Int. J.

of Human Resource Management 13:4 June 2002 720-737

^

I ? Routledge
g ^ Taylor 6. Francis Grot

Organizational socialization and career success of Asian managers

Irene Hau-Siu Chow
Abstract This study proposed a new framework to conceptualize organizational socialization. It examined two broad socialization strategies: perceived organizational support and developmental experience and their relationships with career success. Data were obtained from interviews with 374 line managers and human resource managers in four industrial sectors in five Asia countries/societies, namely, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan and Thailand. There is partial suppori for the predicted relationships. The results from the present study add to our understanding of how organizational socialization affects career success. Implications for research and managerial practices, as well as future research directions, are provided. Keywords success. Introduction Socialization, like induction and orientation, prepares an individual for a smooth transition between jobs or organizations. It is the process by which an individual acquires the