirrups/ ties will be wired; the rest of the longitudinal bars will be tied from two to two intersections. The inclined (bent) reinforcement will be tied to all the stirrups that they intersect. Substitution of reinforcement shall be done according to the following: Using other diameters, than the ones designed, is allowed only if the re-bar cross sectional area is equal or bigger by 5% than the initial one. The new diameter chosen will be 25 % bigger or smaller that the one designed. Substitution in the field of bars differing from the design should be done only with the approval of the designer.
3.9.1. ASSEMBLY OF COLUMN REINFORCEMENT

The reinforcing steel in columns consists of two parts: the longitudinal bars that run the length of columns, and the lateral reinforcing that encloses the longitudinal steel (stirrups, ties). They can be assembled as prefabricated steel cages that run on a story height or as individual bars. Assembly of reinforcement assumes that they are positioned correctly in the form, that they are held, tied, and correctly spliced respecting the technical specifications and structural design.
Figure 3-26 Detail of column and slab reinforcement intersection
For achieving the minimum concrete cover, circular spacers will be used, and at the same time assuring the proper geometry surface, stability, tightness and cleanness of formwork. A standard procedure to assemble column reinforcement shall be as follows: - Inspection of dowels (starter bars) for surface cleanness, straightness, positioning etc. - Inspection of cages before positioning in the scope of remaking possible ties that are unfastened and for positioning the circular spacers on the longitudinal bars (minimum l spacer/1 ml of column). - Positioning of stirrups over the lapping area starter bars. - Splicing of bars is achieved between stories by welding. - Marking with caulk on a starter bar the exact position of stirrups. - Hanging the cage on the crane sling. - Lifting the cage to the top of the job position. - Lowering slowly the cage and positioning it manually into location. - Splicing of longitudinal bars over the starter bars, by lapping (if necessary) or by welding (using a single seam weld).
43
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Unfastening the cage from the crane sling. Wiring the stirrups to the longitudinal bars from the bottom upwards. Final inspection of reinforcement, it must be fabricated as shown on the plans and placed and held in position within the specified tolerances. The spacing bars and concrete cover must be checked for compliance with the plans.
Figure 3-27 Column cages being assembled on site
3.9.2. ASSEMBLY OF WALL REINFORCEMENT

The walls can be reinforced using one of two systems: with individual bars or with prefabricated reinforcement cages. Assembly of reinforcement assumes that they are positioned correctly in the form, that they are held, tied and correctly spliced in accordance with technical specifications and structural design. For achieving the minimum concrete cover, circular spacers will be used, and at the same time assuring the proper geometry surfaces, stability, tightness and cleanness of formwork. 3.9.2.1. WALL REINFORCEMENT ASSEMBLED WITH INDIVIDUAL BARS A standard procedure to assemble wall reinforcement with individual bears shall be as follows: - Assembly of formwork on one side of the wall. - Marking with caulk the position of longitudinal and vertical reinforcement bars on the formwork surface. - Positioning of reinforcement cages in boundary elements. - Wiring of a number of horizontal bars to the vertical ones of the reinforcement cages. - Positioning and wiring of vertical bars to the tied horizontal bars. - Positioning and wiring of the remaining horizontal bars to the vertical bars. - Positioning of ties. - Positioning of circular spacers on the reinforcement (minimum 2 spacers/m2). - Assembly of the second face of formwork on the remaining side. - Final inspection of reinforcement, it must be fabricated as shown on the plans and placed and held in position within the specified tolerances. The spacing bars and concrete cover must be checked for compliance with the plans. 3.9.2.2. WALL REINFORCEMENT ASSEMBLED WITH CAGES A standard procedure to assemble wall reinforcement with cages shall be as follows: Transport and lifting of reinforcement cages without deforming them. Inspections of cages before positioning in the scope of remaking possible ties that are unfastened. Inspection of dowels (starter bars) for surface cleanness, straightness, positioning etc. Positioning of circular spacers on the reinforcement (minimum 2 spacer/m2). Hanging the cage on the crane sling. Lifting the cage to the top of the job position. Lowering slowly the cage and positioning it manually into location. Welding the reinforcement to achieve a temporary support to the cage. 44
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Unfastening the cage from the crane sling. Final inspection of reinforcement, it must be fabricated as shown on the plans and placed and held in position within the specified tolerances. The spacing bars and concrete cover must be checked for compliance with the plans.
3.9.2. ASSEMBLY OF BEAM REINFORCEMENT WITH INDIVIDUAL BARS
Figure 3-28 Typical procedure of wiring main beam reinforcement to stirrups and ties
The beams can be reinforced using individual reinforcing bars or by using cages. When using cages, the best practice is to wire the stirrups to the tie bars and main reinforcing in the inverted position on horses. After which it is positioned by crane in the required location. When using individual pieces (straight or bent bars) they are placed and wired tighter, held in alignment by stirrups. In this case it is imperative that the stirrups by open-end at the top, in order to facilitate the placing of additional steel. The whole assembly is supported on chairs set on the form bottom. To ensure that the reinforcement is not moved during the concrete pour, the bars are held in position inside the formwork by securing them to the form ties. A standard procedure to assemble beam reinforcement shall be as follows: - Inspection of beam formwork to ensure its proper geometry surfaces, stability, cleanness, and tightness. - Marking with caulk the location of stirrups on the formwork surface. - Positioning of marginal stirrups in the formwork with the topside open. - Positioning and wiring of bottom longitudinal bars to the stirrups according to the design. - Positioning the rest of the stirrups in the formwork with their upper side open. - Positioning and wiring of the remaining bottom longitudinal bars. - Positioning and wiring of the inclined (bent) reinforcement bars. - Positioning and wiring of the top longitudinal bars. 45
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Closing and wiring the topside of the stirrups according to the design. Positioning and wiring of ties. Positioning of circular spacers on the reinforcement at the bottom and edges (minimum 1 spacer/ml). - Final inspection of reinforcement assumes that they are positioned correctly in the form, that they are held, tied, and correctly spliced respecting the technical specifications and structural design. Note: The beam reinforcement will commence after concrete placement has finished for the walls or columns at a level not more that 50 mm under their clear height.
3.9.3. ASSEMBLY OF SLAB REINFORCEMENT

Assembly of reinforcement assumes that they are positioned correctly in the form, that they are held, tied, and correctly spliced respecting the technical specifications and structural design. For achieving the minimum concrete cover, chair spacers will be used, and at the same time assuring the proper geometry surface, stability, tightness and cleanness of formwork. The tying of reinforcement bars is achieved by using two wires of 2 STR type, l mm diameter. 3.9.3.1. SLAB REINFORCEMENT ASSEMBLED WITH INDIVIDUAL BARS
Figure 3-29 Typical wiring procedures Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
Figure 3-30 Detail of slab reinforcement.
A standard procedure to assemble slab reinforcement with individual bars shall be as follows: - Inspection of slab formwork to ensure its stability and tightness. - Marking with caulk the location of stirrups on the formwork surface. - Positioning of reinforcement bars on one direction. - Positioning of reinforcement (main or repartition) on the other direction. 46
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Wiring of bars at intersections, in accordance to the following rule, the grid will have all the intersections between bars tied on minimum two marginal rows; for the rest of the intersections the tying can be done from two to two intersections, on both directions. Positioning of circular spacers on the reinforcement (minimum 1 spacer/m2).
3.10. TRANSPORT AND STORAGE OF REINFORCEMENT

Transport and storage of reinforcement shall be done in such a way that the selection, shape, ease of and avoidance of deformation and properties of the reinforcement will not change. The delivery of the steel bars shall be accompanied by a manufacturers quality certificate and a copy of the conformity certificate issued by an authorized company after the steel bars have been certified. The documents that accompany the reinforcement delivery should contain: name and type of steel bars according to the standards, information for the identification of the batches, net weight and defined values concerning the performance criteria. Reinforcement will be stored by raising them off the ground, in such a manner as to avoid contact with dirt, oil, and grease and to reduce rusting and to identify each range and diameFigure 3-31 Typical storage of wire in spools ter as easy as possible.
Figure 3-32 Typical storage off the ground of reinforcement
Figure 3-33 Typical wire coil storage
3.11. REINFORCEMENT MANUFACTURING SHOP

The manufacturing shop serves the scope of accurately fabricating and dimensioning the reinforcement according to the working drawings and cutting list by assembly line straightening, cutting, bending, tying, welding and splicing so to obtain the final product that will be transported to the job site. The control of fabrication on assembly lines is very good do to the repetitive units that are manufactured. In a typical manufacturing yard layout, the bars and meshes are handled separately, as they require different equipment for cutting and bending, while the prefabrication of cages is 47
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING done on jigs or on job constructed template benches, with the reinforcement tied or spotwelded. For moving the reinforcement bundles and coils the yard is usually equipped with a gantry crane or a traveling crane.
Figure 3-34 Typical arrangement of reinforcement manufacturing shop Caption: 1. Storage area; 2. Reinforcement manufacturing workshop; 3. Exterior manufacturing platform (yard); 4. Shed for manufacturing and mounting reinforcement; 5. Reinforcement straightening platform; 6. Final product storage area.
3.12. QUALITY ASSURANCE OF REINFORCEMENT

Quality control shall be carried out on the following items to ensure that the concrete structure has the satisfactory performance required in the design. The main inspections made on site to assure the integrity of the reinforcement are: - Inspections before shipment from manufacturer must include tests to assure that the specified grade, ductility, variation from nominal weight, tensile8 and bend tests of steel confirm to the design documents. A system of tagging must be adopted to permit identifying tested bars or meshes on receipt at the site. - Inspections in forms are visual inspection of number, surface, correct shapes, fabric and dimensions conform to the design documents and drawings. Height and distribution of chairs to maintain required bottom and side covers. Effectiveness of tying (bars to bars, bars to fitments, lap splices, chairs to bars or meshes). And, location, clearance between reinforcement, anchorage length, laps, and splices in accordance to the design documents and drawings. - Inspection at the forms should include checking to assure that the steel is supported rigidly enough to prevent distortion or displacement from the planned position or loads from construction operations.
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CHAPTER 4. CONCRETE

Concrete is a conglomerate of hydraulic cement, sand, stone, and water. The sand and stone are dispersed particles in a multiphase matrix of cement paste. When mixed with water, the cement powder hydrates to form cement paste (through a chemical reaction called hydration), which is an interconnected network of solid and semi-solid phases that gives concrete its strength, forming a natural stone imitation, known as concrete. Good concrete that achieves its specific properties depends first on the careful selection, proportioning and mixing of its constituent materials. A concrete mixture that does not have enough paste to fill all the voids between the aggregates will be difficult to place and will produce rough, honeycombed surfaces and porous concrete. The physical characteristics, the chemical composition, and the proportions of the ingredients in the mixture influence the properties and durability of concrete. Source: Stutzman P., 1993. Figure 4-1 Typical detail of concrete surface. Many of the characteristics of concrete, particularly its strength and durability, depend on the development of chemical and physical bonds: between the cement paste and the aggregate particles as the cement hardens. Hardened cement paste may be regarded as a cement gel matrix that contain unhydrated cement particles, air, and water. A typical breakdown of percentage costs regarding construction could be as follows: pumping and placing of the concrete 11-13%, material constituents 14-16%, reinforcement 25-30%, and formwork 45-50%.
4.1.1. CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF CONCRETE

The types of conventional concrete must comply with the requirements of NE 012-999 and STAS 3622-8610. According to their destination, concrete is classified as follows: conventional concrete (civil constructions, industrial, agricultural, bridges etc.), hydraulic concrete (dams, harbor lock etc.), road concrete, and special destination concrete (acid resisting, refractory, wear resisting, radiation protection etc.). According to their density, concrete is classified as follows: normal density concrete and light weight concrete and heavy weight concrete.
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4.2. PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Concrete can be described in terms of their properties; usually, it is useful to consider each property on a continuum. None of the changes that take place relatively rapidly in concrete cease at the end of the formal curing period. Some may continue slowly over a long time and others may be initiated by elements in the environment to which the concrete is subsequently exposed. Despite all these complications, concrete of predictable properties and performance is regularly produced and used.
4.2.1. PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

Desired properties of concrete in the fresh state include specific weight, workability, consistency, temperature, settlement and bleeding etc. a. Density11. Indicates how much concrete is in a given volume; it is mass per unit of volume. Bulk density = Mass / Bulk volume Solid density = Mass / Solid volume Specific gravity compares the density of concrete with that of pure water at 40 oC. It is a dimensionless ratio. Relative density compares the density of a material with that of water at the same temperature.
Figure 4-2 Fresh concrete sliding on chute
Source: Elba Werk, 1994. Specific weight is a quality index, because its correlates with other characteristics as: compaction, mechanical strength, permeability, freeze thaw resistance etc. At the same time, it gives references upon the effective quantities of materials used in 1 m3. The specific weight of concrete is between 2100 and 2500 kg/m3, ranging form lightweight concrete (1000 kg/m3) to normal (2400 kg/m3) and heavyweight concrete ( 2500 kg/m3). For building materials, the difference between specific gravity and relative density is usually negligible and the terms are often used interchangeably. b. Workability - is a prime factor that influences the desired properties of concrete. It is therefore very important to consider it in the design of a concrete mix and employ means of control that will ensure its attainment on the job. Workability can be defined as the ease with which a given set of materials can be mixed into concrete and subsequently handled, transported, and placed with minimum loss of homogeneity and avoidance of segregation. Workability is not an absolute property but varies with the size of the structure, reinforcement spacing, method of placement, temperature etc. The character of concrete is determined primarily by the quality of the cement-water paste that binds the aggregates together. If too much water is used, the paste becomes thin and will be weak when it hardens. The strength of the cement paste and ultimately the durability, strength, watertightness, and other properties of the concrete depend strongly on the amount of mixing water used. The proportions of water and cement are usually referred to as the water-cement ratio expressed as the weight of water used per unit weight of cement. The lower this ratio, so long as the concrete is workable, so long as each particle of aggregate is completely surrounded by paste and all spaces between the aggregate particles are completely filled with paste, the more durable and strong will be the concrete. 50
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING c. Consistency the consistency of fresh concrete is an important characteristic in that, it affects its workability, it can be defined as the concrete ability to flow12. Required consistencies vary with the type of structure being poured. Once chosen in making the mix design, the required consistency should be closely adhered to. Consistency is commonly measured with the slump cone of metal 2 mm thick (Figure 4-2). Briefly stated, the slump test is made by measuring the number of centimeters (millimeters) which concrete subsides when a standard conical mould into which it has been tamped is removed. The greater the slump the wetter the consistency. The slump cone is standard equipment on every well-managed job. It is very important that the exact method presented in the standard test be followed.
Figure 4-3 Measurement of slump from height of slump cone
Table 4-1 Test methods for determining concrete consistency.

Slump Compaction grade Time for remodeling (VE-BE) ISO 9812 STAS 1759-88 STAS 1759-88
Table 4-2 Concrete consistency according to the slump cone.

Item no Type of member 1 Plain or weak reinforced concrete footings, massive elements 2 Reinforced concrete footings, columns, beams, bearing walls 3 Idem, achieved by concrete pumping, tanks, grouting 4 Members or grouted joints with dens reinforcement causing compaction difficulties, members with small cross sections 5 Members that require procedures of casting using fluid concrete Class of consistency Stiff - T2 or T3 Stiff -T3 or T3/T4 Medium - T4 Medium fluid - T4/T5 Fluid - T5* Slump (mm) 3010 7020 7020 10020 12020 15030 18030
* Superplasticizer additives are required d. Temperature - is considered only when it is required as a necessity in the design project that establishes the maximum and minimum values for concrete temperature. e. Settlement and bleeding - Concrete is said to be in a plastic state before it begins to set. When concrete is placed, the aggregate is dispersed by the cement paste and the particles in the paste are dispersed in the water. After placing, there is a period of settlement when the particles come closer together; most of this settlement usually occurs within an hour to an hour and a half before placement. Total volume change may, in extreme cases, amount to 2 per cent or more, but it is not of great significance because the concrete is in a plastic or semiplastic state and no appreciable stresses can result from these changes. During settlement, water often appears at the surface, having exuded from the plastic mass. This phenomenon is called bleeding. Accumulation of water at the top of a mass of concrete is often undesirable; for example, when concrete is placed continuously in a deep form, the upper part can gain progressively more water as the filling of the form progresses, leading to relatively poor quality at the top. On the other hand, the accumulation of some water at the surface is not always undesirable because surface water is required to prevent plastic shrinkage and to lubricate the tools used for finishing the surface. Care must be taken that finishing does not begin before the bleeding period is over.
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4.2.2. PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE

The main desired properties of concrete in the hardened state are compaction, strength, water tightness, durability, volume stability etc. a. Compaction13 - (co) is defined as the ratio of the apparent weight (a) to that of the specific weight (), or between the solid volume phase (Vs) and the apparent total volume (Va). V co = a = s Va b. Strength14 - is used as a quick method of evaluating other properties of concrete and is generally used as the measure of quality. Actually, strength is not always true indicator of other properties such as durability. However, when all other variables are fixed there is usually a good correlation between strength and other desire properties. Compressive strength of concrete is the force needed to crush a sample of a given age or hardness. These tests are generally made on samples taken from the forms and allowed to set for some predetermined period such as 3, 7, 14, or 28 days. The class of specified concrete is defined based on the characteristic strength fck (cylinder/cube) MPa (N/mm2) of a concrete specimen (cube - with the facet of 150 mm or cylinder - 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm high) tested at the age of 28 days under ideal curing conditions, below which 5% of all possible results will be expected to fall. Table 4-3 Standard concrete classes (MPa).
Concrete classes according to NE 012-99 fc,28 fc,28
cylinder cub
C 4/5
C 8/10
C 12/15
C 16/20
C 20/25
C 25/30
C 30/37
C 35/45
C 40/50
C 45/55
C 50/60
4 5
Characteristic strength (grade) of concrete (MPa) 8 12 16 20 25 30 35 10 15 20 25 30 37 45
40 50
45 55
50 60
Table 4-4 Strength of concrete according to age.

Concrete grade 20 25 30 40 50 Characteristic strength. fcu (MPa) 20,0 25,0 30,0 40,0 50,0 7 days 13,5 16,5 20 28 36 Cube strength at given age (MPa) 2 months 3 months 6 months 22 27,5 33 44 54 23 29 35 45,5 55,5 24 30 36 47,5 57,5 25 31 37 50 60 1 year
Other strengths as: tensile strength, flexural strength, and shearing strength are affected by the same factors as compressive strength. The basic laws governing these strengths are w/c ratio and temperature-time curing. c. Watertightness15 - is desired because it prevents the passage of moisture from the exterior to the interior of structures and is undesirable because of its general bad effect on durability. The most significant concrete parameters defining the resistance of concrete to deterioration are the permeation characteristics of the surface and near-surface concrete. Permeation can be divided into three distinct and connected transportation phenomena for moisture vapor, dissolved ions, gases, and aqueous solutions: Absorption is the process by which concrete takes in a liquid, normally water or aqueous solution, by capillary attraction. The rate at which water enters is termed absorptivity (or sorptivity). The moisture may contain dissolved salts, such as chlorides or sulphates and dissolved gases, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. The transportation of ions is therefore often a combination of absorption and diffusion.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Diffusion is the process by which a vapor, gas, or ions can pass through concrete under the action of a concentration gradient. Diffusivity defines the rate of movement of the agent and is the mechanism by which carbonation occurs, characterizing the ingress of chlorides and other ions. It is, therefore, closely linked to reinforcement corrosion problems. Permeability16 is defined as the flow property of concrete which quantitatively characterizes the ease by which a fluid or gas will pass through it, under the action of a pressure differential. It may be tested by measuring the flow, measured in Bar (1 Bar = 10 MPa), through a saturated specimen, of 100 mm respectively 200 mm height, subjected to pressure (4, 8 or 12 Bar); (Permeability grades: P104 , P108 , P1012 , P420 , P820 , P1220). The permeability of concrete is a major indicator of its potential durability, both in the sense of mechanical strength and resistance to chemical attack. Moisture movement in concrete may be usefully considered in terms of both permeability and diffusion. Although these are derived from the same physical processes, the mathematical forms differ. Permeability is associated with a pressure difference and is associated with saturated materials, while diffusion is more useful in considering partly dry materials with the fluid driven by chemical or moisture potential.
Figure 4-4 Entrained air voids in concrete Source: Stutzman P., 1993.
Permeability is influenced by porosity and hydration of material within pores, and capillaries will greatly reduce flow. Normally, water movement will occur within capillaries, rather than the pores. The most important driving force for diffusion is the gradient between internal moisture and surface or capillary forces. Porosity is the property of concrete, which describes to what extent it contains pores or voids17 filled with gas (usually air). There are two classifications of pore sizes: capillary pores space formed between hydrated grains and gel pores very small spaces in the chemical compounds of the hydrated grains The bulk volume of concrete is the total volume of the material and the pores it contains. The solid volume is the volume of the actual material, so, Vb (Bulk volume) = Vs (Solid volume) + Vp (Volume of Pores) d. Volume change - Volume stability18 is desired in order to minimize the formation of either small or large cracks in the concrete. Most cracking is caused by excessive volume change that occurs during setting, during temperature changes, and during moisture changes. For a concrete to be successful there must be good adhesion between the reinforcement, aggregate and the matrix. Concrete relies partly on good mechanical binding achieved in the kind of surface irregularities found on reinforcement, as well as some weak chemical binding between cement and the aggregate interface. Cracking is more likely to propagate at these interfaces and this can be minimized by choice of aggregate. If aggregates are chosen angular as a result of crushing rather than smooth and rounded from the wearing action in running river beds, the greater mechanical degree of interlocking will improve the overall strength of the concrete. Thermal cracking may arise from great temperature differentials through the hardening concrete member and the outside air temperature. The only acceptable level of cracking is a dimensional gap of 0.3 mm or below. Wider gaps will significantly affect water penetration and the corrosion of reinforcement and durability generally. 53
b
Figure 4-5 Types of concrete shrinkage Caption: a. Free shrinkage, b. Restrained shrinkage, restrained shrinkage cracking.
c Plastic shrinkage - cracking of concrete can occur in the initial set do to shrinkage of the hardening material and from settlement of aggregates and cement and loss of water, often referred to as bleeding, in deep sections. When the evaporation rate exceeds the rate of bleeding and the free settlement period is ended (water evaporates faster than it can reach the surface), a hydrostatic tension begins to develop throughout the mass owing to the formation of menisci at the water surfaces in the capillaries, resulting in vertical and lateral compressive forces manifested, primarily in slabs, by pattern cracking, known as plastic shrinkage cracking.
Figure 4-6 Effects and phases of plastic shrinkage
Remedial measures may involve: sun shades (to reduce the concrete temperature) and windbreaks (to control the wind velocity), application of water sprays or application of a curing compound to slow the evaporation process (increase the humidity of the surface).
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING e. Freeze thaw strength19. Represents the maximum number of freeze-thaw successive cycles that the concrete specimens can go through without decreasing their strength by 25 % in comparison with the laboratory reference specimens. Freeze-thaw grades: G50, G100, G150 (approximately 50 cycles per year, average max. 150-200 cycles per year). Major factors that affect resistance to freezing and thawing: air entrainment, w/c ratio, volume stability of aggregates (stiff aggregates with low coefficient of thermal expansion). f. Other properties of hardened concrete include: thermal properties, electrical conductivity, exposure to high temperature, fire resistance, acoustical properties etc.
4.2.3. DURABILITY
The main factors that affect concrete durability are as follows: curing conditions (humidity, temperature), w/c ratio, air content, aggregates (characteristics, roughness, grading, mineralogical composition), cement (composition, fineness, cement content), strength porosity relationship and mixing water. To ensure the long term service of concrete, the following items shall be considered: expansion in wet condition, drying shrinkage, carbonation, corrosion of reinforcement, alkalisilica reaction20 (chemical reaction between the alkalis contained in the cement paste and certain reactive forms of silica within aggregate, that creates a gel that can swell and cause expansion and cracking of the concrete), erosion, sulfate attack (chemical attack on concrete, do to the presents of sulfates in groundwater, soil, and seawater), freezing and thawing, biological degradation other chemical attack.
4.3. CONCRETE MATERIALS

4.3.1. CEMENTS
4.3.1.1. MANUFACTURING PROCESS Portland cement (calcium silicate dry powder cement) is simply a mixture of very fine particles of calcium, silicon, aluminum, and iron. The first step in the Portland cement manufacturing process is obtaining raw materials (e.g. limestone, shells, chalk, shale, clay, sand, iron ore). At the quarry, primary and secondary crushers reduce the raw materials. Once the raw materials arrive at the cement plant, the materials are proportioned to create cement with a specific chemical composition. Two different methods, dry and wet, are used to manufacture Portland cement. - In the dry process, dry raw materials are proportioned, ground to a powder, blended together, and fed to the kiln in a dry state. - In the wet process, adding water to the properly proportioned raw materials forms slurry. The grinding and blending operations are then completed with the materials in slurry form. After blending, the mixture of raw materials is fed into the upper end of a tilted rotating, cylindrical kiln. The mixture passes through the kiln at a rate controlled by the slope and rotational speed of the kiln. Burning fuel consisting of powdered coal or natural gas is forced into the lower end of the kiln. Inside the kiln, raw materials reach temperatures of 1430 oC to 1650 oC. At 1480 oC, a series of chemical reactions cause the materials to fuse and create cement clinker-grayishblack pellets, often not bigger than 25 mm in diameter (Figure 4-7). Clinker is discharged redhot from the lower end of the kiln and transferred to various types of coolers to lower the clinker to handling temperatures. Cooled clinker is combined with gypsum and ground into a fine gray powder named Portland cement. 55
21
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Table 4-5 Raw Materials Used in the Manufacture of Portland cement.
Raw material Limestone Chalk Cement rock Clay Slag CaO 52 54 43 1 42 SiO2 3 1 11 57 34 Al2O3 1 0,5 3 16 15 Fe2O3 0,5 0,2 1 7 1 MgO 0,5 0,3 2 1 4 Loss on ignition 42 43 36 14 0
Figure 4-7 a. A sectioned clinker nodule, b. Unhydrated ordinary Portland cement particles, field width of 320 microns.
Source: Stutzman P., 1993.

4.3.1.2. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION There are four important compounds22 which have been isolated in cement and which have specific properties with regard to their setting and hardening. By designing the cement to alter the proportion of these compounds formed, control is achieved over its setting and strength. The main compounds23 formed in the clinker are: - tricalcium silicate (Ca3SiO4) known as alite (abbreviated C3S) - this gels very quickly with great heat determining the initial set and early strength gain of the cement; - dicalcium silicate (Ca2SiO5) known as belite (abbreviated C2S) - this compound hydrates and hardens slowly. It has greater resistance to chemical attack, shows greater durability and low drying shrinkage; - tricalcium aluminate (Ca3A12O6) (abbreviated C3A) - this compound hydrates rapidly with great heat and although it assists in the initial setting of cement, it has littler strength contribution. Cement low in C3A is sulphate resistant; - tetracalcium alumino ferrite (Ca4Al2Fe2O10) known as ferrite or brownmillerit (abbreviated C4AF) - this compound prime importance is that is acts as a fluxing agent which reduces the melting temperature of raw materials in the kiln. It hydrates rapidly, but does not contribute much to strength of the cement paste; it could be regarded as a product of the reaction, taking space as a filler. - Sodium oxide (Na2O) (abbreviated N), Potassium Oxide (K2O) (abbreviated K) and Gypsum (CaSO42H2O) (abbreviated CSH2). The amounts of these compounds that can theoretically be formed can be calculated from the amounts of the four oxides of which they are composed. In modern technology, the calculated amounts of these compounds provide a basis for estimating the properties of the cement. Early strength development is attributed largely to C3S, whereas, with continued moist curing, C2S causes increase in strength at the later ages. 56
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING The need for retardation of set is attributed mainly to the C3A, and the content of C3A is related inversely to ability of the concrete to resist disintegration by sulfate-bearing water. Raising the amount of C4AF, by raising the iron-oxide content of the mix without increasing the alumina content, is one means of reducing the amount of C3A. The C3A and C3S are the compounds that release the most heat when the cement hydrates, or hardens. 4.3.1.3. STANDARD TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT The properties of concrete depend on the quantities and qualities of its admixtures and additives24. Because cement is the most active component of concrete and usually has the greatest unit cost, its selection and proper use are important in obtaining most economically the balance of properties desired for any particular concrete mixture. Different types of Portland cement are manufactured to meet various physical and chemical requirements. The Romanian standards SR 388/1995 and SR 1500/1996 provides five categories of cements with several subcategories regarding types. These types, discussed below serve to indicate variations in properties that can be brought about by varying composition and fineness. - Ordinary Portland cement (Type I25) is high-early strength cement causes concrete to set and gain strength rapidly; it is used for normal general-purpose cement suitable for all uses. It is used in general construction projects such as buildings, bridges, floors, pavements, and other precast concrete products. - Blended cements (Type II26- Composite Portland cement (slag cements), III- Fly ash Cement, IV- Pozzolan cement, V33- Composite cement) are general-purpose suitable for all uses, generates less heat at a slower rate and has a moderate resistance to sulfate attack. - Sulphate Resistant Cements27 (SR) are used where a high sulfate resistance is required, and are produced by intimately blending two or more types of cementitious material. These cements are commonly used in the same manner as Portland cements. - Limited hydration cements (H) are used where a low heat of hydration is desired (in massive structures) SR 3011-96. - White and Colored Portland Cements28 are identical to gray Portland cement except in color. The gray color of Portland cement is due mainly to the presence of iron in the cement. By lowering the iron content, light colored cements can be produced. White cement is used whenever architectural considerations specify white or colored concrete or mortar. The different types of Blended Portland Cements are manufactured to meet different physical and chemical requirements for specific purposes, such as durability and high-early strength. Table 4-6 Types of cements and brief descriptions of their composition proportions
Symbol Name Type Fly ash 6.20 Clinker Granulated furnace slag Composition % Pozzolans Natural Artificial P Q Limestone
Normal Cement I
Portland
95-100
Composite Portland Ce-
Slag cement Fly ash cement Natural Pozzolan cement Limestone ce-
II/A-S II/B-S II/A-V II/A-P II/B-P II/A-L
8094 6579 8094 8094 6579 8094
620 2135 -
620 2135 -
620
II
57
ment Composite ment III II/B-L II/A-M II/B-M III IV V 6579 620 2135 1135 1830 2135
ce-
Slag furnace cement Pozzolan Cement Composite Cement
3665 1830
IV
4.3.1.4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENTS 1. Fineness of the cement29, 30 influences the rate of hydration. Greater fineness increases the surface available for hydration, causing greater early strength and more rapid generation of heat. Average fineness of modern cement ranges from 3,000 to 5,000 cm2/g (300 to 500 m2/kg). 2. Soundness33, which is the ability of hardened cement paste to retain its volume after setting. 3. Heat of hydration of cement compoC3A nents31 (loss of ignition), is the heat generated when cement and water react. The amount of heat generated is dependent C3S mainly upon the chemical composition of the C4AF cement, with C3A (tricalcium aluminate) and C3S (tricalcium silicate) being the comC2S pounds primarily responsible for high heat evolution.
Figure 4-8 Speed of cement components heat hydration
Table 4-7 Cement component heat of hydration development.

Component 3 days 406 21 590 92
Heat of hydration J/g
28
180 days
4. Setting time32, 33- early hydration of cement is principally controlled by the amount and activity of C3A, balanced by the amount and type of sulfate interground with the cement. C3A hydrates very rapidly and will influence early bonding characteristics. Cements are regarded as gels that are mixtures of solids and liquids. In cement the chemical reaction progresses when water is added and silicate structures form, sometimes forming three-dimensional structures from fine tubes that hold together other cement particles and water. Every particle is wrapped in cement and connected to other particles by cement bridge like links. Time of setting: initial set paste begins to stiffen (2-4 hours) and final set ability to withstand loads (5-8 hours). Abnormal hydration of (C3A) can lead to flash set, false set, slump loss, and cementadmixture incompatibility. Early stiffening. The two measures of early stiffening are: false set rapid rigidity without much heat generation, plasticity can be regained by further mixing with no additional 58
C3S C2S C3A C4AF
Heat of hydration (J/g) 7 days 28 days 460 485 105 167 661 866 251 377
90 days 519 184 929 414
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING water and flash set - is a significant loss of plasticity shortly after mixing with considerable heat generation, plasticity cannot be regained.
Figure 4-9 Mechanism of cement setting. Figure shows long needle-like crystals and short crystallike formations of calcium-silicatehydrate gel.
Cement grade Setting time (minutes)
Figure 4-10 Schematic view of cement setting Source: NRC, 1999.

32,5; 32,5 R; 42,5; 42,5 R 60
Compressive strength (MPa)
Table 4-8 Physical criteria for usual setting times for different types of cement. 5. Compressive strength34. The strength developed by Portland cement depends on its composition and the fineness to which it is ground. The C3S is mainly responsible for the strength developed in the first week of hardening and the C2S for the subsequent increase in strength. The alumina and iron compounds that are present only in lesser amounts make little direct contribution to strength.
Figure 4-11 Compressive strength gain of mineral cement components
52,5; 52,5 R 45
C 3S C 4A F C 2S C 3A
28
180 days
Other properties of Portland cement are: loss on ignition, air content, specific gravity etc. 4.3.1.5. INFLUENCE OF PORTLAND CEMENT ON CONCRETE PROPERTIES Cement composition and fineness play a major role in controlling concrete properties. Fineness of cement affects the placeability, workability, and water content of a concrete mixture much like the amount of cement used in concrete does. Effects of cement on the most important concrete properties are shown in Table 4-9. Table 4-9 Effects of cements on concrete properties.
Cement Property Cement Effects
Placeability Strength Drying Shrinkage Permeability Resistance to sulfate
Cement amount, fineness, setting characteristics Cement composition (C3S, C2S and C3A), loss on ignition, fineness SO3 content, cement composition Cement composition, fineness C3A content
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Alkali Silica Reactivity Alkali content Corrosion of steel Cement Composition (esp. C3A content)
Cement composition affects the permeability of concrete by controlling the rate of hydration. However, the ultimate porosity and permeability are unaffected. The coarse cement tends to produce pastes with higher porosity than that produced by finer cement. Cement composition has only a minor effect on freeze-thaw resistance. Corrosion of embedded steel has been related to C3A content. The higher the C3A, the more chloride can be tied into chloroaluminate complexes, and thereby be unavailable for catalysis of the corrosion process.
4.3.2. AGGREGATES
Aggregates are inert granular materials classified35, 36 in: igneous rocks (granite, gabbro, basalt, ash, tuff etc. cooling of molten rock), sedimentary rocks (mechanically deposited -consolidated shale, siltstone, sandstone etc. or chemically deposited - calcareous: limestone, dolomite or siliceous: chert, opal etc.) or metamorphic (originally sedimentary, but under high pressure and heat they converted similar to igneous rocks, e.g. slate, quartzite, marble etc.) Cement is relatively expensive, strong fillers (sand, gravel, stones, or even boulders, that are called aggregates) are not, do to this they are usually added to the mix to form what is called concrete. Aggregates along with water and Portland cement, are an essential ingredient in concrete. For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of absorbed chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine materials that could cause the deterioration of concrete. Even small quantities of the organic compounds present in topsoil will seriously retard and impair the strength-producing chemical reaction between cement and water. Aggregates, are divided into two distinct categories - fine and coarse. - Fine aggregates generally consist of natural sand or crushed stone with most particles passing through 7 mm sieve. They shall be clean sand in compliance with STAS 1667-76 or approved equal. Any contamination shall not be allowed. Crushed sand may be added to natural sand in order to achieve required gradation. Beach sand or others from chloride environment shall not be used on any conditions. - Coarse aggregates (also referred to as gravels) are any particles greater than 7 mm, but generally range between 7 mm to 40 mm in diameter. They shall comply with the requirements of STAS 1667-76 or approved equivalent. They can be used as either natural gravel or stone crushed to the desired size and shall only be obtained from quarries, quality approved pits or other sources. Gravel aggregate shall be free from clay, earth, loam, or other organic or similar materials and shall be hard and dense. Crushed stone shall be from hard durable rock and perfectly clean and shall contain no soft, clayey, shaley, or decomposed stones. Any dust or fine materials below 5 mm in size resulted in the crushing process shall be removed through screening. The stone obtained and screened shall be thoroughly washed by a method approved by the Engineer. Coarse aggregate containing significant portion of elongated particles shall not be accepted. The tolerable portion of the elongated particles shall be assessed by sieve method as directed by the Engineer. Natural gravel and sand are usually dug or dredged from a pit, river, lake, or seabed. Crushed aggregate is produced by crushing quarry rock, boulders, cobbles, or large-size gravel. Aggregate processing consists of crushing, screening, and washing the aggregate to obtain proper cleanliness and gradation. Once processed, the aggregates are handled and stored in a way that minimizes segregation and degradation and prevents contamination. Ag60
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING gregates strongly influence concrete's freshly mixed and hardened properties, mixture proportions, and economy. Consequently, selection of aggregates is an important process. Although some variation in aggregate properties is expected, characteristics37 that are considered when selecting aggregate include: grading of aggregates, abrasion / skid resistance, particle shape, size, surface texture, unit weights, absorption/surface moisture and durability. 4.3.2.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF AGGREGATES a. Grading of Aggregates38. The concrete becomes both cheaper and stronger if the aggregates are densely packed. This is possible by mixing fine aggregates, such as sand, with several coarse aggregates, such as gravel of different sizes. Grading refers to the determination of the particle-size distribution for aggregate. For a mix to be continuously graded means there is complete range of sizes in the mix. Grading limits and maximum aggregate size are specified because grading and size affect the amount of aggregate used as well as cement and water requirements, workability, pumpability, and durability of concrete. If the water-cement ratio is chosen correctly, a wide range in grading can be used without a major effect on strength. When gap-graded aggregate are specified, certain particle sizes of aggregate are omitted from the size continuum. Gap-graded aggregates are used to obtain uniform textures in exposed aggregate concrete. Inspection of mix proportions is necessary to avoid segregation. The strength of concrete can be shown to increase as the size of the aggregate increases. There are two main reasons for this. If a crack grows, it tends to propagate around aggregate particles and more energy is needed for an increased path length of fracture.
Figure 4-12 Significance of aggregates grading
As stress is applied there is enough displacement of particles so that frictional forces become important, there is greater cohesion and resistance to the force with the result that fracture may then occur at a higher stress as the material behaves more plastically. Alternatively, as the crack finds difficulty in propagating through the matrix, it then passes through the actual aggregate, again at a higher stress. As a general observation, concrete should be made with the maximum sizes of aggregate available. In practice, concrete tends to fracture at lower values than its theoretical strength. This is due to a number of micro-defects such as scratches between aggregate and mortar or small holes that act as stress concentrators. b. Abrasion and Skid Resistance of an aggregate are essential when the aggregate is to be used in concrete constantly subject to abrasion as in heavy-duty floors or pavements. Different minerals in the aggregate, wear and polish at different rates. Harder aggregate can be selected in highly abrasive conditions to minimize wear. c. Particle Shape, Size and Surface Texture influence the properties of freshly mixed concrete more than the properties of hardened concrete. Rough-textured, angular, and elongated particles require more water to produce workable concrete than smooth, rounded compact aggregate. Consequently, the cement content must also be increased to maintain the water-cement ratio. Generally, flat and elongated particles are avoided or are limited to about 15 percent by weight of the total aggregate.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Unit-weight measures the volume that graded aggregate and the voids between them will occupy in concrete. The void content between particles affects the amount of cement paste required for the mix. Angular aggregates increase the void content. Larger sizes of well-graded aggregate and improved grading decrease the void content.
Figure 4-13 Angularity and surface texture
d. Specific Gravity. Aggregates are classified in terms of their Specific gravity = weight of aggregate in air / weight of equal volume of water. Total volume = volume of solid matter + volume of pores Absolute volume = Volume of solid matter only. Aggregates can be classified according to there specific gravity as follows: lightweight aggregates are those below 2000 kg/m3, normal aggregates between 2000 kg/m3 and 3000 kg/m3 and heavyweight over 3000 kg/m3. e. Absorption and Surface Moisture are measured when selecting aggregate because the internal structure is made up of solid material and voids that may or may not contain water.
Figure 4-14 Moisture conditions of aggregate
Figure 4-15 Main moisture conditions of aggregate
The amount of water in the concrete mixture must be adjusted to include the moisture conditions of the aggregate. Moisture conditions in aggregate: damp or wet (pores connected to surface are filled with water + free water on surface), SSD (pores connected to surface are filled with water no free water on surface), Air dry (dry surface with some water in pores) and Oven dry (no water on surface and in pores).
4.3.3. ADDITIONS
Additions are ingredients other than water, aggregates and cement that are added to the concrete batch immediately before or during mixing to induce a desired change in properties. A proper use of additions offers certain beneficial effects to concrete, including improved quality, acceleration or retardation of setting time, enhanced frost and sulfate resistance, control of strength development, improved workability and compaction they also prevent the segregation of aggregates and consequent bleeding of cement, prevent plastic cracking by the control of shrinkage, and generally improve durability. Additions vary widely in chemical composition, and many perform more than one function. They can be either soluble (plasticizers and pigments) or insoluble (retarders, air entraining agents, superplasticizers, accelerators and waterproofers). The basic types of additions are available: mineral and chemical. 1. Mineral admixtures are added to the cement (between 6-35% of the cement weight) in the scope of making the mixture more economical and to enhancing the properties of concrete (workability of fresh concrete, reduce permeability, increase strength, improve resistance of 62
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING concrete to thermal cracking, or influence other concrete properties). Typical examples are natural pozzolans, fly ash, silica fume, and ground granulated blast-furnace slag that can be used individually with Portland or blended cement or in different combinations. - Fly ash is a fine divided residue resulting from the combustion of ground or powdered coal from thermal power generating stations that is carried from the combustion chamber of the furnace by exhaust gases. Their chemical composition resulting from the type of coal burned. They are generally finer than cement and consist mainly of glassy-spherical particles as well as residues of hematite and magnetite, char, and some crystalline phases formed during cooling. It is used in concrete to improve its properties: workability, reduces segregation, bleeding, heat evolution, and permeability, inhibits alkali-aggregate reaction, and enhances sulfate resistance. In addition it cheapness the final cost of cement. - Silica fume, also called condensed silica fume and microsilica, is a byproduct of silicon or ferro-silicon alloys that is carried from the electric furnace by the exhaust gases. It is used in concrete to improve its properties: compressive strength, bond strength, and abrasion resistance, reduces permeability, protects reinforcing steel against corrosion. It can be used up to 15 percent by weight of cement, although the normal proportion is 7 to 10 percent. - Slags. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag is the granular material formed when molten iron blast furnace slag is rapidly chilled (quenched) by immersion in water. It is a granular product with very limited crystal formation, is highly cementitious in nature and, ground to cement fineness, hydrates like Portland cement. It can be substituted for cement on a 1:1 basis. 2. Chemical additions, known as additives, are added by to concrete by producers, in very small amounts, to modify certain properties of fresh or hardened concrete. Successful use of additives depends on the use of appropriate methods of batching and concreting. Most admixtures are supplied in ready-to-use liquid/powder form and are added to the concrete at the plant or at the jobsite. The effectiveness of an additive depends on several factors including: type and amount of cement, water content, mixing time, slump, and temperatures of the concrete and air. Admixtures are classified in several distinct categories: - Air-Entraining Admixtures produce air-entrained concrete, they are used to incorporate a distribution of fine air-voids in the cement-paste phase to provide spaces for the water to expand on freezing, reducing the possibility of internal stress and cracking. The amount of entrained air is usually between 27 % of the volume of the concrete, but may be varied as required by special conditions. The use of air-entraining agents results in concrete that is highly resistant to severe frost action and cycles of wetting and drying or freezing and thawing and has a high degree of workability and durability. They reduce bleeding and improve the workability of the concrete, minimizing particle segregation. - Water-Reducing Admixtures. They reduce the required water content for a concrete mixture by about 5 to 10 percent. Consequently, concrete containing a water-reducing admixture needs less water to reach a required slump than untreated concrete. The treated concrete can have a lower water-cement ratio. This usually indicates that a higher strength concrete can be produced without increasing the amount of cement. - Retarding Admixtures Retarding water reducing agent, these reduce the temperature rise in concrete. These work by reducing the temperature and rate of reaction at which the concrete will set. They delay the setting time normally by one to three hours but can be specified to delay setting for two or three days. This may be needed for continuous concreting operations, by keeping the concrete workable (without affecting the long-term mechanical properties). They can avoid complications when unavoidable delays between 63
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING mixing and placing occur and they compensate for concreting in hot weather and allow for a better junction in poured concrete to be made when large quantities are being placed. - Accelerating Admixtures are added to concrete either to increase the rate of hydration /early strength development or to shorten the time of setting, or both (particularly in cold climates). Accelerators have a negligible effect on long-term strength but can improve early strength by at least 25 % after one day. Plasticizers can also be used to reduce water demand and accelerate early strength gain of the concrete. - Superplasticizers, also known as plasticizers39 or high-range water reducers (HRWR), reduce water content by 12 to 30 percent. They can be added to concrete with a low-tonormal slump and water-cement ratio to make high-slump flowing concrete. The effect of superplasticizers lasts only 30 to 60 minutes, depending on the brand and dosage rate, and is followed by a rapid loss in workability. Because of the slump loss, superplasticizers are usually added to concrete at the jobsite. Other types of admixtures are: damp-proofing and water-proofing admixtures40, corrosion inhibitors, shrinkage reduction, alkali-silica reactivity reduction, workability enhancement, bonding.
4.3.4. WATER
Water shall comply with the requirements of STAS 790-8441 or approved equivalent. Clean fresh potable water shall be used for the mixing of all concrete and mortar and shall be from an approved source. Seawater shall not be used at any time. The function of water when incorporated in concrete is as follows: - Water begins the reaction of cement hydration. Reacting chemically with the cement to form a cement paste in which the inert aggregates are held in suspension until the cement has hardened. - Water serves also as a vehicle or lubricant between the fine and coarse aggregates in order that the concrete may be made more readily placeable in the forms (more workable). Only 1/3 of the water is needed for cement chemical reaction (hydration) the rest is used form workability, most remaining in the pores and holes thus resulting porosity. The water used in concrete must be clean, and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, organic materials, or other deleterious substances. Excessive impurities in mixing water not only may affect setting time and concrete strength, but also may cause efflorescence, staining, and corrosion of reinforcement, volume instability, and reduced durability.
4.4. THEORY OF MIXES

There are two ways of specifying a concrete mix prescribed and designed. The first is to use ordinary prescribed mixes that already have the proportions of cement and aggregates worked out relative to a required strength, i.e. the grading is specified. There can be special prescribed mixes where an aspect or aspects of the mix control will change rather than the constituents, i.e. workability, maximum free w/c ratio, air content, temperatures and admixtures. Must building professionals will use prescribed mixes that have already been worked out and the proportion of constituents already fixed. They can be specified by grade that relates numerically to the characteristic strength. The second is to use a designed mix, which is a performance specification staring required strength and minimum cement content but leaving the grading and details of the mix design to be worked out. The Romanian norm NE 012-99 regarding design of normal/conventional concrete mixes takes users through a process which works in clear stages: strength and w/c ratio, workability and free water content, stages 1 and 2 combine to give cement content, total aggregate content and selection of coarse and fine aggregates. 64
CHAPTER 5. BATCHING AND MIXING CONCRETE

Concrete is one of the few major structural material manufactured at the site. To reach the desired properties of strength, durability, watertightness, and homogeneity is necessary. Concrete homogeneity means the attainment of a condition where the four ingredients are uniformly distributed through the mass. This requires the maintenance of constant proportions of ingredients, with a high degree of accuracy (1% for cement, 2% for aggregates and 1,5 % for water), and thorough mixing.
5.2. BATCHING CONCRETE

To assure uniformity and simplify the checking of the proportions, the practice has developed of making concrete in separate fixed volumes called batches. Concrete can be batched by two methods: by volume or by weight. Volume batching is usually carried out using an open box (of such dimensions as to make manual handling possible approx. 50 kg) called a gauge box. For a 1:2:4 mix gauge box is filled once with cement, twice with fine aggregate and four times with coarse aggregate, the top of the gauge box being struck of level each time. Aside from the labor involved, volumetric batching leads to inaccuracies due to variable bulking of the sand from variation in surface moisture. If the aggregate is damp or wet, its volume will increase by up to 25% and therefore the amount of fine aggregate should be increased by this amount. This increase is called bulking. That is why it is recommended for concrete with grades lower than C12/15, and use for small jobs as sidewalk repairs, small garage floors, or simple farm structures. Weight batching involves the use of a scale that is linked to a dial giving the exact mass of the materials as they are placed in the scales. This is the best method since it has grater accuracy aggregate 2%, cement 1%, and water 1,5%.
5.3. MIXING CONCRETE

Proper mixing is essential to produce homogeneous, uniform concrete. Inadequate mixing will result in concrete with lower strengths and greater batch-to batch variations.
5.3.1. HAND MIXING

The quality of hand mixing is usually judged by uniformity of color and texture. Since mixing involves effort, either human or mechanical, it requires close inspection. Hand mixing is used usually for: concrete grades smaller than C 12/15 and for small or inaccessible jobs that require batches up to 1 m3; A common procedure for hand mixing is to: - Arrange a working platform to facilitate mixing and to minimize the introduction of dirt and loss of mortar, it must be clean, level, watertight, and preferably nonabsorbent. Its size depends on the total amount to be mixed and number of laborers engaged. - Spread the coarse aggregate and sand over the platform to a uniform depth and then spread the cement over them.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Mix by shoveling the aggregates with the cement, using a turning and spreading motion until a uniform color is obtained. Mound the material and form a crater in the center Add water slowly into the crater and turn the material into the water. Shovel the components from the edge towards center of the mass, until a consistency somewhat wetter than the required final concrete texture and consistency is obtained. If too dry, additional water may be sprinkled on and the mass again turned. Mixing should continue until every piece of aggregate is completely coated with a thoroughly mixed cement paste.
5.3.2. MACHINE MIXING

Machine mixing is far more economical and can, when properly handled, produce perfectly homogeneous concrete. Concrete should be mixed until it is uniform in appearance and consistency. The time required for mixing depends on the volume and stiffness of the mix, the size of the C.A., the additive or admixture used, the weather (cold or hot) and on the type of mixer method being used. The choice of method for mixing the concrete or mortar must be made based on the volume of mixed material required in any given time. A mechanical mixer generally consists of one or more drums with open ends mounted with axis of rotation horizontal or tilted, rotated by a gasoline or electric motor. The rate of rotation will be the most rapid so to avoid any tendency to adherence of concrete to the drum, using the right amount of centrifugal force. This speed is approximately 200 rpm peripherally, which means that the larger drums rotate more slowly. Each manufacturer will establish the optimum speed for his mixer by tests adjusted according to his particular mixer characteristics. The mixer shall be equipped with a charging hopper and with an adequate water storage container with a device for accurately measuring and automatically controlling the amount of water used in each batch. This device shall be capable of setting to give an amount of water registering to 1 percent of the reFigure 5-1 Twin shaft batch mixer quired volume with uniform delivery. It shall also be Source: BHS Sonthofen, 1999. capable of rapid adjustment to allow for the water content of the aggregates or to correct variations in the slump. Most concrete mixers used on building sites are of the batch type. The basic forms are: drum type - gravity free-fall mixers (tilting drum mixer or horizontal mixer), forced action mixers (countercurrent -backward flow mixer or forward flow mixer), vibrating mixers, turbulent mixers, combined mixers.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Mechanical mixers are available in sizes varying from 0,01 to 3 m3 capacity. For larger projects and central mixing plants, mixers of 1,56 m3 capacity are used, with drum speeds of 22 (rev/min) capable of mixing at a rate of 12 batches per hour having the production output rate 1,22,4 m3/hr. In no case shall the volume of the mixed material exceed the manufacturers rated capacity of the mixer and they should not be operated at speeds other than those for which they were designed. Overloading or running either too quickly or too slowly prevents the proper mixing action from taking place. When increased output is required, a larger mixer or additional ones should be used. The mixer shall be washed out with cementitious grout sufficient to coat the inside of the drum before mixing the first batch after any stoppage or alternatively the first mix shall be discarded. The plant and the concreting program shall be so arranged that only one class of concrete be produced in one mixing drum until the pours of that class of concrete have been completed. When such a phase of work has been completed, the mixing drum and wet hopper shall be washed out thoroughly before another class of concrete is mixed in the same drum. Mixing shall continue for a minimum of two minutes and maximum of 5 minutes after all the materials, including the water, are passed into the drum before any of the batches is discharged. Batch mixers shall be fitted with timers to record the mixing time for each batch. Admixture shall be introduced at specified points in the batching process to provide the intended concrete properties at the actual time of casting. During windy weather, precautions shall be taken to prevent loss of cement during batching and mixing. 5.3.2.1. DRUM TYPE CONCRETE MIXERS Drum mixers, or also referred to as free-fall or Gravitational mixers, (see Figure 5-2) consists of a rotating drum with stationary blades fixed on the inside set at an angle to the axis so as to pick up the ingredients as the drum rotates and spill them over one another and move them longitudinally. Mixing is accomplished by the action of the blades passing through the fluid concrete. For this type of mixer, specifications usually require a minimum of 1 min for mixers of up to 0.75 m3 capacity, with an increase of at least 15 sec for every 0.5 m3 (or fraction) of additional capacity, but not more than 120 sec. If mixes are stiff, additional time will be required, and the same is true for mixes containing fine sand or small C.A. The mixing time begins Figure 5-2 Single shaft drum mixer Caption: 1. Rotating steel drum, 2. when all materials are in the mixer drum. These Blades, 3. Wheels, 4. Fluid concrete, 5. types of mixers unload the concrete by tilting the Sliding level of concrete of the blade. entire drum. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984. The tilting type is considered superior because it discharges more quickly, with less segregation, and is easier to keep clean. The drum mixers are subdivided into three distinct forms: a. Hand fed tilting drum mixers (T) - in which the single-compartment drum has an inclinable axis with loading and discharge through the front opening. This form of mixer is primar67
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING ily intended for small batch outputs ranging from 100200 liters mixed batch output. The complete cycle time for mixing one batch from load to reload is usually specified as max. 2 minutes.
Figure 5-3 Tilting drum mixer.
Caption: a. loading, b. mixing, c. unloading

Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984: Winget, 2001.
This type of mixer is not justified economically because the height of free fall of materials is smaller do to the tilting of the drum at 20o. b. Non-tilting drum mixers Horizontal mixers (NT) - may be equipped with a swinging discharge chute. Many mixers are provided with timing devices so that they can be set for a given mixing period and cannot be opened until the designated mixing time is up. The ingredients are fed into one end of the mixer in a steady stream and discharged by a chute so mounted that it may be unloaded steadily at the other end. Operating features - the single-compartment drum has two openings and rotates on a horizontal axis with output capacities ranging from 0,200,75 m3. Loading is through the front opening and discharge through the rear opening by means of a discharge chute collecting the mixture from the top of the drum. The chute should form an angle of not less than 40 with horizontal axis of the drum. c. Reversing drum mixers (R) consists of a drum that rotates on a horizontal axis. Capacities of this type of mixer range from 0,200,50 m3 mixed batch output. Loading is through a front opening and discharge from a rear opening carried out by reversing the rotating of the drum
Figure 5-4 Reversing drum mixer Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
5.3.2.2. FORCED ACTION MIXERS They are generally used for larger capacity outputs than the drum mixers described above and can be obtained within the range of 0,202,0 m3. Forced action mixers have optional equipment (besides the blades they can be equipped with paddles or stars) that intensifies the movement of the particles in the mix that bring about rapid homogenization of concretes. Such mixers are particularly efficient for mixing additives, colors, and low slump concrete mix. The mixing of the concrete is achieved, in a stationary drum, by the relative movements of rotation between the mix and blades or paddles giving a shorter mixing time. The basic forms of forced action mixers are: forward flow mixer and backward flow mixer (countercurrent / counter flow).
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING 1. Forward flow mixer has the primary current flowing in the same direction with the current of the mixing system employed. Both the pan and the mixing tools rotate in a clockwise direction. The pan rotates with the speed of 20 rpm while the paddles with 40 rpm. The cycle consists of the following phases: loading of materials, lowering the paddles in the pan, mixing, lifting the paddles, tilting the pan for unloading and bringing back to the initial position of the pan.
Figure 5-5 Forward flow mixer Caption: 1. Direction of rotating paddles, 2. Revolving drum. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
2. Backward flow mixer consists of a horizontally revolving pan, into which is suspended one or more, vertical three-paddle mixing tools (stars), offset from the center of the pan. The drum rotates in a clockwise direction, while the mixing tools turn counterclockwise, thus producing a high degree of agitation in the materials being mixed. The mixing cycle consists of the following phases: - Turning on the mixer and priming the drum with approximately 10% of the required mixing water before the dry ingredients are added. - Adding the coarse aggregate followed by the sand and then the cement. - Blending the ingredients until a uniform color is achieved. - Adding the rest of the water slowly and sparingly until a workable mix is achieved. - Continuing mixing according to the time specified. - Discharging the mixer.
Figure 5-6 Backward flow mixer Caption: 1. Direction of rotating paddles, 2. Drum. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
5.3.2.3. VIBRATING MIXERS Uses the effects of vibration to induce in he concrete a back and forth motion of the particles, displacing them from there equilibrium condition thus making the mix more fluid and easer to mix.
Figure 5-7 Vibrating mixer Caption: 1. Drum, 2. Elastic support, 3. Hopper, 4. Eccentric, 5. Central shaft, 6. Concrete mix. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
5.3.2.4. TURBULENT MIXERS They operate in the principal of the forced action mixers with vertical axle. In the interior of the drum a shaft with paddles rotates with pallets (speeds of 500-1000 rpm), this forced action generates a turbulent mix. 69
5.4. MIXING TIMES

The optimum mixing time depends on several factors: type of mixer employed, condition of the mixer, speed of the mixer, the size of the charge, and the nature of the materials. In general mixing time should be assessed in the field based upon batch to batch variations. Lean, dry, or harsh mixes require longer mixing times. Concrete made with angular aggregates required more time than concretes made with more rounded aggregates.
5.5. BATCHING AND MIXING PLANTS

Central-mixing concrete batch plants (also referred to as concrete mixing plants) come in a variety of styles and configurations designed to accommodate a variety of markets, technical and environmental considerations. - Portable Plants operate on the same location for a relatively short period, according to the market demand. In general, they have a cement silo and an overhead bin for sand or one or two coarse aggregates. - Permanent Plants operate on the same location for a relatively long period. Large quantities of materials of greater variety are stored at the plant. The plant will tend to have larger overhead storage and may have two lanes to permit batching two trucks at the same time. Plants may be also classified, as: - High profile - the traditional stack up plant is a tall plant that has aggregate and cement storage bins that feed into batchers or weigh hoppers by gravity. - Low profile - the aggregate weigh hoppers are near the ground with belts to elevate the aggregate to load the mixer. The batching plant consist of storage facilities for water, cement, and aggregates, mixers, batching and weighing units, various control systems, cranes for loading the bins, boiler room, offices, and a paved road to accommodate the heavy truck traffic. The aggregates are feed by gravity to a weighing device from which in turn the materials drop into a mixer and then after into transit-mixing trucks or batch trucks, to reach the weighing devices the materials are loaded by cranes, bucket elevators or inclined-belt conveyors into overhead bins. The cement is commonly elevated to a closed compartment in the overhead bin by continuous enclosed bucket elevators or horizontal-screw conveyors from the delivery truck or railroad car.
Figure 5-8 General layout of concrete plant
The plant layout will vary greatly according to the space available, the character and size of the project, and the equipment available to the contractor.
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5.5.1. MIXING TOWER

The Mixing Tower has an output that ranges from 100400 m3 concrete/hr. A common arrangement for moderate-sized plants is its simplicity by level. - The top level contains bins of aggregates that are loaded by portable crane and dragline bucket from a stockpile within boom reach, and cement bins that are loaded by a vertical endless chain of buckets placed alongside a storage silo that is kept supplied by truck or freight car. - The next lower level contains weighing hoppers, batchers and concrete mixers. Operator and inspector work at this level; it is frequently enclosed for comfort. The material flows by gravity from the bins above into the hoppers and into the mixer or, if dry batches are used, by separate chute into dry-batch trucks. - The bottom level is for the transportation of concrete by any of different methods mentioned below.
Figure 5-9 Mixing tower - Batching plant Caption: 1. Pneumatic pipeline for cement loading; 2. Air separator; 3. and 4. Cement silo; 5. Conveyor belt; 6. Chute; 7 10. Aggregate silo; 11. Water reservoir; 12. Cement weighing hopper; 13. Aggregate weighting hopper; 14. Chute; 15. Water pipeline; 16. Water weighing tank; 17. Vibrator; 18. Concrete mixers; 19. Concrete silo; 20 21. Concrete transport machinery; 22. Batching plant structure; Ns. silo level; Nm. mixer level; Nd. delivery level. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
5.5.2. LINEAR MIXING CENTER

The Linear mixing center has an output ranging from 50200 m concrete/hr. The most significant advantages are that they are: reliable, economic, safe, accurate, easy to service, accessible from all sides, no scaffolding for service or repair works. 71
Figure 5-10 Linear batching center Caption: 1. Cement silo; 2. Dragline; 3. Boom; 4. Cement screw- conveyor; 5. Separating sieve walls; 6. Aggregate sorted in standard sieve size; 7. Cement weigher; 8. Water (flowmeter or weigher); 9. Control center; 10. Discharge hopper; 11. Transit mix truck. Source: Pestisanu C., 1995; Suman R., 1988; Suman R, 1988; Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984; MCI, 1984.
The loading of the aggregates is achieved by radial dragline. All the operations required such as scrape, pivot and slewing operations are controlled manually from the highvisibility cabin via clearly arranged operation levers and foot pedals. After which they are discharged form the weighing belt into the feeding device of the concrete or by front power loaders, via a ramp or ramps piled on one or both sides, or by means of belt conveyer systems.
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5.6. DELIVERY, STORAGE AND HANDLING OF AGGREGATE, WATER AND CEMENT

Aggregates for concrete shall be stored on clean platforms with drainage slope, or in bins. The storage facility will prevent segregation of aggregates and avoid the inclusion of dirt and other foreign materials, having each size of aggregate stored separately, the usual practice is to build prefabricated partitions between them to prevent intermixing. Gradation tests shall be made on each sample. All other tests for aggregates required shall be made on the initial source samples, and shall be repeated whenever there is a change of source. The tests shall include an analysis of each grade of material and an analysis of the combined material representing the aggregate part of the mix. The frequency of aggregate testing shall comply with the requirements specified in NE 012-99 Cod Annex VI.1 and the method of testing shall be in accordance with Romanian Standards STAS 4606-80 or approved equivalent. Water - the source of water must be studied since a considerable quantity may be needed. If a convenient public water-supply system exists, there is no problem unless the pressure is very low. In such cases, a pump and elevated tank may be desirable. If a well has to be drilled, the required capacity will have to be computed considering the following: mixing water (200 to 300 l per 1 m3 of concrete), wash water for transit-mix trucks (200 l per load), water for keeping stockpiles moist (100 l per m3 of concrete is desirable), water for boiler for heating aggregates (small quantity). Cement is a moisture-sensitive material; if kept dry, it will retain its quality indefinitely. When stored in contact with damp air or moisture, Portland cement will set more slowly and will loose strength in comparison with one that is kept dry. Cement transportation should be made in vehicles with watertight, properly sealed lids. While being loaded or unloaded and whether conveyed in vehicles or in mechanical means to the concrete mixers, cement shall be protected from the weather by effective measures. Upon delivery, the cement shall at once be placed in sheds/silos in the order that they arrived on delivery. When storing bagged cement (25 and 50 kg bags), a shaded area or warehouse is preferred with its floor raised at least 0,2 m from the ground level. When storing bagged cement outdoors, it should be stacked on pallets and covered with a waterproof covering. The frequency of cement testing shall comply with the requirements specified in NE 012-99 Cod Annex VI.1 and the method of testing shall be in acFigure 5-11 Cement silo Caption: 1. Air filter, 2. Silo, 3. Crossed cordance with Romanian Standards SR EN 196-1braced legs, 4. Bottom discharge outlet, 1995, STAS 5296-77 and SR EN 196-3-1995 or ap5. Pneumatic pipeline, 6. Railway. proved equivalent.
Source: Suman R., 1988; MCI 1984.
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CHAPTER 6. BUILDING MATERIAL TRANSPORT MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

There are many different ways to handle and transport concrete, the choice depending on many factors. In general, any means of transportation should protect the building materials from weather; avoid segregation, loss of constituents in the concrete mixture, and serious loss of workability. The handling and transport of building materials is very important to ensure the proper quality of delivered on site. Achieving a specific construction means supplying the site with a large quantity of building materials (aggregate, cement, concrete, reinforcement etc.) from the producer to the site or to the storage facility, located near the job site. Unless proper care is taken, the quality of materials may be destroyed by failure to load, transport and unload properly the materials in the transport means or to transfer them to the storage facility. A typical breakdown of percentage costs of building materials transport could be as follows: transport 10%; labor 10 15% = 20%.
6.2. CATEGORIES OF TRANSPORT

Building material transport can be classified in two main categories: short distance transport <1 km and long distance transport > 1 km. 1. Short Distance Transport - for short distance the following means of transport can be used: wheel barrows, push charts, forklift trucks, dump trucks, chutes, crane hoisted buckets, belt conveyers, pneumatic devices etc. a. Wheelbarrows are produced in a variety of sizes and capacities ranging from 0,08 to 0,12 m3. They are used on small jobs (maximum economical distance of transport 70 m), permitting most of the load to be carried on the wheel, but some of the load must be assumed by the operator to balance it during movement. Bouncing of the wheelbarrow can cause concrete to segregate, to avoid this it is important to provide smooth runways for its travel.
Figure 6-1 Wheelbarrow
b. Pushcarts produced in a variety of sizes and capacities ranging from approximately 0,10 to 0,30 m3 capacity. They are used on small jobs (maximum economical distance of transport 150 m), permitting the load to be carried by the rubber tire wheels, while the worker is required to balance it during movement. Bouncing of the wheelbarrow can cause concrete to segregate, to avoid this it is important to provide smooth runways for its travel.
Figure 6-2 Push chart
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING c. Power trucks are powered by batteries and an electric-motor drive or by an internal-combustion engine. They can be fitted with non-lift platforms is used simply for hauling, or with mechanisms, usually hydraulic, for lifting loads. c.1. Forklift trucks are equipped with a forklike mechanism on the front end designed to pick up loads on specially designed platforms (pallets), elevate the load to the desired height, transport it, and deposit it at the desired location and height.
Figure 6-3 Forklift truck Caption: 1. Steel rail mast; 2. Cabin; 3. Engine; 4. Rear steering wheels; 5. Front steering wheels; 6. Twin lifting forks. Source: Chudley R., 1999.
c.2. Dump trucks produced in a variety of sizes and capacities ranging from approximately 0,50 to 1,0 m3 capacity. They are used on small jobs (maximum economical distance of transport 700 m). They have a special drum shape, rounded bottom and end sloping front.
Figure 6-4 Typical types of dump trucks Source: Thwaites, 1999.
d. Chutes are of steel or wood with metal lining (galvanized iron), with rounded bottoms, and of sufficient size to guard against overflow. They are used to carry concrete directly from mixer to forms or form or hopper, conveniently situated to allow chuting.
Figure 6-5 Chute and hopper Source: Morgan, 1999; Suman R., 1988.
They should be designed so that concrete will flow without assistance without causing segregation, and they should be light enough to be moved by hand. It is generally recom-
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING mended that the slope of chutes be 30o, depending on site conditions and the consistency of the concrete as well as the smoothness of the chute. In setting up chutes, it is important that they be braced sufficiently to prevent serious deformation or actual collapse under the weight of concrete. Usually at the discharge end of the chute a hopper should be attached to prevent the segregation that results from a free discharge and to direct the flow perpendicular on the concreting surface. e. Crane-hoisted buckets are metal containers produced in a variety of sizes / capacities (ranging from 0,4 to 6 m3) and types (circular or rectangular in cross section).
Figure 6-6 Typical concrete buckets Caption: a. Laydown bucket (Vertical Discharge Type 1,3 m3); b. Laydown bucket (Lateral discharge into clean out door). Source: MCI, 1984.
a b Buckets are lifted and moved about by crane, cable, railroad car, or truck. The crane offers one of the most flexible methods of handling mixed concrete. It is used where concrete has to be placed at a considerable height above ground level where forms are in otherwise inaccessible locations or when needed to be placed over wide areas. The concrete load is released by opening a self-closing gate that is located at the bottom of the bucket; they can regulate the flow by closing them so that only a part of the load will be discharged. Where the loading height of concrete is low, a special type of "laydown" bucket has been developed which can receive concrete while lying on its long side but turns through 90 when lifted (see Figure 6-6). f. Belt conveyors are used to transfer concrete; they are produced of sizes - capacities (ranging from capacity of concrete transport 60 m3/h; width of belt 400 mm; maximum lengths 40 m; speed 150 m/min. or better) and types (portable, series or side discharge conveyors). They can be made of fabric, rubber, plastic, leather, or metal and are driven by a power-operated roll mounted underneath or at one end of the conveyor. The belt forms a continuous loop and is supported either on rollers, for heavy loads, or on a metal slider pan when the load is light enough to prevent frictional drag on the belt. Electric motors operating through constant- or variable-speed reduction gears usually provide the power. Concrete should be fed onto a belt conveyor from a hopper to get an even distribution of material along the belt, and it should be supported well enough so it will not vibrate and cause segregation of the concrete. The slope used will vary with the concrete mix and with the type of belt used. It is generally recommended that the slope of conveyors be 30o, depending on site conditions and the consistency of the concrete as well as the smoothness of the chute (those with straight ribs on their surface work best on steep slopes). Conveyors should be covered to prevent climatic conditions (sun, rain or wind) from affecting the concrete during its transfer.
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Figure 6-7 Belt conveyor Source: Morgan, 1999.
2. Long Distance Transport a. Transit mix trucks consist of a heavy-duty truck chassis and motor on which is mounted a large, drum-type concrete mixer a water tank and auxiliary engine that operates the mixer (see Figure 6-8). There capacities range from 3 to 10 m3. The revolving drum has an axis inclined to the horizontal. Inside the shell of the mixer drum are a pair of blades (two spirals) that wrap in a helical (spiral) configuration from the head to the opening of the drum, working in the opposite direction, provoking a counterflow mixing effect in axial as well as in radial direction resulting in very good homogenization within short mixing times. This configuration enables the concrete to mix when the drum spins in one direction and causes it to discharge when the direction is reversed. Each batch of concrete should be mixed not less that 50 to more that 100 revolutions of the drum or blades at the prescribed rate of rotation. Any additional mixing should be done at he designated agitating speed. Concrete should be delivered and discharged form the truck mixer within 1,5 hours after the introduction of water to cement and aggregate. The site allowance time for unloading is usually 30 minutes, allowing for the discharge of a full load in 10 minutes leaving 20 minutes of free time to permit for reasonable degree of flexibility in planning and programming to both the supplier and the user. According to the distances involved: - Trucks can be charged with dry or wet ingredients at the batching plant. If the distance to be traveled from the batching plant to job site can be covered within the initial setting time of the cement paste, water is added to the dry ingredients that are charged into the truck from a batching plant. The concrete is then mixed and agitated en route; on arrival, the contents are remixed before being discharged. - When long distances are involved, the concrete can be fully or partially mixed and loaded into the truck mixer at the plant. During transportation to the site, the mix is agitated by the drum revolving at 1 to 2 revolutions per minute. On arrival, the mix is finally mixed by increasing the drum's revolutions to between 10 and 15 revolutions per minute for a few minutes before being discharged. - When the time taken to deliver the mix to the site may be unacceptable, the mixing can take place on site by loading the truck mixer at the depot with dry batched materials and adding the water upon arrival on site before completing the mixing operation and subsequent discharge. b. Agitator trucks are similar to a transit truck, except that they do not carry water tanks. This means that the wet mix is made at the batching plant and charged into the truck drum. The truck simply keeps the concrete agitated until it is delivered. As a result, the distance that may be traveled is limited to that which can be covered within the initial setting time of the 77
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING paste. In extremely hot weather, it may be necessary to use ice to keep the temperature down. This is done to prevent the initial set of concrete from taking place before it can be delivered.
Figure 6-8 Transit mix truck Caption: 1 Chassis; 2. Drum; 3. Motor; 4. Hinged feed chute; 5. Primary distribution cute; 6. Storage water tank; 7. Pallets for mixing. Source: Trelea A., 1997; MCI, 1984.
To load, or charge, raw materials from a transit mix plant or centrally mixed concrete into the truck, the drum must be turned very fast in the charging direction. After the concrete is loaded and mixed, it is normally hauled to the job site with the drum turning at a speed of less than 2 rpm. If water is added, it should be added all at once, while the drum of the truck mixer should be turned minimum of 30 revolutions, or about two minutes, at mixing speed.
Figure 6-9 Rail cars Source: Trelea A., 1997.
c. Rail cars are specially designed for transporting concrete for large projects. Some are tilted to discharge through side or end gates, whereas others discharge through bottom gates. Concrete is normally dumped into a large hopper from which short chutes or downspouts direct it to the forms. It is essential to closely supervise this operation to prevent segregation. d. Concrete pumps can be divided into three categories: stationary concrete pumps, truck mounted concrete pumps, and tower concrete pumps. Concrete pumps are used to transport concrete under pressure through some type of piping system that can be: piston pump, pneumatic pump, and squeeze pump. Truck mounted concrete pumps. Standard equipment includes motor, feed hopper, delivery pipeline, chassis, and outriggers on which a distributing three-, four- and five-fold boom is mounted.
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Figure 6-10 Truck mounted concrete pump Caption: 1. Cabin; 2. Feed hopper; 3. Steel placing boom; 4. Delivery pipeline. Source: MCI, 1984.
Pumping distances - The distance concrete can be pumped depends on a series of factors: the capacity of the pump, the size of the pipeline, velocity of pumping and characteristics of concrete.
Figure 6-11. Boom extensions of pump Source: Elba Werk, 1994.
Tower pumps are used for placing concrete in tall buildings (height of 30 350m). The concrete is supplied by pumps via stationary booms. The pump pressures expected, the complete line including the transfer tubes is designed for concrete pressures up to 200 bar. The stationary boom is fitted with a hydraulic working self-climbing device. With the aid of special climbing and guiding frames, the column of the boom pulls itself up independently on the wall that will be the lift shaft, in line with the progress of the construction. The boom and climbing system are supported by latches that can lock into the side of the shaft recesses and are partially released during the climbing procedure. The maximum slipping speed of this design is 300 mm an hour.
Figure 6-12 Typical tower pump detail
e. Conveying systems e.1. Piston pump consists of an inlet and outlet valve, a piston, and a cylinder connected to a hopper on the intake end and to a hose or pipe on the discharge end. The cylinder receives concrete from the hopper, and the piston forces it out into the house and, by continuous action, eventually to the form. A delivery system carries the concrete to the job.
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Figure 6-13 Pumps for concrete transport Caption: a. Piston pump, b. Squeeze (pressure) pump: 1. Piston (hydraulic cylinder); 2. Valve; 3. Concrete; 4. Flexible hose; 5. Rotor; 6. Feeding hopper with agitator paddles; 7. Rollers.
(b) Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984; Trelea A., 1997. e.2. Squeeze pump (also referred to as pressure pump) consist of a steel drum maintained under high vacuum, inside which hydraulically powered rollers operate. A flexible hosed runs from a hopper, enters the bottom of the drum, and runs around the inside surface and out the top. The vacuum maintains a supply of concrete from the hopper in the hose, while the rollers, rotating on the house inside the drum, force the concrete out at the top. A delivery system carries the concrete to the job. e.3. Pneumatic conveyers (also referred to as pipelines) consists of a pressure vessel (air tight tank) and equipment for supplying compressed air blower and a tank or hopper connected near the pipeline inlet to feed solid particles into the pipeline and a tank near the pipeline outlet to separate the transported solids from the airstream. Concrete is taken into the pressure vessel, the intake valve is closed, and compressed air is supplied into the top end of the vessel. The pressure forces the concrete out through a pipe at the bottom and into the delivery system, while the exhaust air is filtered to prevent air pollution. The delivery line may be either rigid pipe or flexible hose. Depending on the equipment, a concrete pump will deliver from 7,5 to 70 m3/hr through lines that can range up to 10000 m horizontal and to 90 m vertically (there restriction being high energy consumption and abrasiveness to pipe and materials). One meter of vertical lift is considered to equal 8 m of horizontal run, a 90o bend in rigid pipe is equivalent to 121 m of horizontal run, and a 45o bend is equal to 6 m. Pumping will generally be restricted to concrete that has a maximum coarse aggregate size of 40 mm and ultimate strength of 15 MPa or better.
Figure 6-14 Pneumatic pipeline Caption: 1. Air compressor; 2. Airtight tank; 3. Pipeline; 4. Air filtered tank; 5., and 6. Vales. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
(a)
There is a limit to the amount of pressure that can be applied to the concrete, which will vary, depending on slump, water: cement ratio, gradation, and size and type of aggregate. All concretes, however, have their bleed-out point the pressure point beyond which the cement and water will be forced (bled) out of the concrete at the pump by applied pressure into the concrete ahead it. The concrete that has bled out becomes dry and becomes what is called a slug in the line, which makes pumping very difficult.
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CHAPTER 7. HANDLING AND PLACING CONCRETE
7.1. PREPARATION BEFORE PLACING CONCRETE

This chapter provides guidance and specification for the concrete handling and placing work procedures needed to assure the proper execution of different concrete construction members in accordance with its design specified shape, dimensions and quality. Placing concrete is comprised of the following main works: verifications and preparations before concrete placement, concrete placement, and concrete compaction and finishing of surfaces. The methods used in placing concrete in its final position have an important effect on its fresh and hardened properties, such as: homogeneity, density, and behavior in service. The same care, which has been used to secure good concrete, is necessary to make certain verifications and preparations before placing so that operations will commence without unpredictable stops and in conditions that will guaranty the required quality. Main verifications before concrete placement are as follows: - The subgrade shall be properly prepared by excavating it to specific project size (shape, dimensions, etc.). - The subgrade surfaces against which the fresh concrete is to be placed shall be dampened or covered with wax (Kraft) paper for plain concrete casting. On the other hand, shall be covered with a 50 mm base leveling concrete for reinforced concrete coverings. - The forms and reinforcement shall be erected according to project specifications. - The forms shall be examined for correct alignment and adequate rigidity to withstand concrete load and construction impacts without undue deformation. - The forms shall be checked for tightness and clean surfaces before any concrete is placed. - The forms shall be oiled or treated with some type of form seal that will prevent water absorption form the concrete mix. - The forms shall be made of material that will impart the desired texture to the concrete. - The reinforcement should be checked for accordance with design (size, grade, type, bending radius etc.), rigidity, and cleanness. - The transportation of concrete mixture shall be carry out by methods that will prevent the segregation of the concrete materials and the displacement of the reinforcing steel form its proper position in the form. Required preparations before concrete placement: - All loose debris (e.g. formwork nails, sawdust) shall be removed from the bottom of the formwork before placement. - Temporary openings in formwork "clean out windows" shall be provided to facilitate debris removal and to inspect reinforcing steel. - Wetting with water the hardened concrete, masonry or formwork, starting with 2 3 hr., before concrete placement and immediately before placement. - Filling up joints or cracks between form panels that were not closed. - Building of adequate runways for wheelbarrows or buggies, reasonably smooth and straight to prevent concrete bouncing as they travel. - Means of transferring concrete from the wheelbarrow, charts, or bucket into the forms must also be provided (hopper, chute, hose). Precautions regarding good concreting operations: 81
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Assurance of the necessary amount water for wetting of concrete surfaces after placement and for cleaning of concrete trucks (1m3 per truck, by rotating the drum 5 minutes with the water inside). Assurance of electricity necessary for concrete transport and vibration. Assurance of runways for laborers and equipment. Assurance of standby equipment to replace any that fails during the pour (vibrators, transport equipment etc.). Protection of fresh concrete from heavy downpours of rain. If the pour takes place in cold weather the necessary protective materials and equipment should be immediately available. These would include canvases, warm-sir blowers etc. Assurance shall be made for standby carpenters and ironworkers to make immediate repairs that can occur during the pour.
7.2. BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR CONCRETE PLACEMENT

Concrete placing basic principles are as follows: When arriving to the site the concrete transport certificate must be checked for desired characteristics of ordered concrete (quantity, class, maximum aggregate size, slump, temperature, type cement etc.) and time duration of transport. Concrete shall be delivered to the site and discharged from the truck completely and in the forms ready for vibration within 1-1/2 hours after batching. Concrete shall be placed in maximum 15 minutes after its arrival to the site, and the finishing of placement will take place before the cement starts setting. Concrete shall be stored / deposited as near as (physically and economically) possible to its final position, in crane hoisted buckets, concrete pumps, chutes etc. The receptacles used for the transport and deposition of concrete shall be cleaned and washed out at the end of each days work and whenever concreting is interrupted for more than 30 minutes. If the concrete, do to transport, is segregated. It should be mixed again on clean platforms, without adding water, if not possible the batch should be refused. As placing begins the consistency of the delivered concrete should be checked with a slump cone for conformance with specifications and the required number of samples must be taken (1 sample = 3 specimens) according to the volume of concrete placed (see NE 012-1999). Concrete shall be placed to prevent segregation. The concrete shall not be permitted to strike against forms and ricochet on bars and form faces. The free fall of concrete should in no case exceed 1,5 m. For greater heights, as in walls or columns, metal or rubber hoppers, chutes or flexible hoses must be lowered into the formwork to control the rate of fall of the concrete, if not the concrete will flow rapidly entering the forms invariably resulting separation and honeycombing. In some cases, when it may not be possible to use chutes inside the formwork, concrete may be deposited through openings in the side of the form, known as cleanout windows. They provide an outside pocket from which the concrete can flow into the form at a controlled rate, rather than allowing it to enter directly into the form at a high velocity. When concrete is dumped from a cart or wheelbarrow, there is a tendency for the heavier particles to separate from the mass. To prevent this, the concrete should be discharged against a striking (baffle) board. Concrete shall not be allowed or caused to flow horizontally or on a slope in the forms. Concrete placing on a slope shall begin at the lower end of the slope and progress upward. If necessary, boards forming the sloping surfaces may be placed as concreting progresses. 82
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING When unloading concrete on the surface of a cast member, the direction deposition should be into the face of previously placed concrete and not away from it. Concrete shall de placed as nearly as possible in its final position. It should not be placed in large quantities in one position or allowed to flow or be worked over more than 1,5 m. The mortar will tend to flow ahead of the coarser materials, thus causing stone pockets and sloping work planes. The concrete should be spread and deposited in horizontal uniform thick layers, according o the type of vibrating equipment used (it should be usually between 200 400 mm thick). Placing of concrete shall be so regulated that the pressures caused by the wet concrete shall not exceed those used in the design of forms. Concreting should be as continuous as possible to avoid planes of weakness. When the concrete placement stops do to different reasons a construction joint will be made; Efforts should be made to consolidate the concrete by using different means of vibration (manual or mechanical) according to type of member, site possibilities, volume of works etc.
Figure 7-1 a. Placing techniques for flatwork. Source: Cement & Concrete Association of Australia, 2000.
When fresh concrete is to be placed on hardened concrete surface: It is important to secure a good bond and a watertight joint. The hardened concrete shall be level, rough, clean, and moist. Some of the aggregate particles must be exposed by cutting away part of the existing surface by sand blasting cleaning with hydrochloric acid, or by using a wire brush. Any laitance or soft layer of mortar must be removed from the surface. When concrete is to be placed on a hardened concrete surface a layer of mortar must be placed on the hard surface first. This provides a cushion on which the new concrete can be placed and stops aggregate from bouncing on the hard surface and forming stone pockets. The mortar should be approximately 50 mm deep leveling concrete. The concrete shall be placed continuously from one side or end of the section to the other, using precaution to put the full load upon any given area of form as rapidly as possible. The rate of delivery of concrete to the work shall be such as to insure continuity of placement. No partially completed surface shall be allowed to stand more than 45 minutes before continuing the placing of concrete thereon.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING The mixing drums of transit-mix trucks shall be thoroughly washed after discharging each load to prevent the accumulation of adherent layers of concrete. Concreting of any unit or section of the work shall be carried out in one continuous operation or until an authorized construction joint is reached.
Figure 7-1 b. Concrete placing techniques for columns and walls Source: Cement & Concrete Association of Australia, 2000.
7.3. CONCRETING DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEMBERS

7.3.1. WALL AND COLUMN CONCRETING
To ensure that the wall and columns concreting will provide a long-lasting and serviceable element, the designer puts forward the following concreting recommendations: - Wall and column forms that have small cross sections require the rate of concrete pour to be controlled to avoid large hydrostatic pressures on the lateral side of the form. - The free fall of concrete should in no case exceed 1,5 m, while for greater heights, hoppers, chutes or flexible hoses must be lowered into the formwork to control the rate of fall of the concrete, if not the concrete will flow rapidly entering the forms invariably resulting separation and honeycombing. If possible, clean out windows must be made and positioned at least for 1 m to 1 m on the height of the formwork. - Concrete in walls shall be deposited in continuous horizontal layers. No layer shall be tapered off, but shall be stopped against tight forms to produce square ends and shall be so molded by inset formwork that the construction joint will finish square to all exterior surfaces. - Concrete should be placed in wall forms in relatively thin layers or lifts, 300 to 500 mm deep, each layer being placed full length of the form and vibrated before the next lift is begins. - The first batches of each lift must be placed at the ends of the form section or in corners, and placing should then proceed toward the center. This positioning is done to prevent the trapping of water at ends of the sections, in corners, and along form faces so that that no pockets or spaces remain unfilled and that the face of the formed concrete will been made as smooth as required by specifications. - Internal vibrators shall always be inserted vertically into the concrete (see Figure 7-2) while external vibrators are used against the outside of forms, when the width of the wall is smaller that 15 cm, and are most effective in producing smooth surfaces against the form faces. - The integration of each lift with the one below is done with the aid of puddling spades or vibrators.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING The placement of each layer shall take place so that each lift is placed in time to integrate easily and completely with the one below. This time factor is determined by type of cement used in making the concrete, the w/c ratio, the presence, or absence of accelerators, and atmospheric conditions at the time of placing. Excessive vibration should be avoided as it causes segregation by forcing the coarse aggregates away from the vibrator resulting in pockets of cement mortar lacking in coarse aggregates. Concrete placed in columns and walls shall be allowed to stand for approximately 2 hr before placing the concrete for monolithic girders, beams, and slabs. This time allows the concrete in the walls or columns to settle and thus prevents cracking due to settlement, which would occur if all members were placed at one time.
Figure 7-2 Compacting columns Caption: a. Puddling spade/internal vibrator introduced in the top of column; b. Vibrator introduced in from pocket (clean out window); c. Vibrator layout, and successive positions for placing external vibrators. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
7.3.2. SLAB AND BEAM CONCRETING

To ensure that the slab and beam concreting will provide a long-lasting and serviceable element, the designer puts forward the following concreting recommendations: - Structural concrete floor slabs are usually poured in one concreting operation (they can be poured at the same time monolithic with walls or columns, but there is danger of horizontal shrinkage cracks development on the lower surface of the slab, unless an interval of a few hours is allowed between completion of the vertical pour and commencement of the slab pour). - Concreting of slabs can stop do to unavoidable circumstances, in this case the concreting must stop at a 90o angle with the formwork. - Concrete should be placed in beam forms in layers or lifts, 300 to 500 mm deep, each layer Figure 7-3 Slab concreting being placed on the full length of the form and Source: Elba Werk, 1994. vibrated before the next lift is begins.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING The first batches of each lift shall be placed at the ends of the form section or in corners, and placing should then proceed toward the center. This positioning is done to prevent the trapping of water at ends of the sections, in corners, and. along form faces. The integration of each lift with the one below is done with the aid of puddling spades or vibrators.
7.3.3. ARCH, VAULT AND SHELL CONCRETING

When concrete is placed on sloping surfaces: The concreting should begin at the bottom of the slope, to improve the compaction of the concrete as placing progresses and to prevent the flowing out of mortar which would occur if pouring had begun at the top of the slope. Concrete shell roofs have constructed formwork adequately supported to bear the loads. When casting barrel vaults it is necessary to have a movable form consisting of birdcage scaffolding supporting curved steel ribs to carry the curved plywood or steel forms. Top formwork is not usually required unless the angle of pitch is grater that 45o. When the span is smaller that the side (L<G) it is preferably the concrete should be placed continuously in 1,0 m wide strips perpendicular on the edge beams over the crown of the member. When the span is bigger that the side (L>G) it is preferably the concrete should be placed continuously in 1,0 m wide strips commencing at both ends and running from edge beam to edge beam towards the keypiece of the member.
Figure 7-4 Typical types of concreting joints for arches/va ults a. L width; G - span.
Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
7.3. CONCRETE JOINTS

Concrete joints are included in the design to serve a number of purposes: limit the size of the member, limit the stress, make provisions for member movements such as expansion and contraction, separate castings at different times do to unavoidable stops. Their location and detailing, e.g. spacing of joints, will be governed by a number of factors, namely member thickness, presence of reinforcement, load intensity and the temperature at which the concrete is placed. The main joint types are: construction joints (day work joints) and control joints that can be expansion joints, contraction joints, longitudinal joints, and isolation joints. 1. Construction joints - ideally a structure should be concreted continuously without unavoidable stops so it will have a monolithic bond between the sections of concrete either side of the bond. If such a stop occurs a construction joint is created, requiring special attention because they cause areas of strength reduction and permeability, for these reasons they should be avoided wherever possible. They are called also day work joints because they are commonly used when there is discontinuous placement of concrete and successive pours are allowed to harden beyond the initial set, or at the end of the working day. They may also be necessary if unforeseen events (e.g. delays in delivery or bad weather). 86
Figure 7-5 Typical types of construction joints Caption: a. position for column joint; b., and c. for slabs; d. and e. for beams, girders and arches and vaults. Source: NE 012-99;Suman R., 1988; Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
The joints positioned will be in accordance with the existing execution possibilities (they must not be placed within 3,00 m of another joint and) and they must be located in sections subjected to small loads. For special types of structures (e.g. reservoirs, tanks, arches, large span members and massive constructions) the construction joints location and surface treatment will be indicated in the structural design, if not, there location will be decided only by the engineer, before concreting starts, taking into account the following rules: - Columns are allowed to have joints only at their bottom side; in special cases they can have another joint at their upper side (30 50 mm underneath the beams) (Figure 7-5 a). - Beams are usually not allowed to have joints, but when occurring they will be located only in the areas of minimum bending moment. - When the beams are concrete separately, the joint will be located at 30-50 mm under the drop panels. - Solid slabs will have the joints located parallel with the main reinforcement in the area of minimum bending moment. - One way ribbed slabs (Figure 7-5 b) in which the concreting is made in the direction of the ribs, the joint will be located in the area of (1/51/3) x span of rib; If the concreting is made perpendicular on the ribs, the joint will be located in the area of (1/51/3) x span of girder. - Concreting for plain concrete members will stop in 45o slop joints and reinforced concrete members in 90o slop joints (Figure 7-5. d and e). - Arches and vaults are allowed to have joints by dividing the vault or arch in small elements located symmetrically along side the keypiece or if by dividing it in small 1 m elements parallel with the parallel with the generating line (Figure 7-5 f). - Shells are not allowed to have joints the concreting will be continuous. 87
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Special types of equipment foundation that will be subjected to intense vibrations are not allowed to have construction joints, they will be concreted continuously. It is usually desirable to provide a key between adjoining sections to prevent lateral movement. One method of doing this is to attach a galvanized iron strip to the inside face of the bulkhead form (Figure 7-6). The strip is bent into a right angle and fastened to the inside face of the bulkhead. When the bulkhead is removed, the bent half is straightened and projects into the adjacent pour. The metal also acts as a waterstop to prevent passage of water through the joint.
Figure 7-6 Construction joint formed Caption: 1. Bulkhead form; 2. Galvanized iron. Source: Andres C., 1998.
2. Contraction joints are also called control joints because they control the location of cracking because of the shrinking of the concrete and they allow lateral movement of the concrete on either side of the joint. These are transverse joints, placed between expansion joints at 12 to 24 m in reinforced slabs and at 4,5 to 7,5 m in non-reinforced slabs to limit the size of the slab. 3. Longitudinal joints are similar to contraction joints and are required where slab width exceeds 4,5m. 4. Expansion joints are necessary in slab construction to provide space for the slab to expand, due to changes in temperature, without exerting damaging pressure on the member adjacent to it. They are transverse joints located at 36 to 72 m in reinforced slabs and at 27 to 54 m in non-reinforced slabs. They are usually formed around exterior walls, columns, and machine bases by placing a tapered wood strip around the perimeter before concrete is placed, removing it after the concrete has set, and filling the void with some type of filling material. 5. Isolation joints. Allow the free / independent movement of slabs between walls, around columns etc., and are often used in combination with other types of joints to allow maximum panel movement causing shrinkage, temperature changes, and seasonal variations. Compressible cellular materials are commonly used to fill these joints.
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CHAPTER 8. COMPACTION, VIBRATION AND CONCRETE FINISHING

Compaction of concrete is the process that expels trapped air from the freshly placed concrete and packs the aggregate particles together to increase the density of concrete, greatly reducing the concrete nonuniformities and plastic settlement cracking over deep bearing members and mesh/bar reinforcement. Nonuniformity of concrete manifests itself in a variation of physical - mechanical properties (i.e. concrete compressive strength). Therefore, the strength of concrete in structures manufactured in accordance with the same production process and from the same materials varies for different structures. Nonuniformity of concrete can be classified according to a number of criteria (Leschinsky A. 1991): a. Level location: internal and external. Internal defects, of solid bodies, can be considered defects of molecules and crystalline lattice that are revealed at various levels, as: Spherical pores - Capillary-pores of concrete resulted by the water evaporation form the concrete mix (size approx. Gel pores 26500 , where 1 = 1x10-10 m). Cement matrix - Spherical pores resulted by air entrapment do to batching, transport, and casting operations (size Sand Particle approx. > 500 ) - Gel pores resulting do to chemical reaction between cement and water < 26 ). - Cracks resulted do to thermal contraction of concrete. Figure 8-1 Typical detail of concrete - Caverns and cavities in the concrete are the largshowing sand in a cement paste est defects in a structure, do to incorrect placement matrix. or vibration of concrete (size approx. > 5 x 104 ). External (surface) defects. Are inherent weaknesses in monolithical concrete which make its finishing irregular to itself, they are: - Form marks are considered objectionable, the forms must be rigidly supported in true planes, and the number of joints must be minimized. - Air bubbles appear as circular depressions varying in size. They are caused by entrapping air bubbles against the form and appear to be aggravated by drier mixes and rough forms which resist the tendency of the bubbles to float to the surface during placement of concrete. - Honeycomb is concrete's worst surface defect. Its appearance is that of exposed coarse aggregate with insufficient mortar to fill the voids. It can be caused by poor mixing, segregation during placement, or leaching out of the mortar at a leak in the form. The causes suggest their own methods of prevention. The great difficulty is that honeycomb is discovered only when too late. In this case, the only recourse is to cut away the loose stones and fill in the depression with concrete of the same mix in order to achieve a good match. b. Source of origin: random and systematic. 89
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Random nonuniformity of concrete is the nonuniformity that varies in a random manner. Such nonuniformity may be caused by several reasons: variations of properties of materials, instability of the concrete composition, various degrees of mix consolidation, different curing conditions etc. Systematic nonuniformity of concrete is caused by constantly and directionally acting process and/or service factors. In addition, it is manifested at various levels. Thus, e.g. the following types of nonuniformity are considered to be systematic: an increase in the concentration of Ca(OH)2 in the contact zone between aggregate and cement paste, different hardness and strength of a mortar above and under a coarse aggregate, different contents of water and coarse aggregate in various zones over the structure height (in the top-bottom direction), different values of concrete strength in this direction etc. The main causes of concrete systematic difference in a structure are: - Poor production process, and often with specific factories, devices, and machines that are used in the production of concrete mix or precast elements. Causes of such regularities may also lie in various service conditions. - Segregation of the concrete mix as a result of vibration. - Less favorable conditions of upper layers of concrete in the structure. Relative strength Properties improved by compaction are: ul100 (%) timate strength of concrete, bond with reinforcement, abrasion resistance, durability of the concrete, decreases the permeability and helps to minimize its shrinkage-creep characteristics. The effect of compaction on compressive 50 strength is dramatic. For example, the strength of concrete containing 10% of trapped air may be as little as 50% that of the concrete when fully compacted. Figure 8-2 Loss of strength through incomplete 0 compaction 0 15 30 Air voids (%)
8.2. VIBRATION
Vibration is a periodic back-and-forth motion of the particles of an elastic body (e.g. fresh/plastic concrete) or medium, commonly resulting when almost any physical system is displaced from its equilibrium condition and allowed to respond to the forces that tend to restore equilibrium. Vibrations fall into two categories: free and forced. 1. Free vibrations occur when the system is disturbed shortly and then allowed to move without restraint. A classic example is provided by a weight suspended from a spring. These kinds of vibrations have a simple harmonic motion (SHM). This occurs whenever the disturbance to the system is countered by a restoring force that is exactly proportional to the degree of disturbance. In this case, the restoring force is the tension or compression in the spring, which (according to Hooke's law) is proportional to the displacement of the spring. In simple harmonic motion, the periodic oscillations are of the mathematical form called sinusoidal. A universal feature of free vibration is damping. All systems are subject to frictional forces, and these steadily sap the energy of the vibrations, causing the amplitude to diminish, usually exponentially. The motion is therefore never precisely sinusoidal. 2. Forced vibrations occur if a system is continuously driven by an external force. A simple example is a child's swing that is pushed on each downswing. Of special interest are 90
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING systems undergoing SHM and driven by sinusoidal forcing. This leads to the important phenomenon of resonance. Table 8-1 Frequencies for which aggregates of different diameters go into resonance.
Frequency (Hz) Rot./min Diameter of particle that goes into resonance 10 600 100280 20 1200 2469 25 1500 1644 50 3000 411 100 6000 12,8 150 9000 0,41,2
Resonance occurs when the driving frequency approaches the natural frequency of free vibrations. The results in a rapid take-up of energy by the vibrating system, with an attendant growth of the vibration amplitude, ultimately, the growth in amplitude is limited by the presence of damping, but the response can be very great.
8.2.1. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS

In physics, motion repeated in equal intervals of time (repetition, cycle, of the motion) is called the period. a. Period (T). The harmonic equations of motion are: y = a sin t - motion equation v = + a cos t velocity equation g = - a2 sint gravity acceleration Periodic oscillations are called sinusoidal motions
Figure 8-3 Sinusoidal motion
In simple harmonic motion, the period is the time required to complete one vibration. One period therefore equals the reciprocal of the frequency, or 1/frequency (T=1/). When a point moves around a circle with uniform speed, its projection on any line taken as the diameter will execute simple harmonic motion. Although the point is moving with constant speed, the projection point will accelerate or decelerate according to whether it is moving toward the center of the circle or away from it. If the ratio of its displacement distance from the center to the acceleration is denoted by c, then the period T of a simple harmonic motion is equal to 2 -i.e., T = 2. If the wave is propagated with a velocity v and has a wavelength , then the period (T) is equal to wavelength divided by velocity, or T = /v. Because frequency (f) is the reciprocal of the period--i.e. f = 1/Tthis equation may be written f= v/ .
Figure 8-4 Types of vibration Caption: a. Horizontal; b. Vertical. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
b. Amplitude (a) is measured by the maximum displacement of a particle from its position of equilibrium. When the amplitude of a wave steadily decreases because its energy is being lost, it is said to be damped. a = r x m/M where: a amplitude; m weight of the vibrator eccentric; r radius of the vibrator; M total weight of vibrator. 91
8.3. COMPACTION OF CONCRETE

Proper compaction ensures that the formwork is completely filled (there are no pockets of honeycombed material) and the required finish is obtained on vertical surfaces. When first placed in the form, conventional concretes will contain between 5-20% by volume-trapped air. The aggregate particles, although coated with mortar, tend to arch against one another preventing from slumping or consolidating by internal friction. Compaction of concrete is, therefore, a two-stage process. First the aggregate particles are set in motion and the slump to fill the from, giving a level top surface. In the second stage, trapped air is expelled. The optimal period of compaction is: 5 seconds for fluid concrete; 20 seconds for plastic concrete; 60 seconds for stiff concrete and 120 seconds for very stiff concrete. The overall time being suggested by the following effects: appearance of loose air bubbles and excess mix water floating on the concrete surface.
Figure 8-5 Typical aspects of concrete compaction during vibration
Caption: a. placed concrete before compaction; b. concrete after compaction; c. concrete after a efficient compaction; d. over compaction (segregated concrete). Source: Ionescu I.,1997.
8.3.1. MANUAL COMPACTION

Hand compacting is used only for small jobs that require compaction of small amounts of concrete.
Figure 8-6 Hand tapping tools Caption: a, b. Mallet; c. Shovel; d., and e. Steel rods (puddling spades); f. Wooden hammer. Source: Carare T., 1986.
The most common manual compaction methods are: - Tamping with screed board on thin concrete elements. In certain situations, tamping with wood floats and surface working closes up some types of cracking. - Rodding, with special rod tools, is effective for compacting elements where vibrators cannot be inserted, especially where reinforcement is congested, and space is limited. The procedure of compacting by hand is different according to the workability of concrete:
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Stiff concrete will be compacted with wooden or steel mallets (G=12-15 kg). The procedure consists of tamping the concrete; every hit has to overlap half of the last hit. The concrete member will be cast in layers of maximum 200 mm. Compaction will start from the extremities of the form towards the direction of concrete placement. This operation will commence until loose bubbles of air and excess mix water will float on the surface; - Fluid concrete will be compacted differently according to type of member: 1. For slabs, the procedure of compaction consists of hitting the concrete surface with shovels or by striking off the level as soon as it has been placed, which is done by the use of strike-off bars worked against the top edge of screeds previously set to the proper height. These bars are operated either by hand or by power the latter acting as vibrators as well as strike-off bars. Striking off removes all humps and hollows, leaving a true and even surface; 2. For beams, columns and walls the concrete will be placed in maximum 300 mm layers that will be compacted with steel rods, that will compact the concrete between reinforcing bars. The distance between two consecutive strikes will be about 5-10 cm. After using the rods, the compaction will continue using light mallets (5-8 kg) and wooden hammers (2-3 kg). This operation will commence until loose bubbles of air and excess mix water will float on the surface
8.3.2. MECHANICAL COMPACTION

The most common methods for compacting concrete are: vibration, applying pressure, rolling, vacuuming or combined methods. 8.3.2.1. VIBRATION The most common methods for compacting concrete by vibration are of two types: immersion vibrators - internal (also referred to as poker / spud vibrators) and surface - external vibrators (clamp vibrators, vibration tampers and form vibrators used in precast work). 1. Internal Vibrators - The common type of internal vibrator is the poker vibrator. It consists essentially of a tubular housing, and a vibrating head that contains a rotating eccentric weight. The out-of-balance rotating weight causes the casing to vibrate and, when immersed in concrete, the concrete itself. Power is supplied by a small petrol, diesel, or electric motor and in some cases by compressed air. Table 8-2 Technical characteristics of internal vibrators.
Average amplitude of vibrations(mm) Radius of action (mm) Rate of concrete placement (m3/h) Vibrating head diameter (mm) Recommended frequency (Hz) Total weight (kg) Application
38 58 71 110 180
150250 140210 130200 120180 90140
0.8 0.8 0.9 1.5 1.02.0
80-150 130250 180360 300500 400600
0.8-4 2.3-8 4.6-15 11-31 19-38
16.0 22.5 21.8 37.0 50.0
High slump concrete in very thin members and confined places. Concrete (100-150 mm slump) in thin walls, columns, beams, precast pipes, thin slabs, and along construction joints. Concrete (less than 80 mm slump) in normal construction (e.g. walls, floors, beams and columns in buildings). Mass and structural concrete (0-50 mm slump) deposited in large quantities in relatively open forms of heavy construction. Mass concrete in gravity dams, large piers, massive walls etc.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Note: Assumes insertion spacing 1 times radius of action, and that vibrator operates twothirds of time concrete is being placed.
Figure 8-7 Typical internal vibrator.
Source: Tremix, 2001. To ensure that the concrete element is vibrated correctly, the designer puts forward the following recommendations: - It is necessary to select the correct size of vibrator for particular cases. One controlling consideration is that the spacing between reinforcing-steel bars has an effect on the maximum diameter of a vibrator head. - The effectiveness of a vibrator (especially its head diameter and eccentric weight) is dependent on its frequency and amplitude, the larger the head the larger the amplitude. The rate of vibration influences efficiency, specifications usually require between 3,200 and 9,000 rotations per minute.
Figure 8-8 a. Internal / poker vibrator. Example of working procedures with vibrator Caption: 1. Steel cylinder (head); 2. Rotating eccentric element; 3. Electric motor; 4. Reinforced rubber hose. D1= 1.4 r, D2= 1.73 r, where r- radius of vibrator head (see Table 8-2). Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984; Cement & Concrete Association of Australia, 2000.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING In concrete members that are thin and heavily reinforced, careful vibration will cause the concrete to follow uniformly around the reinforcement and this increased fluidity due to vibration will occur with mixes which in normal circumstances would be considered too dry for reinforced concrete. When operating the vibrators, they should be inserted vertically into the concrete as quickly as possible, penetrating previous layers of freshly placed concrete (about 50-150 mm), and then held stationary until air bubbles cease to raise to the surface, usually in about 15-20 seconds. The vibrator should then be slowly withdrawn and reinserted in a fresh position adjacent to the first. These movements should be repeated in a regular pattern (see Figure 8-8). Random insertions are likely to leave areas of the concrete uncompacted. Never use the vibrator to lead the concrete towards a certain direction because it will segregate the concrete. The effective radius of a poker vibrator is about 600-700 mm; therefore the poker should be inserted at approximately 700-1000 mm centers (1,4 x effective radius) to achieve an overall consolidation of the concrete. The circle of concrete that is set in motion should be observed and these areas should overlap (see Figure 8- 8 c). The distance between two insertions can be shortened in accordance with the member size and reinforcement denseness. - The vibrator should not be allowed to touch the forms as this can cause deterioration of forms. Generally, the vibrator should be kept about 50 mm clear of the form face. Similarly, the vibrator should not be held against the reinforcement as this may cause its displacement.
Figure 8-9 b. Use of poker vibrator Source: Cement & Concrete Association of Australia, 2000.
2. Surface vibrators (also referred to as external vibrators) are applied to the top surface of concrete and act downwards form there, they are useful in compacting slabs, industrial floors, road pavements, and other flat surfaces, they also aid in leveling and finishing the surface. Surface vibrators can cover al speeds and centrifugal forces, and can be used independently or with external frequency converters and switch boxes. The basic forms of vibrator used in building works, are: vibration plates and tampers, clamp vibrators and vibormoulds and vibrating tables. a. Vibration plates and tampers consist of small vibrating engines (shaft with eccentric) that are fixed to the top of a plate or a tamping board (steel or aluminum) for consolidating concrete paving and slabs. The intensity of vibration, and hence the amount of compaction achieved, decreases with depth because surface vibrators act form the top down. They are most effective, therefore, on slabs less than 200 mm in depth. The vibrating beams and plates combine in-depth action with the capability to produce flat floors. They are ideal for finishing operations in small areas and for low-slump concrete. They are usually left in one place between 30-60 sec. Two consecutive work positions must overlap on minimum 50 mm, on all sides.
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Figure 8-10 a, b Typical surface vibrator Caption: a. Vibration plate; b., and c. Vibration tamper. Source: Tremix, 2001
Figure 8-10 c. Degree of compaction varies across width when surface vibrators are used
With centrally mounted vibration units, the degree of compaction achieved may vary across the width of the beam. When they rest on edge forms, the latter may tend to damp the vibration at the extremities of the beam. It is generally desirable to supplement vibrating beam compaction by using immersion vibrators alongside edge forms. Technical characteristics of vibration plate: plate width 300 600 mm, operating weight 60-90 kg, frequency 80 100 Hz, average travel speed 18 20 m/min, maximum compaction depth 200-350 mm. b. Clamp vibrators (also referred to as form vibrators) are devices that are attached to the external sides of formwork to vibrate the whole of the form. According to the thickness of the wall, they can be attached to only one side (< 150 mm) or on both ( 300 mm). Care must be taken when deciding the clamps number, location, frequency - according to the concrete mix design (workability, cement content, w/c, and aggregate grading) and ensuring that the formwork has enough strength to resist the load of the concrete and to withstand the vibrations.
Figure 8-11 Typical positioning of clamp vibrators in formwork Caption: 1. Clamp vibrator; 2. Whale; 3. Form panel. Source:Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING c. Vibormould and vibrating table.
Vibrating moulds and tables are devices used for compacting prefabricated concrete elements, they resemble vibration clamps that are attached to the external sides of moulds or beams, thus vibrating the whole concrete. Technical characteristics of vibration plate: frequency 25 100 Hz, maximum compaction depth 200-400 mm.
Figure 8-12 External vibrators Caption: a. Vibormould; b. Vibrating table: 1. Steel brace; 2. Mould; 3. Clamp vibrator; 4. Elastic spring support; 5. Foundations; 6. Vibrating table. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
8.3.2.2. APPLYING PRESSURE Compacting by applying pressure is a specific procedure for compacting prefabricated concrete elements, by applying an external pressure on the topside of the concrete member. The initial pressing force will be located in fresh concrete areas of low strength that will cause there sliding. By this effect, the particles will rearrange themselves eliminating at the same time excess mix water through permeable sides of moulds.
Figure 8-13 Vibropress Caption: 1. Permeable mould; 2. Table; 3. Press; 4. Concrete; 5. Elastic support; 6. Foundation. Source: Suman R., 1988; Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
8.3.2.3. ROLLING Compaction by rolling is a specific procedure for compacting concrete prefabricates using the conveyor procedure (see chapter 10).
Figure 8-14 Compacting by rolling Caption: 1. Belt conveyor; 2. Steel rollers; 3. Concrete bucket; 4. Vibrating beam; 5. Compaction rollers. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING 8.3.2.4. VACUUM DEWATERING
Figure 8-15 Standard set of vacuum dewatering installation Caption: 1. Steel panel; 2. Flexible plastic tubing; 3. Main steel tubing; 4. Water separator tank; 5. Vacuum pump; 6. Electric motor; a. Steel mesh; b. Filter material; c. Steel sheet; d. Connecting tube piece. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984; Tremix 2001.
Vacuum dewatering is a method of reducing the time delay before finishing can take place. The object is to remove the excess water from the flat member immediately after the initial compaction and leveling has taken place, by using a vacuum pump with a flow capacity of approx. 150 l/h. The slab is covered with a fine filter sheet and a rigid or flexible suction mat to which is connected to a transparent flexible plastic pipe attached to a vacuum generator. The vacuum created will compress the concrete slab and force the water to flow out up to a depth of 300 mm. The dewatering process will cause a reduction of about 2% in the slab depth and therefore a surcharge should be provided by means of packing strips on the side forms or at the ends of the tamping boards. The filter sheet will ensure that very little of the cement fines of the mix are carried along in suspension by the water being removed. The vacuum should be applied for about three minutes for every 25 mm of concrete depth, which will generally mean that within approximately 20 minutes of casting the mats it can be removed and the initial finishing (power floating) operation commenced, followed by the final trowelling (leveling) operation. This method enables the laying of long strips of paving in a continuous operation. It is possible for a team consisting of six operatives and a supervisor to complete 200 m2 of paving per day using this method. Vacuum dewatering treatment reduces the total cost of concrete operations. It increases the compressive strength, minimizes shrinkage of concrete members, and reduces maintenance requirements. With only one pump connected to two or more suction mats, 60 m3 of concrete can be treated simultaneously. In cold weather, the dewatering achieved by vacuuming reduces hardening times. 8.3.2.5. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE Radial compaction by centrifugal force consists of feeding the fresh concrete materials, layer by layer, in a cylindrical mould that is accelerated. 98
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING The process times include feeding times and curing times. Depending on the diameter, pressure class, and stiffness class, the feeding times lie between 6 and 60 minutes, and the curing times between 10 and 45 minutes. After the feeding process, the mould is rotated at higher speed and sprayed with hot water at 70 degrees Celsius in order to accelerate the curing process. The starting curing temperature of the moulds is between 30 and 40 degrees Celsius. The high centrifugal forces generated during the casting process causes high pressures ensuring that the solid materials are thoroughly compacted.
Figure 8-16 Compacting by centrifugal force

After curing, the mould is cooled down again with water to approx. 40 degrees Celsius, causing the pipe to shrink for easier extraction. The pipe is pulled then out by a pneumatic device, placed on a trolley with a winch, and sent for finishing. After the pipe has been extracted, the mould is cleaned and sprayed with a special separating agent. The cover is mounted at the end of the mould and the pipe is then released for further processing.
8.4. UNDER-VIBRATION AND OVER-VIBRATION

Normal-weight concretes that are well proportioned are not readily susceptible to defects caused by over-vibration, these result from segregation and are characterized by an excessive thickness of mortar on the surface of the concrete. Over-vibration appears do to oversized equipment operated for an excessive length of time, that are used on poorly proportioned mixes or those to which excessive amounts of water have been added. Leading to concrete segregation and poor surface finishes, such as dusting and flaking. When signs of over-vibration are detected, the initial reaction may be to reduce the amount of vibration. The proper solution is to adjust the mix design. Under-vibration is far more common than over-vibration and, when it occurs, it can causes serious defects do to incompletely compaction of concrete. Under-vibration is the most common filing, it affects structural properties, lowers concrete strength, increase permeability, lowers durability, and increase susceptibility to corrosive elements. Despite this, many specifications contain a caution against the over-vibration - and even lay down a length of time for vibration that must not be exceeded - whilst neglecting totally the question of under-vibration.
8.5. REVIBRATION
Revibration of concrete is the intentional systematic vibration of concrete that has been compacted some time earlier. It should not be confused with the double vibration that sometimes occurs with the haphazard use of immersion vibrators or multiple passes of a vibrating-beam screed. 99
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING It is generally agreed that revibration of concrete can be beneficial to its strength, its bond to reinforcement and its surface finish, the practice is not widely used, partly due to the difficulty of knowing just how late it can be applied. A good rule of thumb is the revibration may be used as long as the vibrator is capable of liquefying the concrete and sinking into it, under its own weight. Re-vibration is used to: bond layers of concrete into those preceding them, close plastic shrinkage and settlement cracks, improve the surface finish at the tops of columns and walls by expelling the air that tends to congregate there as the concrete settles in the formwork and improve bonding to reinforcement when concrete is placed in layers
8.6. CONCRETE SURFACE FINISHING

Finishing represents the treatment of exposed concrete surfaces to produce the desired appearance (correct minor irregularities of surface), texture and durability (wearing qualities).
Figure 8-17 Trowels (floats) for surface finishing Source: Suman R., 1988.
Figure 8-18 Power float Source: Cement & Concrete Association of Australia, 2000. Figure 8-19 Methods of concrete surface finish
The procedure to follow depends primarily on whether the surface is horizontal or vertical. Horizontal surfaces are usually exposed and must be finished before the concrete has hardened. Timing is an important factor in this operation. Finishing must be done when the concrete is neither too hard to be worked nor so soft that it will fail to retain the desired finish. 100
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING The main types of finishes are as follows: screeding, floating and trowelling. a. Screeding is the operation of leveling the concrete after it is placed in the forms and roughly distributed with shovels. It is done by hand, or by means of vibrating-beam screeds, which work off the forms or guide rails. It should be done before bleed water rises to the surface. Hand screeding off edge forms involves the use of a screed board (or beam) to strike off the concrete to the required height. The striking surface of a screed board should always be straight and true. The surface is struck off by pulling the screed board forward, while moving it back and forth in a sawing-like motion across the top of the edge forms. A small roll or surcharge of concrete should always be kept ahead of the screed. Surface hollows created by aggregate roll out or insufficient surcharge in front of the screed should always be filled immediately to prevent variations in floor levels. b. Floating. The purpose of floating is to make the surface even and open in texture, ready for finishing. It embeds large aggregate particles beneath the surface, removes slight imperfections and produces a surface closer to the true plane and compacts the concrete, consolidates mortar at the surface, preparing it for finishing and closes minor surface cracks, which might appear as the surface dries. Floating is working the surface of concrete with hand floats, bullfloats or with rotary finishing machines fitted with suitable floats or shoes. Generally, it should not begin until all bleed-water has evaporated from the surface and the concrete is hard enough to withstand foot traffic with only minor indentations in the surface. These indentations are removed by the floating operation. Bullfloating. The bullfloat is a large float on a long handle, which is worked back and forth on the concrete -in a direction parallel to the ridges formed by screeding. Bullfloating is useful as an initial floating operation to smooth the concrete surface immediately after screeding, and should be completed before bleed water appears on the surface. Floating by hand. The hand float is held flat on the surface and moved in a sweeping arc to embed the aggregate, compact the concrete, and remove minor imperfections and cracks. The surface may sometimes be floated a second time-after some hardening has taken place-to impart the final texture to the concrete. Floating by machine. Float blades are turned up along the edges to prevent them digging into the surfaces in the flat position. The power-float should be operated over the concrete in a regular pattern, leaving a matt finish. Surfaces near to obstructions, or in slab corners, that cannot be reached with a power-float should be manually floated before power floating. c. Trowelling is carried out some time after floating. The delay is to allow some stiffening to take place so aggregate particles are not torn out of the surface. Trowelling by hand. A trowel for hand finishing has a flat, broad steel blade and is used in a sweeping arc motion with each pass overlapping the previous one. For trowelling to be most effective, the timing of the operation calls for some experience and judgment, but in general terms, when the trowel is moved across the surface, it should give a ringing sound. For the first trowelling (often referred to as 'breaking'), the trowel blade should be kept as flat against the surface as possible because tilting, or pitching, the trowel at too great an angle can create ripples on the surface. More trowelling increases the smoothness, density, and wear resistance of the surface. Successive trowelling operations should be made with smaller trowels at increasing pitches. This increases the pressure at the bottom of the blade and compacts the surface. Trowelling by machine. The trowelling machine (power trowel) is a common tool for all classes of work and consists of several (generally four) steel trowel blades rotated by a motor and guided by a handle. 101
CHAPTER 9. CURING CONCRETE

Curing is the name given to procedures used for promoting the hydration of cement, and consists of a control of temperature and of the moisture movement from and into the concrete. [...] More specifically, the object of curing is to keep concrete saturated, or as nearly saturated as possible, until the originally water-filled space in the fresh cement paste has been filled to the desired extent by the products of hydration of cement. ACI Committee 308 (1994). Hydration of cement takes time (hours or even days) while concrete curing can take days, and even weeks, according to a series of factors (e.g. time, cement type, water-cement ratio, temperature and concrete grade). Proper curing is essential for the concrete to perform its intended function over the life of the structure, in the scope of obtaining maximum strength and durability. Proper curing will: improve compressive strength, reduce the incidence of drying shrinkage cracking, improve protection of reinforcement, increase the hardness of surfaces, and consequently their resistance to abrasion.
9.2. BASIC CURING REQUIREMENTS

The basic requirements for proper curing are (ENV 206): 1. Maintain adequate water content in the concrete mix by retaining (through different curing methods) a suitable moisture content in the cement paste. Evaporation can occur do to high temperatures and wind, prematurely drying out the concrete, influencing the cement rate of hydration causing the formation of shrinkage cracks before the curing has started (high internal thermal gradients. 2. Protect the concrete against extreme temperatures (low temperature or frost) and environments that can cause rapid cooling during the first few days after placing. Maintaining an adequate temperature above freezing at a relatively constant value throughout the period of curing, and at the same time protecting it from high temperatures that can at early ages impair long-term properties or that can cause cracking due to temperature gradients. Temperature control can be a difficult matter since there are three potential sources of heat - the ambient environment, absorption of solar heat, and the heat generated from the hydration reactions. 3. Provide adequate protection from damaging mechanical disturbances during the early period of curing as the concrete gains strength such as heavy loads, large stresses, shock, and excessive vibration. 4. Provide adequate time for sufficient hydration to produce concrete having satisfactory properties for its intended use. The amount of time needed depends on a number of variables curing temperature, type of cement, and w/c ratio of mix. 5. Protect the concrete against vibration and impact that may disrupt it and interfere with its bond to the reinforcement.
9.3. DURATION OF CURING

The following factors influence the duration of curing: Curing sensitivity of the concrete as influenced by its composition (type of cement used, mixture proportions, required strength etc). 102
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Concrete temperature. Size and shape of member. Ambient conditions during and after curing. Exposure conditions of the structure in service. Method of curing. Since all desirable properties are improved with curing, the period should be as long as practical. For most concrete structures, the curing period at temperatures above 5C should be a minimum of 7 days or until 70% of the specified compressive or flexural strength is attained. The period can be reduced to 3 days if high early strength concrete is used and the temperature is above 10 C (see formwork strike off). Table 9-1 Minimum curing times in days according to exposure classes.
5 2 4 4
Rapid 10 15
Strength development of concrete Temperatures of concrete during curing above C Ambient conditions during curing I - No direct sunshine, relative humidity of surrounding air not lower than 80 % II - Exposed to medium sunshine or medium wind velocity or relative humidity not lower than 50 % III - Exposed to strong sunshine or high wind velocity or relative humidity below 50 %
5 3 6 8
Medium 10 15
5 3 8 10
Slow 10 15
2 3 3
1 2 2
3 4 6
2 3 5
3 5 8
2 4 5
9.4. CURING UNDER TEMPERATURE RANGING FROM 5 OC TO 30 OC

Concrete properties and durability improve with age as long as conditions are favorable for continued hydration of the cement. The necessary conditions required are sufficient moisture and temperatures preferably in the 5 to 30C range.
9.4.1. METHODS OF CONCRETE CURING

The standard methods for the concrete curing are (CEB-FIP Model Code 1990; NE 012-1999): 1. Sprinkling with Water (also referred to as Fog Curing) uses a fine spray or fog of water to bring additional moisture to the concrete surface, not to allow the surfaces to dry out between applications, reducing the severe temperature stresses and early cracking of the concrete surface layers. Coefficient of permeability (m/s) Limitations: include the need for large amounts of 10-17 water and supervision. Water could also erode the concrete surface if adequate care is not taken. If water to cold possibility of concrete thermal shock, contributing to cracking, while alternate wetting 10-11 and drying of the concrete can cause volume changes and cracking of surface.
Figure 9-1 Effect of duration of water curing on the permeability of cement paste
10
-7
03 7
14
28 Curing period (days)
As seen, extending the period of curing reduces the permeability.
2. Ponding is a quick, inexpensive and effective form of curing concrete. The method consists of ponding or hooding (immersing) the concrete surface, to a depth of 1 to 5 cm, in water (this method is suited to curing flat surfaces, such as pavements and floors). 103
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Advantages: preventing loss of moisture by providing a positive excess of water continuously and maintaining a uniform temperature. Limitations: it requires considerable labor and supervision being impractical for big jobs. Ponding is also commonly used for curing specimens in laboratories. 3. Impervious Paper (Kraft Paper) - all surfaces shall be thoroughly wetted with a fine spray of water and be completely covered with waterproof paper, polyethylene sheathing or with polyethylene coated burlap thoroughly saturated with water before placement of the concrete. Covering shall be lapped not less than 300 mm and securely weighted down or shall be lapped not less than 100 mm and taped to form a continuous cover by completely closed joints. Sheets shall be weighted to prevent displacement or billowing from winds. Covering shall be folded down under exposed edges of slabs and secured by appropriate means as approved by the Engineer. Sheets shall be immediately repaired or replaced if tears or holes appear over the curing period. Advantages: very efficient for curing horizontal surfaces, periodic additions of water are not required, assures suitable hydration by preventing loss of moisture, it is reusable and tears and holes can easily be repaired with patches. 4. Wet Coverings such as moistureCompressive strength (MPa) In air 28 days 45 retaining fabrics saturated with water, Moist-cured i.e. burlap, cotton, or jute felt mats, entire time rugs, and sand, hay or saw dust. These In air 14 days are sometimes used as preliminary to In air 7 days the paper curing and sometimes used In air 3 days 25 alone. The mats must be wide enough to drape over the concrete edges. They are In air entire time kept wet continuously for the duration of the curing period. In place of the mats, saturated straw may be used to 5 retain the mixing water by preventing 03 7 28 90 Age (days) evaporation. The curing duration is Figure 9-2 Variation of concrete strength with curing given as a specified interval such as 7 environment (W/C =0,5) days. Advantages: No discoloration, resistant to rot and fire. Limitations: Periodic additions of water, use of polyethylene film over wet covering will eliminate continuous watering. 5. Forms Left in Place - may also provide an effective barrier if they are left in place after casting. In this case, the exposed surface of the concrete has to be kept wet using sprinkler or hoses, especially during hot weather. Where formed surface are cured, the forms shall also be kept continually wet. If the forms are removed before the end of the specified curing period, curing shall be continued on stripped surfaces, using suitable materials. 6. Plastic sheets are made of polyethylene films, generally 4 mm thick. Advantages: lightweight and effective moisture barrier that can be easily applied to complex as well as simple shapes of concrete members. Limitations: effectiveness is reduced if they are not secured and wind enters underneath, they can cause patchy discoloration, more pronounced when film is wrinkled and periodic additions of water may be necessary to prevent discoloration. 7. Membrane Curing Compounds are applied by spraying or rolling the member with a liquid membrane-sealing compound (blend of waxes, oils or resins held in solution by a volatile solvent), used to retard or reduce evaporation of water. It is an excellent method where 104
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING temperature is above freezing and humidity is low. A common requirement is that it shall form a film that shall retain at the end of 3 days at least 85 per cent of the water. Advantages: low cost to apply and easy application on vertical surfaces. Limitations: failure in the field to place them at the correct instant (when surface is watery the spray will collect in globules on the water and no film will form and if it is applied too late the water in the upper concrete layer will evaporate and the harm is done), and also the failure to cover the surface completely.
Figure 9-3 Spraying on a curing compound Source: Cement & Concrete Association of Australia, 2000.
Surfaces coated with curing compound shall be kept free from foot and vehicular traffic, and from other causes of abrasion and contamination during the curing period. 8. Insulating Blankets - when temperatures fall below freezing, layers of dry porous material such as straw may be used to insulate the concrete from the cold. Formwork can also be economically insulated with commercial blanket. Framed enclosures of canvas, polyethylene, or other material can also be used and heated by space heaters or steam. In these cases, care needs to be taken to ensure that temperatures do not rise excessively.
9.5. CURING CONCRETE IN EXTREME WEATHER CONDITIONS

9.5.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The general loss in output in the construction industry in normal circumstances during the winter and summer period is about 1520%, causing under-employment of staff and plant and delay in completing the building. Weather factors that can damage the concrete are air temperature, relative humidity, prevailing winds and wind intensity, they affect the maturity by slowing down the rate at which concrete hardens or increases the rate at which the water evaporates to an unacceptable level. The following precautions should ensure mat no detrimental effects occur when mixing and placing in extreme weather conditions: - Storage of cement under cover and in perfectly dry conditions to prevent air setting. - Cooling /defrosting of aggregates. - Minimum of delay between mixing and placing. - Temperature of concrete when placed ideally should be 1030C. - Newly placed concrete to be kept at a temperature of more than 5 C for at least three days since the rate at which concrete sets below this temperature is almost negligible. It may be necessary to employ the use of covers with heating elements to maintain this minimum temperature or a polythene tent to provide about 500 mm air space underneath. Warm air can be blown under the tent to create an insulative layer. - If special cements with extra fineness of particles are used, due to greater surface area the hydration reaction will be faster providing a high rate of heat evolution helping prevention of frost damage and faster strength gain.
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9.5.2. PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE IN EXTREME TEMPERATURES

Most concrete contractors need, at some time or another, to place concrete in extreme temperatures, in these cases (in either hot or cold concreting conditions) adjustments shall be made to the mix and to the placing and finishing practices to avoid problems occurring.
9.5.3. HOT WEATHER CONCRETING

Summer, if defined as that period requiring special precautions to prevent damage to constructions, by hot weather or low humidity, it is considered as the interval when the exterior temperature is between +5 oC and +30 oC. High temperatures, low humidity and high winds accelerate the set of concrete by causing moisture loss - rapid drying of surfaces, shorter setting times and lower strength causing shrinkage cracks, for placing the concrete a short time is available in which finishing may be done. Placing concrete during hot weather presents some special problems, and the success of a concreting project under such conditions depends on their solution. Good practice requires during hot weather to follow details that will reduce the risk of poor concrete quality work: - Plan the job earlier in the day, or work at night. - Transportation should be carried out as rapidly as possible. Precise co-ordination between the contractor and the plant is also imperative. If trucks are delayed before unloading, heat builds up in the concrete, before unloading, be sure they are parked in the shade. Misting the top of the mixer drum will also allow heat to be pulled off as the water evaporates. - Plan the job to avoid delays once the concrete pour has started. - Damped the sub base before placement of concrete (but do not leave surface water). - Cool the aggregate. Spraying or misting coarse aggregate with water or shading them is probably the most practical because the cooling takes place by evaporation (as the water evaporates, the heat is pulled off). - Substitute ice or chilled water for a portion of the mixing water is another method of cooling. Liquid nitrogen can be injected into the mixer; however, it requires special setup and is extremely expensive. - Adjust the mix to compensate for warm weather, and use readers (water reducing retarders). - Sprinkle the forms and steel cool water just before concrete is placed, to prevent them from drying out and taking moisture from the concrete. - Spray concrete with curing compounds (e.g. evaporation retarders - reduces the rate of evaporation) that are applied over the surface to trap bleed water, which in turn minimizes the extent of plastic shrinkage cracking that would otherwise occur under hot windy conditions.
9.5.4. COLD WEATHER CONCRETING

Winter, if defined as that period requiring special precautions to prevent damage to constructions, by high winds, frost action, excess precipitation, snow and poor daylight levels, it is considered as the interval when the ambient temperature is between +5 oC and 10 oC. Conventionally this period starts on 15 November to 15 March. This will cause a stoppage of work unless adequate winter construction equipment is used. In cold conditions prolonged setting times are required, concrete can crack when the water in the concrete mass freezes and expands. In these conditions, freshly placed concrete must be protected to prevent freezing. 106
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Concrete which has attained a strength of 5 MPa is considered past the danger stage, although it is still not capable of withstanding repeated cycles of freezing and thawing. Further gain in strength will depend on temperature and humidity conditions, but care must be taken to see that temperatures do not rise to a high level. Good practice requires during cold weather to follow details that will reduce the risk of poor concrete quality work, such as using: 1. Fast hardening cement, adding of accelerator additives and hot water blended to the mix, to achieve the required temperature range; 2. Enclosure and protective layers of insulating materials; 3. Steam generators for defrosting plant and materials or heating water. 1. Hot concrete. Emphasis has been placed on the necessity for keeping fresh concrete temperatures in the range of +5+30C. For concrete that is to be placed in the field, the maintenance of such temperatures is necessary to allow time for placing, compaction, and finishing. But in situations in which concrete is to be mixed in a central plant for use in producing reinforced precast products, it has been found that, under the proper conditions, fresh concrete can be placed successfully at temperatures up to 80C. The primary reason for using hot concrete is that it sets and gains early strength much more rapidly than concrete placed at conventional temperatures. For example, it has been shown that curing times of 3 hr can produce approximately 60% to 70% of the 28-day design strength. Therefore, more intensive use can be made of expensive plant facilities. Moulds can be used two or sometimes three times in an 8-hr day rather than once, as is the case with normal temperature concrete. Good practice requires during cold weather to follow details that will reduce the risk of poor concrete quality work: - Heat the mixing water and the aggregates. When hotter concrete is required, injection of steam into the mixer is used to produce temperatures of 50 to 80C. Temperature is controlled by regulating the amount of steam entering the countercurrent mixers mixer. Normally, steam is injected into the mixer at the same time the aggregates are dumped, but just before adding cement and water. Water produced in the mix due to the condensation of steam is included in the total amount of water required for strength and slump control. If more water is required for slump adjustment, it should be the same temperature as the concrete. - Additives added to the mix as an accelerator, speed up setting so the concrete can be finished. Faster setting and earlier finishing allow the concrete to be covered more quickly, retaining heat and reducing the risk of freezing. - Do not place concrete on a frozen subgrade, it will most likely thaw unevenly, which means it will settle unevenly and have hollow areas under the slab. 2. Enclosures and Protective Layers of Insulating Materials. Workers and materials will need protection from adverse winter conditions if an acceptable level of production is to be maintained without interruption under adverse conditions to ensure maximum quality and productivity. Such protection can be of one or more of the following types: temporary shelters, framed enclosures, air-supported structures and protective layers of insulating materials. a. Temporary shelters are the most common enclosure material is reinforced polyethylene/plastic sheets because they are the cheapest and simplest form of giving protection to the working areas. Sometimes the plastic is used only as temporary hoarding for door and window openings or as window strips, but often the whole enclosure is covered with polyethylene fixed to the outside of the scaffold to form a windbreak. 107
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Enclosures can be heated using numerous types of heaters and fuel sources. The main types of heater in use are convectors (gas-burning appliances), radiant heaters, and forced-air heaters (water vapor into the space being heated) using electricity, gas, or oil as fuel.
Figure 9-4 Temporary shelter Caption: 1. Slab; 2. Insulating blanket; 3. Horizontal enclosure (polyethylene sheets); 4. Vertical enclosure (polyethylene sheets); 5. Heaters. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
At a minimum, the level below the floor you will be working on should be enclosed. Some contractors enclose two levels below and the one on which they are working.
Figure 9-5 Typical heating enclosure Caption: 1. Wall; 2. Form; 3. Auxiliary structure for protective enclosure; 4. Heaters. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
b. Framed enclosures. They consist of a frame covering the whole structure covered by a polythene sheet. The frame can be constructed from standard tubular scaffolding. The frame must be rigid enough to take the extra loadings of the coverings and any imposed loading such as wind loadings. Anchorage to the ground of the entire framed structure is of grate importance.
Figure 9-6 Framed enclosure Source: GP 004-9742
c. Air-supported structures. These are sometimes called air domes and are being increasingly used on building sites as a protective enclosure for works in progress and for covered material storage areas. Two forms are available: internally supported dome and air rib dome.
Figure 9-7. a. Procedures for casting a structural concrete wall in enclosure; b. Air supported structure Caption: 1. Internally supported dome; 2. Concrete structure; 3. Heaters.
108
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING The internally supported dome (referred to as an air-structure) is held up by internal air pressure acting against the covering membrane with access through an air lock or air curtain door, whereas in the air rib dome the membrane is supported by air-inflated ribs to which the covering membrane is attached. The usual shape for an air-supported structure is semi-cylindrical with rounded ends through which daylight can be introduced by having a translucent membrane over the crown of the structure. The advantages of air supported structures are the low cost, light in weight, re-usable, while only a small amount of labor is required to erect and dismantle them and with only a low internal pressure workers inside are not affected. Limitations are the need to have at least one fan in continuous operation to maintain the internal air pressure, provision of an air lock or curtain entrance that will impede or restrict the general site circulation and the height limitation that is usually in the region of 45% of the overall span of the structure. d. Protective layers of insulating materials. One of the easiest ways to protect concrete is to cover it with insulating blankets. Straw can be used if these are not available. On elevated slabs, the deck area should be covered the night before pouring to trap the temporary heat that is rising. Heat must be maintained below the placed slab, otherwise, the insulation will be covering a cold slab, moisture will be trapped, and the top will freeze.
Figure 9-9 Typical protection of fresh cast concrete with heating forms Caption: 1. Concrete member; 2. Insulating blanket; 3. Heating steel form; 4. Heating pipes; 5. Insulating blanket for form; 6. Insulating blanket for free surface of concrete. Figure 9-8 Heating form
Caption: 1. Concrete member; 2. Heating steel form; 3. Space required for circulation of heating agent; 4. Insulating blanket. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
Figure 9-10 Typical solution of concrete protection using insulating blankets
Caption: 1. Concrete cup-shaped footing; 2. Insulating blanket. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984. 3. Steam generators for defrosting plant and materials or heating water. The steam generator can be connected to steam coils that can be inserted into stockpiles of materials or alternatively the steam generator can be connected to a hand-held lance. 109
Figure 9-11 a. Heating aggregates before introduction in mix; b. heat source underneath the aggregate pile. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
9.6. ACCELERATED CONCRETE CURING

9.6.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Although accelerated curing is used more frequently for precast members (structural members, pipes, masonry units and prestressed products), it also applies to cast-in-place concrete. The scope of accelerated curing practices is the allowance for a rapid and frequent reuse of the casting beds, so to increase productivity, and protection of freshly placed concrete. In normal circumstances, concrete after 14 days of curing has completed only 40% of its potential, and after 28 days 70%. By using accelerated curing practices, precast concrete after 16...20 hr reaches 70% of its potential, which in normal conditions would have been attained after 5-7 days after casting (NE 013-200243). The major concerns regarding of accelerated curing are: potential for increased moisture loss and high temperatures, occurring during the curing process, that can have a detrimental effect on long-term concrete properties. Accurate design and control of concrete curing: - Improves the overall quality by maintaining the humidity of the freshly placed concrete to assure satisfactory hydration and preventing early age cracking caused by restrained thermal and shrinkage deformations and damages related to early age frost exposure. - Lowers the costs by optimizing the choice of measures for humidity and temperature control and to improve the planning of the concrete production by optimizing the execution of the concrete work including the time schedule, lowering the production costs by an efficient control of the hardening of the concrete. Do to these, the procedures used for accelerating strength gain aim to create a favorable humidity and temperature for hydration to occur. The objectives of curing acceleration of concrete are: - Prevention of loss of moisture from concrete (not less than 80% r.h.). - Maintenance of favorable temperature for hydration to occur for a definite period (above freezing and below 80 oC).
9.6.2. EFFECTS OF ACCELERATED CURING ON CEMENT AND CONCRETE STRUCTURE

Heat curing may cause two types of effects that could negatively influence the durability of the precast concrete element. These effects are of chemical and physical nature. 1. Chemical effect is manifested by the increased hydration of the cement due to the high curing temperatures, which lead to a rapid crystal growth and consequently, high early strengths. However, the strengths at later ages (from 7 days and beyond) are lower than those of the same concrete cured at the standard laboratory conditions (212C and 955% relative hu110
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING midity). Therefore, the chemical effects are the strength loss at later ages, which influence negatively the durability. Table 9-2 Strengths (MPa) of normal and steam cured concrete specimens.
Age (days) Curing Compressive Flexural Tensile E Modulus 1 Steam 55.4 6.3 4.2 32,571 Normal 67.2 6.5 4.6 36,756 Steam 84.1 7.3 4.8 39,183 7 Normal 74.1 7.4 4.6 37,858 Steam 93.1 9 5.3 40,810 28 Normal 84.1 7.8 5.2 40,533 Steam 102.1 10.7 6 45,600 90 Normal 94.8 9.3 5.9 42,750
2. Physical effect of heat curing of concrete is microcracking. The constituents of concrete are cement, aggregates, admixtures, water, and air. Of all these materials, air has the highest coefficient of expansion. Therefore, during the temperature rise phase of heat curing, air expands the most and, as the concrete is still very weak, the stresses caused by the air expansion may cause microcracks to form, do to the porosity of the concrete that has is increased. If during the cooling phase, concrete cools very rapidly, further stresses are induced which may widen the existing microcracks and/or create new ones. From this it is evident that microcracking is a parameter of concrete deterioration and the causes for microcracking are: high curing temperatures, rapid cooling after demoulding (thermal shock), non uniform transfer of prestress leading to localized stress concentration. With careful temperature selection, the strength of concrete after 3 days can exceed the 28-day strength of normally cured concrete. Besides the early strength gain, steam-cured concrete has reduced drying, shrinkage and creep as compared to normally cured concrete do to the induced microcracks that are preferable paths for ingress of aggressive agents that cause concrete deterioration.
9.6.3. CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE ACCELERATED CURING PROCEDURES

1. Steam Curing - can be achieved by two methods: live (low pressure) steam at atmospheric pressure or by high-pressure steam curing in autoclaves. Strength development in concrete is a function of the temperature of concrete, its age from casting and the type of cement. The temperature at which the concrete has to be cured depends upon the strength required at the time of demoulding, prestress transfer, and/or handling. High curing temperatures (up to 80 C) are often used for obtaining high strengths (30 to 55 MPa) at ages ranging from 6 to 16 hours. a. Atmosphere Pressure Steam Curing - is used for enclosed cast-in-place structures and large precast units. In the precast concrete industry, steam curing allows increased production by a more rapid turnover of moulds and formwork. Units may be placed in a curing chamber (free from outside drafts) and cured in a moist atmosphere maintained at a maximum temperatures range from 40 to 100C (with the optimum being in the 65 to 80 C), by the injection of steam for a period of not less than 12 hours or, when necessary, for such additional time as may be needed to enable the units to meet the strength requirements. The higher the initial temperature of the curing environment, the lower the ultimate strength. This means that the temperature used will be a compromise between the rate of strength gain and the ultimate strength. The steam inlets shall be placed in such a manner and/or the concrete members shall be protected in such a way that steam will not be blown directly against the concrete, or cause uneven heating of the members at any point. The enclosing arrangements shall be kept sufficiently airtight during the whole period of steam curing to prevent the entry of cool air at any
111
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING time, and so that the variation of temperature throughout the steam chamber at any time shall not exceed 5C.
Temperature within steam enclosure (oC) Steam temperature in enclosure held to 80 C until desired concrete strength is developed 80 Concrete temperature variation Temperature reduced to 40 oC/hr until within 20oC of outside temperature
o
40
Steam applied to enclosure at 20oC /hr
Outside air at 20oC 0 0 I 4 II 8 III 18 IV
Enclosure temperature variation 22 Time after placing (hr)
I. Initial delay prior to steaming 25 hr. II. Temperature increase period 23 hr. III. Constant temperature period 612 hr. IV. Temperature decrease period 2 hr.
Figure 9-12 Typical curing racks in steamchamber; Precast concrete curing acceleration cycle
Curing of associated concrete test cylinders shall be achieved by placing the cylinders within the enclosure in a position adjacent to the lower face of the structural units that they represent. The cylinders shall be located midway between steam entry points and shall be distant at least half the width of the structural unit from these points. The cylinders shall not be placed on top of the structural units or on the steam jet lines and shall not be in line with any steam jet. The test cylinders shall be marked to identify them with particular structural units.
Steaming shall be continued until at least 7 days strength (under normal curing) is obtained. After completion of curing the steam supply shall be cut off, and the members shall be allowed to cool gradually and evenly for a period of 8 hours to avoid concrete cracking. Special care shall be exercised to prevent any rain falling on the concrete during the cooling period. Steam cured sections shall not be lifted within 36 hours after the completion of concreting unless otherwise agreed with the Engineer for pretensioned members. Transfer of prestress may be performed when the units have cooled to 60C. The Contractor shall provide accurate instruments for recording and controlling the temperature inside the enclosure. These instruments shall record graphically the temperature inside the enclosure during the whole of the steaming operation. Sufficient instruments shall be provided and so positioned to record variations in temperature between various points within the enclosure. Spacing of recording points shall not exceed 10 m except where the Engineer is satisfied that uniform temperature distribution is achieved. The instruments shall be secured against access by unauthorised persons. The recording thermometers shall be set in operation immediately upon completion of the casting and screeding, the temperature sensitive part of each thermometer being installed 112
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING in position at the same time. Charts shall not be removed from any recording thermometers, nor the recording thermometers disturbed or moved in any way until after the removal of the steam covers. The following information shall be recorded on the chart: date on which steaming commenced, description of concrete unit, temperature correction (if any), time correction (if any), time completion of placing concrete, temperature of concrete when placed, ambient temperature at time of removal of steam covers, name of Contractor or Manufacturer and name of Engineer. During curing, the concrete is taken through a curing cycle consisting of the following stages: 1. An initial delay before steaming named presetting period (i.e.: the duration between placing the last concrete and commencement of steam curing) so to facilitate de setting of cement in good conditions. This period after completion of concreting allows the concrete to gain sufficient tensile strength to resist the expansive forces. Recommended stage period Ta = 36 hr. 2. A period for increasing the temperature, the temperature inside the enclosure shall not be increased or decreased at a rate greater than 1020oC/hr. Recommended stage period Tr = 14 hr. 3. A period for holding the maximum temperature constant. The maximum temperature of the air space during the application of steam (typically 75 oC). The nominated temperature shall be maintained within 3C and the maximum and minimum temperatures occurring, and the variation of temperature with time, shall be recorded using a suitable thermograph. Recommended stage period Ti = 421 hr. 4. And a period for cooling. Recommended stage period Tr = 14 hr. When a curing chamber is not available, units may be placed in an enclosure of canvas and subjected to steam at the temperature and of steam around the entire unit. The interior surfaces of the curing room or canvas jackets and the surfaces of the unit shall be entirely moist at all times. The manufacturer shall provide automatic temperature recorders to continuously record the curing temperatures. The units shall then be cured outdoors for a minimum of 37 days. b. High pressure steam. This method is used for small manufactured units. The curing is done in autoclaves at temperatures in the 80C range and pressures of 550 to 1170 kPa. This environment changes the chemistry of the hydration producing a concrete that has the following modified properties: a 24 hour strength equal to 28-day strength under ambient curing, less creep and shrinkage, better sulfate resistance, lower moisture content after curing. 2. Electrical, Oil, and Infrared Curing These methods are used primarily in the precast concrete industry. Electrical methods include a variety of techniques such as using the concrete itself as a conductor, using the steel as the conductors, and heated steel forms. Hot oil may also be circulated through steel forms to heat the concrete. Infrared rays may also be used to heat concrete under a covering or steel forms. 3. Radio-frequency curing is a process of heating materials through the application of radio waves of high frequency - i.e., above 70,000 hertz (cycles per second). Two methods of radiofrequency heating have been developed. One of these, induction heating, has proved highly effective for heating metals and other materials that are relatively good electric conductors. 4. Dielectric curing is a method by which the temperature of an electrically nonconducting (insulating) material can be raised by subjecting the material to a high-frequency electromagnetic field. The material to be heated is placed between two metal plates, called electrodes, to which a source of high-frequency energy is connected. The resultant heating, in homogeneous materials, occurs throughout the material.
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CHAPTER 10. OFF-SITE PREFABRICATION

Off-site prefabrication is the manufacture and partial assembly of building components (referred to also as Precast units) at a location other than the job site (e.g. prefabrication shop/manufacturers yard). The manufacture technology uses an assembly line that massproduces precast building components controlling construction costs by economizing time, wages, and materials, improving the quality of the products. A precast unit can be defined as a concrete that has been cast into the desired shape prior to placement in a structure. Precast components can be designed and used to serve as dual functions: forms for cast-in-place concrete and as a durable exterior finish. Precast construction involves concrete forming, placing, finishing, and curing operations away from the project site and then erecting the precast components as part of a completed structure.
10.2. INDUSTRIALIZATION OF FACTORYMANUFACTURED SYSTEMS

Large precast units are made in a mechanized central plant and erected on site by cranes. Common precast concrete elements would include piles and decks for bridges, floor and roof slabs, wall panels, joists, beams, girders, rigid frames, and shell units. Precasting is a controlled operation, similar to factory production, and thereby assures better control of quality and a shorter period for building completion. Precasting can be done: at the building site or at a mechanized temporary factory that can be established at the site or in permanent factories. Production in permanent factories is characterized by a high degree of mechanization and standardization. The most important aspects of precasting are: 1. Sophisticated design and innovative construction techniques are becoming common practice to minimize project costs while maintaining or improving project quality, durability, and operability. Use of precast concrete construction can result in lower costs by more effective material usage and reduced onsite labor. 2. Allowance of strict production controls which in turn make safe and economical use of unusually high quality concretes and highly advanced design techniques. 3. Protection from the unfavorable weather does not interrupt production. 4. Complete buildings even large industrial structures can be erected all year round providing important economies by advancing the date when a new structure begins to give economic returns. 5. Standardization of units to facilitate economic and repeated use of forms. 6. Some factories offer a variety of standardized sections made in whatever lengths are needed. Such products are often offered for sale in catalogues, including the strength and performance characteristics needed in architectural and engineering design of structure assembled for each specific structure from precast units. 7. A few firms have predesigned elements, catalogued for consumer selection. With a known building size and loading, the elements for a complete structure are quickly fabricated from detailed standards and shipped to the site. 8. The precasting process is also sufficiently adaptable so that special shapes can be produced economically. 114
10.4. OFF-SITE PRECAST MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGIES

Off-site assembly line manufacture technologies for prefabricated concrete members have a lot in common according to the type of element produced. The manufacture of precast unit primarily involves the following main steps: - Cleaning and coating of moulds, with special mechanical machines or manually. It is forbidden to hammer or drop the moulds do to there possible deformation or deterioration. To break the adherence between the concrete and the face of the mould, they will be oiled. - Assembly of mould components according to there design. - Assembly and installation of reinforcing (pre assembled meshes or cages sometimesindividual bars) and prestressing steel reinforcement, positioned according to the design reinforcement details. - Production, placement and vibration of concrete, required for adequate consolidation of concrete. - Concrete curing through thermal treatment according to the manufacturing technology used. Precast units require adequate curing procedures, because their sections are thinner and more highly stressed during handling, transportation, and erection, that conventional cast in place concrete sections. Therefore, adequate means of curing must be specified and enforced. Steam curing at atmospheric pressure is widely employed in precast manufacture so to accelerate the early-strength gain and permit daily turnover of forms. The adoptions of a proper cycle of steam curing and subsequent water curing is essential for good their quality. When precast products are removed from steam curing, the moisture extraction from the concrete is accelerated due to the change in temperature and humidity, so the products must be covered for protection from wind and rapid changes in temperature and moisture. - Strike-off of moulds will be achieved only after the concrete has reached its required strength. - Quality control of prefabricates elements according to the specified deviation and tolerances. - Cod marking at one face of the unit. - Storage until delivery in the position indicated by the design. According the specific technology used other work procedures will be followed: - Positioning of miscellaneous fittings. - Tensioning of prestressed strands. - Precompression transfer to concrete. - Finishing works, insulation works, installation works and sandblasting etc.
10.4.1. CODE MARKING

Each casting is physically coded by marking upon it, with paint, after removal from the mould, the following information: a. Name or trademark of manufacturer. b. Date of manufacture, mould number and lot number - the casting date indicates the age and relative strength of the casting during all operations. The date, combined with the mould number, facilitates comparison of the castings with concrete-cylinder test results. This code combination quickly locates an individual mould producing castings with improper dimensions, contact finish, insert location, or other undesirable trait; permits correction before further faulty elements are cast; and simplifies identification of faulty castings from the same mould before delays are encountered in handling or erection. 115
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING c. A letter identifying type of casting (precast unit). d. Mark of Quality Control Supervisor - units of a general shape and/or size may have minor variations in some dimensions, reinforcing, inserts, opening, or finish. e. Directional mark for orientation during erection each unit that does not have an integral frame or a design that indicates the top surface shall have the words "INSTALL THIS SIDE UP" placed on its top surface in the scope of correct positioning during transport, storage, and erection. The code readily identifies the particular variable element, and the directional notation assures proper orientation and location of variable properties on erection. Code marking should be weatherproof, legible, and of sufficient size to be seen from a distance. It is located where it will remain visible when the element is stacked, transported, or stored but not on finished surfaces exposed on the completed structure.
10.5. CONCRETE PRODUCTS PRECASTING METHODS

10.5.1. CONCRETE PIPE
This product is manufactured for raw water supply mains and discharge lines, sanitary and storm sewer, and drainage culverts. Pipes are made of either plain or reinforced concrete, and can be produced to exhibit characteristics corresponding to intended function. Structural tests indicate the ability of the pipe to resist the pressure of soils in which it is buried. Freezing and thawing tests indicate resistance to ice pressures. Hydrostatic pressure tests reflect resistance to internal pressure. Concrete pipe is made by several manufacturing methods: - Cast pipe is made by placing concrete into forms of the desired sizes.
Figure 10-1 Reinforced concrete centrifuged pipe
Source: SOMACO SA - Packerhead pipe, a very dry concrete mixture is packed into the form with such force that the freshly made pipe section can be taken to a curing chamber where the form is removed immediately and the newly compacted pipe stands vertically during the curing and hardening period. Similar results are obtained by various other mechanical tamping methods. - Centrifugal concrete pipe is manufactured in forms rotating at high speed so that the concrete is compacted as excess water is forced out by centrifugal force. The pipe may be plain, reinforced, or prestressed concrete. Curing is accomplished by steam, water spray, saturated covers, or in water. 1. Bar-Wrapped Concrete Cylinder Pipe - The manufacturing procedure for this type of pipe includes the following steps (see Radial compaction by centrifugal force):
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Positioning of steel cylinder mould horizontally on the assembly line; Cement-mortar placement or concrete lining by the centrifugal process inside the cylinder. - Curing of lining, after which the mould is removed, with saturated steam at elevated temperatures in a curing kiln; - Reinforcing the pipe by wrapping it with a smooth, hot-rolled steel bar, using a moderate tension in the bar; - Covering the pipe and bar wrapping with a cement slurry and a cement-rich dense mortar coating. 2. Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe has the following two general types of construction: Manufacture of core: - Joint rings are attached to each end, and the steel cylinder assembly. - A concrete core is placed by the centrifugal process, radial compaction, or by vertical casting. - Curing of core after which high-strength wire is wrapped helically to the pipe. - Control of wire spacing to produce a predetermined residual compression in the concrete core. - Coating the wire with a thick cement slurry by gunite covering. - Curing of cover coat usually by the same method as for the cores.
10.5.2. MANUFACTURING PROCEDURES

1. Stand Fabrication Procedure - its main characteristic is the fact that the moulds are stationary (they are fixed to the casting bed) and facilities for concreting, vibrating, and curing are portable. Sand, gravel, and cement are transported to the concrete plant by truck. Certain materials, such as inert aggregates, are typically stored outdoors in stockpiles. Moisture-sensitive materials, such as cement and fly ash, may be stored in high-capacity silos. The transport of materials (reinforcement, concrete etc.) is made by forklift trucks, dump trucks and belt conveyors up to the reach of the crane (traveling crane gantry crane). As the materials are needed, they are transported by conveyor to large storage bins at the top of the block plant. At the start of production, the raw materials are discharged into a weigh batcher, which measures the correct proportion of dry materials for the mix. The dry materials are mixed for several minutes before water and admixtures are added. The proportioning of the mix is carefully controlled by computer. After mixing is complete, the batch is discharged into a hopper and compacted into moulds. Each mould consists of a re-usable, one-piece mould box with replaceable liners. The moulds are compacted using pressure and vibration to assure an even distribution of concrete. The compacted precast unit is pressed out of the mould onto a moving conveyor belt or is compacted using a vibrating table. As the precast element goes down the belt, a rotating brush removes loose particles of aggregate from the top surface of the block. At this stage of the process, the uncured elements as referred to as "green." The "green" units are mechanically loaded onto a curing rack. Fully loaded curing racks are then transported by forklift into an available steamcuring chamber (kiln). Racks of concrete block are placed in the steam-curing kiln at normal temperature for a holding period of 1-3 hours. This "presetting" allows the units to harden slightly.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Steam is then gradually introduced, increasing the chamber, the temperature increasing incrementally, until peak temperature (usually 80oC) is reached. The units are then allowed to cool, before they are extracted.
Figure 10-2 Layout of Stand setting Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984. Figure 10-3 Typical Multiple Beam Tensioning Stand cross section setting for prestressedconcrete units
1. Concrete casting bed; 2. Anchor; 3. Jack; 4. Tensioning strands; 5. Structural units cast along side one another; 6. Parallel stressing assemblies; 7. Outline of member to be poured and stressed; 8. Anchor; 9. Concrete casting bed. The concrete mix should be designed and so treated (steam curing) to produce a strong concrete with a high bond value in the shortest possible time, giving maximum production for a given casting bed. Storage and transport - pallets of cured block are then removed from the chamber and transported by forklift to outdoor storage yards. Steam-cured block typically reaches 90% of its final strength within 2 to 4 days. Large quantities of standard-sized blocks are stored until ready for transport to the jobsite. Blocks are transported by flatbed truck to the jobsite. Tension Strand At Both Ends: If more than one beam is in the casting bed, the draped strand must be tensioned successively from both ends. At each end, the strand is pulled to the desired load and elongation measured. The load determined from the sum of the two elongation measurements must agree within 5% of the gauge reading. If the casting bed is set up for one beam and the 5% tolerance in elongation is achieved by the cable at one end, tensioning at the subsequent end can be waived. 2. Conveyor Fabrication Procedure - - Its main characteristic is the fact that the moulds are portable and facilities for concreting, vibrating, and curing are stationary.
Figure 10-4 Layout of Conveyor setting
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10.6. QUALITY ASSURANCE, PRODUCT CERTIFICATION

Quality assurance and plant certification44 (STAS 1799-88) are important items in prefabrication. It is based on two levels: in-house quality assurance program with continuous inhouse control and plant certification with quality control supervised by an independent body. Certification of precast concrete production plants means that the capability to produce quality products and the good functioning of the in-house control system is confirmed by an independent inspection body. Confirmed capability means that a plant is well equipped and the people who operate it are competent to produce quality products. They do this through inspection of their production operations, materials, equipment, personnel, and products for conformance to the Plant Certification Program - means that the producer has the capability by virtue of personnel, facilities, experience, and an active quality assurance program to produce quality products. Plant certification evaluates a plant's overall ability to maintain sound production procedures and to maintain an effective in-house quality assurance program. Quality control (the procedure to be followed for the quality control are normally based on ISO 9001 or EN 29001 standards) requires much more than merely achieving concrete strength. Many other factors also enter into the control of quality of precast concrete products. Some of the most important are: completeness of work orders and product drawings, testing and inspection of the materials selected for use, accurate manufacturing equipment, proportioning and adequate mixing of concrete, handling, placing and consolidation of concrete.
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CHAPTER 11. ERECTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS

Precast-concrete construction should be based upon good practical planning along with mass-production methods. Weight and strength are primary considerations in precastconcrete construction. A successful design is one that utilizes the least number of assembly elements, possessing the least erection weight and the greatest strength per unit weight of framing. It requires a complete design of connection details and an investigation of stresses involved in the sequence of erection, which will influence the framing and design of the elements. Precasting is a controlled operation, performed under ideal conditions of forming, pouring, vibration, curing, and inspection; the requirements of strength and dimensional restrictions necessary for casting slender sections are generally met with little difficulty. Generally, it is essential that the number of various shapes and sizes of the precast elements be kept to a minimum. This allows maximum reuse of the forms and reduces forming, casting, and handling costs. The layout of the frames and enclosures is controlled somewhat by the available handling and erection equipment. While lifting capacity is always a factor, the maneuverability of the equipment within the building area may be facilitated by changes in column spacing, direction of main framing, or erection sequences. Advantages of precast-concrete construction: speed of construction, optimum use of materials, controlled production conditions, and economy do to the fact that the materials can be better utilized and wastage can be kept to a minimum. Limitations of precast-concrete construction: lack of flexibility and if precast units are small in quantity, the construction cost will be high, while storage and transportation of precast units can also be a problem for construction sites located in congested urban areas.
11.2. JOB PLANNING

The construction of a precast-concrete structure requires considerable planning and development of details. All planning, from working drawings to the completed structure, must be completed in the early stages. The erection planning of structure will consist of methods and details regarding: 1. Preliminary execution of works that will consist of the following steps: - Transport, yard casting and storage of precast units. - Inspection of units after transport and storage. - Unit preparation before erection. - Selection of lifting devices and equipment. - Materials and labor scheduling. - Necessary requirements for work safety and fire assurance. 2. Erection of precast elements, will consist of the following steps: - Erection method. - Sequence, schemes and procedures for unit erection. - Sequence of member erection. - Ground location and position layout of precast units before erection. 120
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Routs and work stations for cranes. Routs and stops for trailers. Unit installation detailing sequences. Preliminary positioning of units. Inspection of erection execution in provisory position and correction of dimensional tolerances. 3. Final connections between elements. -
11.2.1. PRELIMINARY EXECUTION WORKS

The details and planning of erection will materially affect the earlier phases of casting, storage, and handling. 11.2.1.1. MANUFACTURING, TRANSPORT AND STORAGE OF PRECAST UNITS Precast-concrete elements are cast or manufactured in: permanent factories, temporary factories, off-site casting yards, or supplied from a combination of these facilities. In determining the location and type of facilities for producing the necessary elements of a structure, a number of factors must be considered, such as: availability of raw materials, transit-mix facilities, existing factories, and labor supply, number, size, and weights of various castings involved, space available on the job site, financial comparison of estimated siteproduced castings and factory-produced and delivered castings. Sometimes temporary factory facilities are located on the job site, if economically justified. Castings too large or unwieldy for truck or rail transportation must be cast on the site.
Figure 11-1 Typical trailers Source: Suman R., 1989.
Transport of units is normally provided from these facilities to the site by trucks, only after a very careful examination of the following: - Shape, dimensions, and weight of prefabricated concrete element. 121
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Type and capacity of transport means. Correct position for transport of member, availability, and quality roads etc. Trucks can be classified in: - Straight or articulated trailers (a straight truck is one in which all axles are attached to a single frame while an articulated truck is one that consists of two or more separate frames connected by suitable couplings). - Truck tractor that are designed primarily for pulling and carrying part of the weight and load of a semi trailer. - Other types include: full trailer, deck trailer, flat bed trailer, lorry trailer, single axle trailer, heavy duty trailer, low-bed trailer etc. of 8-20 tones. Special devices are used to assure the stability and the integrity of the prefabricate over the whole transport period, so that no accidents could be encountered. Storage and transportation of precast units can be a problem for construction sites located in congested urban areas. Storage represents an intermediate faze between the prefabricated production and there transport to the site for assembly. The storage yard can be located in the prefabricated manufacturing shop or on the job-site. If it is located on the job-site, it will be as close as possible located near the crane but protected against other construction activities and erection of castings without interference with the erected framework or with the erection equipment. Precast units will be stored, raised off the ground, in such a manner as to avoid contact with dirt, oil, and grease, to reduce any kind of degradation, and to identify each type of unit as easy as possible.
Source: SC SOMACO SA, 2003
Figure 11-2 Typical job-site casting yards
Figure 11-3 Typical stack storage of precast stairs units
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING 11.2.1.2. INSPECTION OF UNITS AFTER TRANSPORT AND STORAGE The precast elements shall be visually checked for defects (cracks, voids etc.) when the forms are removed off the trailer, when the strands are cut, or when they are placed in temporary or permanent storage. Any significant defect should be reported immediately with the description of its size, type, and location. The Engineer will decide if the defect needs further inspection, what type of repair, or if it is needed 11.2.1.3. UNIT PREPARATION Unit Preparation Before Erection - during lifting, storage and transport of precast units it is possible that the elements will be exposed to dirt, mud, oil, and grease. They will be cleaned through washing them with water, and by wirer brushing. 11.2.1.4. SELECTION OF LIFTING DEVICES AND EQUIPMENT The planning of erection (lifting) devices and details for their attachment to the elements must be completed. It is obvious that changes in methods or details of any phase of the construction may be difficult after actual commencement of that part of the work. Lifting Devices for Handling Precast Concrete Units. A lifting device consists of two main parts: the anchorage element embedded in the precast unit and the attachment element, which is attached to the anchorage to fasten the lifting line to the component. To provide adequate strength, the anchorage should bear against the reinforcement. A simple and common device is to embed several steel loops in the concrete, leaving the loop exposed for attachment of the crane hook. Selection of proper anchors for lifting precast concrete products requires consideration of a number of factors including the type of load, type of lift, concrete shape and weight, concrete compressive strength at time of initial lift, number of lifting points and type of rigging to be used, direction of pull (cable or sling angle), reinforcement, ease of attachment to product, compliance with safety requirements and ease of use during final installation and cost. The location of lifting devices in the components should be carefully considered, taking full account of the special loading that will be imposed on the concrete as a result of tilting, lifting, or moving the component, including an allowance for impact. For example, raising a horizontally cast precast panel to a vertical position (e.g. columns cast on site) may induce stresses in the concrete that exceed any loading that may be imposed on the panel after it has been installed in a structure. Selection of the correct lifting devices depends on a number of factors concerned with the type, weight, configuration, thickness, and strength of the precast component. Selection of the lifting device and its location should be based on the manufacturers recommendation and an engineering analysis of the proposed installation. The locations and details of lifting and handling devices should be shown on the shop drawings. Safe, effective, economical lifting and handling of precast concrete units is essential for producers and users of these products. Precast concrete products need to be lifted and handled a number times during production and installation, particularly when removing from the casting bed or form, transporting from the casting bed to storage or from storage to point of use, lifting into installed position or anchoring to a structural frame or other concrete members (where required). Precast concrete products should not be moved until the concrete has gained sufficient compressive strength. In some cases, the form and the product are moved at the same time with the lifting hook connected directly to the form. Some forms are made to remain in place
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING while inserts, loops, lifting eye bolts, hooks, plates, pulling irons and lift pins or slings are used to remove the product. The method used in removing a casting from the mould and to position it in the structure is influenced by the characteristics of the casting, temporary stresses developed, practical use of available equipment, and economy. In securing a physical attachment to the casting for lifting purposes, simple devices and inserts are frequently used. Lifting devices designed specifically for precasting are available from manufacturers. A spreader beam is used in transmitting vertical loads from the two surface inserts to a single point at the lifting hook. Larger elements may require three inserts to reduce the individual insert load or bending in the panel. A continuous cable through sheaves on the spreader and at the center insert may be used to equalize the load at all three inserts. The center insert may be moved higher or lower on the panel to avoid openings. Large or heavy panels are often lifted with a four-point pickup with sheaves on the spreader for load equalization. For direct vertical insert loads a double set of spreaders are used. To reduce bending in a four-point pickup, two inserts are placed near the panel top and two near the center with cables run through sheaves on the spreader beam to rotate the panel to a vertical position. Timber or steel strongbacks are often used to reinforce panels for bending stresses. The panel may be lifted by a connection to the strongbacks or to other points on the panel.
a Device for lifting packages
b Composite slab lifting device with rolling blocks
c Lifting device for spatial elements
d Spreader beam for lifting precast beams in two points of pickup
e Four-cable lifting device
f Six cable slab lifting device with rolling blocks
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g Spreader beam for lifting precast beams with two wire cables in two points of pickup
h Spreader beam for lifting precast roof slabs with four wire cables in four points of pickup i Staircase lifting device with rolling blocks
Figure 11- 4 Typical lifting devices for precast concrete members Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984; Suman R., 1989, Trelea A., 1997.
Cranes - a crane may be defined as a machine for lifting loads by means of a cable. The use of cranes has greatly increased in the construction industry due mainly to the need to raise the large and heavy prefabricated components.
Figure 11-5 Crane clearances Caption: a. boom angle; b. maximum clearance height of cabin; c. maximum radius of tail swing; d. center of rotation to boom foot pin; e. height from ground to boom foot pin; f. distance from center of boom point sheave to bottom of hook; g. clearance radius of boom; h. length of boom. Source: Andres C., 1998.
Characteristics of Cranes - a crane consists primarily of a power unit mounted on a carrier with a hoist, a boom, and control cables for raising and lowering the load and boom. The boom can be a welded steel lattice or a hydraulic boom made of 1 articulated base element and several telescopic sections, that are extended and retracted hydraulically (from 5 to 30 m) allowing the crane to be completely self-contained. A jib, an extension to the end of the boom, is used for extending the height to which loads can be lifted; it can be added to a lattice boom or a hydraulic boom. A jib decreases the lifting capacity of the crane and should be used with caution. Two basic jib formats for this type of crane are available, namely the folding lattice jib and the telescopic jib. Outriggers are hydraulic telescoping supports (4-6 suspension cylinders, individually controlled in both horizontal and vertical directions from the frame). Crane Selection Criteria: The range of cranes available is very wide and therefore actual choice must be made on a basis of sound reasoning, overall economics and technical capabilities: of cranes under consideration, prevailing site conditions and the anticipated utilization of other erection equipment. 125
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING The criteria by which to chose cranes is based on the following considerations: Maximum hook height (H). Extended / retracted boom length (f). The shallower the boom's angle, the less load it can lift. The longer the boom, the less load it can lift. c. Clear radius of boom (R). Should the load be lifted at a grater radius, the angle of the boom be decreased, the load capacity of the crane is greatly decreased. d. Lifting capacity (Q). To assure the cranes stability, it is necessary to respect the following restriction: 0,75 lifting capacity of crane tipping load of crane If not possible then the stability of the footing must be increased by leveling and completely supporting them by their outriggers, which must be fully extended and positioned firmly on stable ground. Depending on the circumstances under which a load is lifted, either of these can govern the safe lifting load of the crane. Loading charts are provided with each crane and must be adhered to religiously. Load charts should never be exceeded. e. Traveling clearance for crane (S = min. 500 mm) given by maximum radius of tail swing, width of chassis or length of outriggers. Five basic types of cranes are commonly available for use on the construction site, they can be classified as: tower cranes, track-mounted cranes, lorry-mounted cranes, selfpropelled cranes, and gantry cranes. There are several variations of each type, and each is available in a wide range of lifting capacities and boom lengths, thus providing the contractor with a generous selection of options. A tower crane comes in several basic variations (e.g. self-supporting static tower cranes, supported static tower cranes, traveling tower cranes and climbing cranes). Advantages offered by using a tower crane: - Tower cranes have one advantage over mobile cranes in that the operator's cab is placed at the top of the tower, providing the operator an unobstructed view of the construction site. - Tower cranes are usually set up at a location on the construction site from where all corners of the building can be reached, often in the elevator shaft of the building Figure 11-6 Typical tower crane being constructed. Caption: 1. Outer tower; 2. Inner tower; 3. Jib; 4. Tail - High capacities range radii and (counter jib); 5. Cab; 6. Load line; 7. Inner guy line; 8. heights (30 m and 100 m). Outer guy line; 9. Fall back line; 10. Trolley line; 11. Limitations: Counterweight; 12. Tower base with central ballast coun- - Low lifting capacities 150 kN. terweights; 13. Frame; 14. Drive motor (hoist gear). - At the completion of the building, Source: Andres C., 1998. they must be disassembled and lowered to the ground in relatively small sections by a mobile crane. a. b.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING The track-mounted cranes (crawler crane) come in a wide variety of designs and capacities, generally with a 360 rotation or slewing circle, a low pivot, and jib. Advantages: - Mobility on the job site with load on hook. - It can lift relatively heavy loads (10900 kN) without the use of outriggers. - Capacities ranges similar to the lorry mounted cranes, height capacities 60 m; Limitations: slow speeds and large bulk, the crane cannot move from one site to another without some disassembly and the use of 10 tone trailers to transport it between sites. Characteristics: The jib is of lattice construction with additional sections and fly; jibs to obtain the various lengths and capacities required.
Figure 11-7 Track-mounted crane Caption: 1. Hook; 2. Jib; 3. Cab; 4. Boom suspension rope; 5. Hoist rope; 6. Pendant rope. Source: Chudley R., 1999.
Lorry-mounted cranes come in a wide variety of designs and capacities, generally with a 360 rotation or slewing circle, a low pivot, and jib. To improve the mobility of the crane from one site to another lorrymounted cranes have rubber tires and an additional cab were a driver drives the crane from site to site on public roads. Characteristics: The crane is operated by a separate crane engine and controls. The capacity of lorry-mounted cranes ranges up to 2000 kN in the freestanding position but this can be increased by using the jack outriggers. Their height capacity range to 100 m. Mobile lorry cranes can travel between sites at speeds of up to 48 km/h, which makes them very mobile, but to be fully efficient they need a firm and level surface from which to operate.
Figure 11-8 Lorry mounted crane Caption: 1. Hook; 2. Pendant ropes; 3. Hoist ropes; 4. Engine; 5. Jib. Source: Chudley R., 1999.
127
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Self Propelled Cranes (also referred to as a crane truck) is a portable boom crane mounted on an industrial truck. They can be distinguished from other mobile cranes by the fact that the driver has only one cab position for both driving and operating the crane. Characteristics: They are small capacity machines having a fixed boom or jib length, with small radii and low lifting capacities 10 t. They are extremely mobile but to be efficient they usually require a hard level surface from which to work. Road speeds obtained are in the region of 30 km/h.
Figure 11-9 Self propelled crane Caption: 1. Hook; 2. Boom; 3. Cabin; 4. Chassis; 5. Outriggers; 6. Boom suspension ropes; 7. Hoist ropes; 8. Pendant ropes. Source: Chudley R., 1999.
Gantry Cranes (also referred to as portal crane) is a rail-mounted crane consisting of a horizontal transverse beam that carries a combined driver's cab and hook supporting saddle. This is a particularly safe form of crane as it requires no ballast, gives the driver an excellent all-round view and allows the hook three-way movement of vertical, horizontal and transverse directions. Although limited in application this special form of mobile crane can be very usefully and economically on repetitive and partially prefabricated blocks of medium rise dwellings. Characteristics: They are small capacity machines having low lifting capacities 50 kN320 kN and small lifting height 610 m.
Figure 11-10 Typical gantry crane
11.2.1.5. SCHEDULING Materials and Labor Scheduling - the job planning required, however, is a sound investment. The basic nature of precast-concrete construction provides the contractor with close control over all labor and materials, with little effort. The continuous repetitious operations provide ideal opportunities for perfection of labor and equipment allocation and efficiency. The daily repetitive use of identical quantities of materials reduces waste. Close control and detailed and accurate records can be obtained on materials, labor, costs, and progress on all phases of the work. 128
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING The application of basic precasting principles creates a neat and clean working area, both at the casting yard and throughout the construction area. This cleanliness, rarely obtainable in other methods of construction, eliminates waste, promotes efficiency, and discourages accidents. Proper scheduling will permit the installation of foundations and related work during the period that the casting yard is being constructed and put into operation. The elapsed time between storage and erection of the elements, at any specific portion of the building area, will be short. Each area becomes available to the mechanical and other trades immediately upon completion of the precast erection in that area. Therefore, exceptional continuity in the work of those trades can be maintained. 11.2.1.6. HEALTH, SAFETY AND WELFARE REGULATIONS These regulations detail the minimum requirements for lifting devices and equipment. In summary the main points include: - Examination of all forms of lifting devices to ensure sound construction, materials appropriate for the conditions of use, adequate strength for the intended task, retention in good order and inspection regularly at intervals depending on use and exposure as determined by a competent person. - Adequate support, strength, stability, anchoring, fixing and erection of lifting appliances to include an appropriate factor of safety against failure. - Traveling and slewing cranes require a 500 mm wide minimum clearance provided wherever practicable between the equipment and fixtures such as a building or access scaffold. If such a clearance cannot be provided, movement between the appliance and fixture should be prevented. - A cabin is required for the crane operator that must provide an unrestricted view for safe use of the equipment. The cabin must have adequate protection from the weather and harmful substances with a facility for ventilation and heating. - Equipment which can be adapted for various operating radii and other configurations must be clearly marked with corresponding safe working loads for these variables. - Brakes, controls, and safety devices must be clearly marked to prevent accidental operation or miss-use. - Safe means of access is to be provided for examination, repair, and servicing particularly where a person can fall more than 2,0 m. - Stability of lifting devices on soft ground, uneven surfaces and slopes must be considered. Cranes must be either anchored to the ground or to a foundation, or suitably counterweighted or stabilized to prevent overturning. - Rail mounted cranes to have a track laid and secured on a firm foundation to prevent risk of derailment. There must be provision for buffers, effective braking systems, and adequate maintenance of both track and equipment. - Measures must be taken to prevent a freely suspended load moving uncontrollably. Devices that could be fitted include multiple ropes. - Cranes must be erected under planned conditions and the supervision of a competent person. - If the operator cannot see the whole passage of a lift, an efficient signaling system must be used. A signaler must be capable of giving clear and distinct communications by hand. mechanical or electrical means. - Testing examination and inspections are required for all equipment. Chains, slings, ropes, hooks, shackles, eyebolts, and other small components are no less important than grabs and winches. All must be tested and thoroughly examined before being put into operation. 129
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING All cranes are clearly marked with their safe maximum working loads relevant lifting radius and maximum operating radius particularly when fitted with a derricking jib. Lifting equipment not designed for personnel must be clearly marked as such. Jib cranes to be fitted with an automatic safe load indicator such as a warning; light for the operator and a warning bell for persons nearby. Except for testing purposes, the safe working load must not be exceeded. When loads are approaching the safe maximum load, the initial lift should be short. A check should then be made to establish safety and stability before proceeding to complete the lift.
11.3. ERECTION OF PRECAST UNITS

Selection of erection method precast units is an important design decision. Each erection method has its special implications to project cost, construction schedules, traffic, towing system, positioning accuracy, and level of risks during construction. In many ways, the erection method will determine the: - size and configuration of the precast units; - construction procedure adopted, construction sequence, and schedule; - volume of works, plant and equipment etc. In general, a thorough evaluation should be made in the early stage of design to determine the effects of the erection methods, because the erection method and equipment to install precast units will affect the structural concept and layout, fabrication of precast components, and construction logistics. The method of erection will take into account the following: - Assurance of member stability in the structure, during the hole duration of erection execution. - Process flow and work procedures must create a working front, as fast as possible, for other processes that will commence afterwards (e.g. electrical installations etc.). - Assurance of complete use of erection equipment time. Methods of erection for prefabricated concrete elements can be planned after two models: - Sequence method - consisting of erecting all the members of the same size and type in the structure or in one construction faze, the crane having its own route for every member (columns, beams, roof slabs etc.). After the joints for a group of members of the same type are completed (after the grout concrete has reached the necessary strength) another group, which will be supported by the first, will be erected; - Complex method - consisting of erection organization, in normal sequence of erection (of all members) on a small area of the warehouse, most likely a bay (span-bay), the next phase being the erection of the next bay.
11.3.1. SEQUENCE, SCHEMES AND PROCEDURES FOR UNIT ERECTION

The efficiency obtained throughout all sequences of the construction will be determined by the degree of organization, planning, scheduling, and development of details completed before commencement of work at the site. Maximum efficiency in erection is obtained by placing the elements in their final position direct from transporting equipment or building storage in one operation. Erection procedures are planned to approach this objective. All other precasting operations are based upon the estimated erection schedule, and any delays in this schedule increase the storage area and dunnage required. Delays in completing connections of erected elements either interrupt the 130
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING erection or increase the quantity of erection devices. Using additional erection devices to shorten the schedule is justified only when sufficient cured castings are available to ensure a continual operation. Planning includes a study of casting weights and sizes, capacities and reaches of lifting equipment, and clearances required for movement of the equipment and castings without interference with previously erected framing members. A plan detailing the erection procedure for all elements is drawn and checked to ensure conformance with the above limitations and is then rigidly followed. When choosing the erection scheme, we must take into consideration the following: - Size of bay and span of warehouse. - Height of erection. - Cranes characteristics (regarding the clearance characteristics: height, radius of tall swing, rotation of boom pin, height to boom pin, clearance radius of boom, length of boom). - Assurance of safety (guard) lanes. - Scheme adopted for precast units. Along side these we must respect the following conditions: - Assurance of member stability during erection. - Process flow and erection operations must create, in a short period, job fronts for jobs that will proceed. - Assurance of complete use of equipment job time. Schemes of precast unit erection must include the following: - Ground positioning of precast units before erection. - Order of precast unit erection in accordance with their types and sizes. - Routs and stops for cranes for every type and sizes of precast units. - Indication of members that will be mounted on every crane stop. - Sequences and stops for lorries if the mounting takes places from the lorries.
11.3.3. UNIT ERECTION DETAILING SEQUENCES

A grate deal of detailing work is necessary before a member can be erected. Each member is given an erection mark that it carries through the fabrication stage and subsequently is used on the job to identify the member and its position in the frame. The erection mark is usually placed on the left end of horizontal members to eliminate the possibility of trying to place the member end for end or upside down. When delivered to the site, the precast unit will be lifted by crane to the designed position, secured with temporary bracing, welded, and finally fixed into position by grout.
Figure 11-11 Transfer of prefabricated facade to the working level
Figure 11-12 The precast facade is secured with temporary bracing
131
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING The general procedure for installation is as follows: - Set precast concrete units, straight, level and square (P42-1971 - Norm for execution of constructions made of precast panels) to avoid non-cumulative erection tolerances. - Fasten units in place by welding or overlapping. - Provide temporary erection anchorage for welded anchorage system. - Clean field welds with wire brush. - Provide and install sufficient temporary bracing to brace precast units adequately, at all stages of construction, so that units will safely withstand loads to which they may be subjected. This temporary bracing shall remain in position until all connections have been completed. - Apply sealant and joint backing to exterior and interior joints to provide a complete weathertight installation. - Clean exposed face work by washing and brushing only, as precast is erected, if required.
11.3.3. CONNECTIONS
Connections may be either: - Temporary (also referred to as dry connections) are made by weld, shear anchors, inserts, additional reinforcing bars, posttensioning, or some combination of these can be used to provide this continuity. The temporary connection is usually provided until the permanent ones have been completed. - Permanent (also referred to as wet connections) by concreting grout keys. When precast units are placed adjacent to each other, load transfer between adjacent members is often achieved through a grouted keyway. The keyway may or may not extend for the full depth of the member. The keyway is grouted with one of several different grouting materials (concrete, epoxy resins etc). Connections to tie precast units together, and to join precast segments into a monolith, are of paramount importance. Both temporary and permanent connections must be designed with careful attention to details and construction procedure to ensure the critical load paths and durability performance. Connections usually consist of dowels, plates/pads or angles embedded in the units ends that bear on similar plates embedded in the supporting section, the connections are usually made by welding them together or by overlapping them, until the final concrete casting has been completed. Care must be taken to provide temporary bracing during the erection of beams with these types of connections until the connections are completed.
11.4. INSPECTION OF ERECTION AND CORRECTION OF DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES

Many factors enter into the quality control of precast/prestressed concrete products. Some of the most important are: - Management commitment to a quality control program. - Qualified personnel for all stages of design and construction. - Testing and inspection of the various materials selected for use. - Clear and complete shop drawings (good production drawings translate documents into usable information for manufacture, handling, and erection of precast/prestressed units.). - Accurate stressing procedures. - Control of dimensions and tolerances. - Correct positioning of all embedded items. - Proportioning and adequate mixing of concrete. 132
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING Handling, placing, and consolidation of concrete. Adequate curing. Handling, storing, transporting, and erection of members. Thorough documentation. Scope of Inspection - in general, precast/prestressed concrete plant inspections should include the following: - Identification, examination, testing, and acceptance of materials. - Inspection and recording of tensioning. - Inspection of beds and forms before concreting. - Checking the dimensions of members, number, size and positions of tendons, reinforcing steel, other incorporated materials, openings, blockouts, etc. - Regular inspection of batching, mixing, conveying, placing, compacting, finishing, and curing of concrete. - Observation of test performances for slump, air content, and the preparation of concrete specimens for strength testing. - Inspection of operations of detensioning, product removal from beds, handling and storing. - Final inspection of finished product before shipment (i.e. monitoring dimensions, camber, blockouts, and adequate concrete cover and finishes). - General observation of plant equipment, working conditions, weather, and other items that may potentially affect the products. Deviations and Dimensional Tolerances (STAS 6657/3-8945; C 156-8946) - there will be inevitably differences between the specified dimensions and the actual dimensions of the components and final building. These deviations must be recognized and allowed for. Cast in place and precast concrete is generally manufactured with relatively small deviations but designers should take a realistic view of dimensional variability (inaccuracies). Some inaccuracies are unavoidable, and a slight reduction in theoretical size must be provided in the details for tolerances to provide for these inaccuracies. Particularly in large areas of small elements, minor variations are accumulative, and to neglect an allowance for tolerances will lead to difficulties during erection. Once permissible tolerances are established, they should be stipulated on the detail drawings. Frequent checks of the over-all dimensions of the completed castings and checks during erection will reveal variations, and corrective steps for adjustment should follow immediately. Tolerances must be evaluated on each structure and on the various elements in the structure. This reduction, of course, is not required or desired where the elements are separated by grout, calking, or expansion material. The plans and drawings for structures frequently specify the permissible variations for lines, grades, and dimensions that the contractor is expected to observe. The tolerances should be realistic, considering the nature of the structure. Tolerances that are more than rigid than justified will increase the cost of a structure unnecessarily. Particular attention must be paid to dimensional accuracies. Some inaccuracies are unavoidable, and a slight reduction in theoretical size must be provided in the details for tolerances to provide for these inaccuracies. Tolerance can be defined as the allowable range of deviation from design specifications expressed as a percentage of the nominal value (the allowable variations in the dimensions of members). Deviation - can be defined as the difference between the measured value and the expected value of a controlled variable.
133
REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. ACI Committee Report 308. Curing Concrete - State-of-the-Art, 5th Draft 10/94. ACI Committee Report. Guide of Concrete 309R-96. Manual of Concrete Practice 1998. Part 2. Asian Concrete Model Cod, Part II Materials and Construction, Level 1, 2001. Andres C., Smith R. Principles and Practices of Heavy Construction. Prentice Hall, USA, 1998. Carare T. Cartea fierarului betonist. Editura Tehnica 1986. CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, First Draft, CEB Bulletin dInformation. Concrete Technology. CECW-EI. EC 1110-2-6052. Engineering and Design - Structural Design of Precast and Prestressed Concrete for Offsite Prefabricated Construction of Hydraulic Structures, 2001. Cement & Concrete Association of Australia. The housing concrete handbook, 2000. Chudley R. Advanced Construction Technology. Pearson Education Ltd., England. 1999. Chudley R. Building site works, substructure and plant. Longman Scientific and Technical, 1988. Commonwealth of Kentucky Transportation Cabinet, Department of Highways. Division of Materials Frankfort Kentucky. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Manual, USA, 2002. Dean Y. Mitchells Building Series. Materials Technology. Pearson Education Ltd., 1999. Dinescu T., Sandru A., Radulescu C. Cofraje glisante. Editura Tehnica, 1970. Dinescu T., Radulescu C. Tehnica cofrajelor glisante. Editura Tehnica, 1981. Doma J., Vescan V., Moga A. Tehnologia lucrrilor de construcii. Editura Institutului Politehnic Cluj-Napoca, 1988. Euro-International Committee for Concrete-International Federation for Prestressing (CEB-FIP) The CEB-FIP Model Code 1990. European Committee for Standardization. Draft of ENV 206, Concrete performance, production, placing and compliance criteria. Finn D.W. Towards Industrialized Construction. Construction Canada 34(3), May 1992, pp.25-28. Forster G. Building organization and procedures. Longman Scientific and Technical, 1988. Fulletron R.L. Construction Technology. Level 1. Oxford University Press, 1980. Ghibu M., Gheorghiu N., Otel A., Suman R. Tehnologii moderne. Editura Tehnic, 1989. Giuc N. Ingineria proceselor de construcie. Editura Gh. Asachi Iai, 1997. International Council for Building Research, Studies and Documentation (CIB). Trends in building construction techniques worldwide. Special report for CIB '89. Ionescu I., Ispas T. Proprietile i tehnologia betoanelor. Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1997. Leschinsky A. Concrete nonuniformity, manifested in control. Quality Control of Concrete Structures. Proceedings of the Second International RILEM/CEB Syposium. Ghent 1991. Ministerul Constructiilor Industriale. Mecanizare Actiuni noi pentru asigurarea calitatii lucrarilor de beton, 1984. Murphy R. W. Site engineering. Construction Press. Astros Printing Limited, 1983. National Research Council. Nonconventional Concrete Technologies. Canada, 1997. Peurifoy R., Oberlender G. Formwork for concrete structures. McGraw-Hill, 1995. Pestisanu C., Voiculescu M., s.a. Constructii. Editura Didactica si Pedagogica, 1995. Popa R., Teodorescu M. Montarea elementelor prefabricate de beton armat, beton precomprimat si metalice. ICB, 1992. Popa R., Teodorescu M. Tehnologia lucrarilor de constructii. Editura ICB, Bucuresti, 1984. Popa R., Teodorescu M., .a. Utilajul i tehnologia structurilor de construcii. Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1981. Popa R., Teodorescu M. Cofraje modulate de lemn. Editura ICB, Bucuresti, 1978. Simmons H. L. Construction Principles, Materials and Methods. John Wiley & Sons Inc. 2001. Suman R., Ghibu M., Gheorghiu N., Oara C., Otel A. Tehnologii moderne n construcii. Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1988. Suman R., Pop S. Execuia lucrrilor de construcii. Editura Tehnic Bucureti, 1989. Suman R., Ghibu M., s.a. Tehnologii moderne in constructii. Editura Tehnica, 1988. Stutzman P.E. Applications of scanning electron microscopy in cement and concrete petrography, in ASTM STP 1215, Petrography of Cementitous Materials, S. DeHayes and D. Stark, eds., 1993. Swenson E.G.: Durability of concrete under winter conditions. CBD-116. Trelea A., Popa R., .a. Tehnologia construciilor.Vol.1. Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1997.
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42. Volumetric mixer standards of the volumetric mixer manufacturer bureau. USA, 2001.
ENDNOTE
STAS 438/1-89. Steel products for reinforcement of concrete. Welded fabric. STAS 438/2 91. Steel products for reinforcement of concrete. Cold drawn wire. 3 SR 438/3-98. Wire fabric. 4 STAS 10107/0-1990. Calculul si alcatuirea elementelor structurale din beton, beton armat si beton precomprmat. 5 C 28-83. Technical instructions of welding of reinforcing steel for concrete. 6 C 150-84. Technical specification for quality control of welded steel joints for civil, industrial and agricultural constructions. 7 C 28-83. Technical instruction for steel reinforcement welding. 8 STAS 6605-78. Tensile testing of reinforcing steel wire and wire products for prestressed concrete. 9 NE 012-99. Practice code for the execution of concrete, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete works, Part 1 Concrete and reinforced concrete. 10 STAS 3622-86. Cement concretes. Classification. 11 STAS 1759-88. Tests on concretes. Tests on fresh concrete. Determination of apparent density, consistence fine aggregates content and setting time. 12 ISO 9812. Concrete consistency. Slump test. 13 STAS 2414-91. Tests on concrete. Determination of density, compactness, and porosity of hardened concrete. 14 STAS 1275-88. Test on concrete. Tests of hardened concrete. Determination of mechanical strengths. 15 STAS 3519-76. Tests on concretes. Inspection of waterproofness. 16 ISO 7031. Tests on concrete watertightness. 17 STAS 5479-88. Tests on concrete. Tests on fresh concrete. Determination of air content. 18 STAS 2833-80. Tests on concrete. Determination of axial shrinkage of hardened concrete. 19 STAS 3518-89. Tests on concretes. Strength determination at frost-thawing. 20 STAS 5440-70. Inspection of the reaction between the alkalis and aggregates. 21 STAS 9602-90. Reference concrete. Specifications for manufacturing and testing. 22 SR EN 196-4/95. Methods of testing cement. Quantity determination of constituents 23 EN 196-2. Methods of testing cement. Chemical analysis of cement. 24 SR 6232-96. Cements, mineral admixtures and additives. Vocabulary. 25 SR 388-95. Portland cement. 26 SR 1500-96. Usual composite cements, type II, III, IV and V. 27 SR 3011-96. Limited hydration warmth cements and resistant to water damage with sulphates content. 28 SR 7055-96. White Portland Cement. 29 SR 227/2-98. Cements. Physical tests. Determination of grinding fineness. 30 SR EN 196/6-94. Methods of testing cement. Determination of grinding fineness. 31 SR 227/5- 96. Cements. Physical tests. Determination of hydration heat. 32 SR EN 196/3-97. Methods of testing cement. Determination of setting time and soundness. 33 SR 227/4-86. Cements. Physical tests. Setting time determination. 34 SR EN 196/1-95. Methods of testing cement. Determination of strength. 35 STAS 1667-76. Heavy aggregates for concrete and mortars with mineral binder. 36 STAS 2386-79. Lightweight mineral aggregates. General technical requirements for quality. 37 STAS 4606-80. Natural heavy weight aggregate for concrete and mortars with mineral binding material. Testing method. 38 STAS 1667-76. Natural heavy weight aggregate for concrete and mortars with mineral binding material. 39 STAS 8625-90. Mixed plastified additive for concretes. 40 STAS 8573-78. Waterproofing additive cement mortars. 41 STAS 790-84. Water for concretes and mortars. 42 GP 004-97. Guide for design and execution of temporary membrane structures. 43 NE 13-2002. Practice code for the execution of prefabricated elements. 44 STAS 1799-88. Concrete reinforced and prestressed concrete buildings. Type and frequency checks of materials and concrete quality used for civil engineering execution. 45 STAS 6657/3-89. Concrete, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete elements procedures, instrumentation and devices for characteristic geometry checks. 46 C 156-89. Handbook for the application of STAS 6657/3-89 prescriptions - Concrete, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete elements procedures, instrumentation and devices for characteristic geometry checks.
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CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

OCTAVIAN G. ILINOIU, Ph.D., C.Eng., Lecturer

MAN Nutzfahrzeuge Aktieengesellschaft, Germany Morgan Manufacturing Co., USA Winget, UK

CHAPTER 1. INDUSTRIALIZATION OF CONSTRUCTION WORKS

1.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

1.2. CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRIALIZATION

1.3. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

2.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

2.2. FORM MATERIALS

2.2.3. PLASTIC AND ALUMINUM

2.3. CLASSIFICATION OF FORMWORK

2.3.1. CLASSIFICATION BY STRUCTURE AND USE

2.3.2. CLASSIFICATION BY FINAL DESTINATION

Figure 2-12 Shallow footing

Continuous footing against excavations

a. Sheathing; b. Studs; c. Wales.

2.4. FORM LINERS

2.5. RELEASE AGENTS

2.6. FORMWORK REMOVAL

2.7. SHORING MEMBERS

2.8. FORM ACCESSORIES

2.9.1. CLASSIFICATION OF MOULDS

2.9.2. BASIC COMPONENTS AND MAIN TYPES OF MOULDS

CHAPTER 3. CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT

3.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF REINFORCEMENT

3.3. MATERIAL PROPERTIES

3.4. STANDARD BAR DIAMETERS AND TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT

Source: Ductil Steel SA, SR EN 10025

The wire is delivered:

Technical Characteristics 2. Size Technical Characteristics Delivery

Delivery Spools with diameter of 900 mm, weight 100-600 kg.

3.4.1. PLAIN AND DEFORMED STEEL BARS

3.4.2. WELDED WIRE MESH REINFORCING

3.5. REINFORCEMENT CONCRETE COVER

Figure 3-5 Typical reinforcement spacing section

Source: Carare T., 1986. Figure 3-6 Chairs and spacers

3.6. FABRICATION OF STEEL BARS, STIRRUPS AND WIRE MESHES

3.6.2. COMBINED STRAIGHTENING AND CUTTING MACHINES

Source: MCI, 1984.

3.6.3. REINFORCEMENT BENDING

Figure 3-18 Typical spiral reinforcement Source: OSCAM SpA.

3.6.4. CUTTING DEVICES (SHEARS)

Figure 3-21 Typical mesh cutting machine Source: OSCAM SpA.

3.8. SPLICING OF REINFORCING STEEL

3.9. REINFORCEMENT ASSEMBLY WORKMANSHIP

3.9.1. ASSEMBLY OF COLUMN REINFORCEMENT

Figure 3-26 Detail of column and slab reinforcement intersection

Figure 3-27 Column cages being assembled on site

3.9.2. ASSEMBLY OF WALL REINFORCEMENT

3.9.2. ASSEMBLY OF BEAM REINFORCEMENT WITH INDIVIDUAL BARS

3.9.3. ASSEMBLY OF SLAB REINFORCEMENT

Figure 3-30 Detail of slab reinforcement.

3.10. TRANSPORT AND STORAGE OF REINFORCEMENT

Figure 3-32 Typical storage off the ground of reinforcement

Figure 3-33 Typical wire coil storage

3.11. REINFORCEMENT MANUFACTURING SHOP

3.12. QUALITY ASSURANCE OF REINFORCEMENT

4.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

4.1.1. CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF CONCRETE

4.2. PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

4.2.1. PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

Table 4-1 Test methods for determining concrete consistency.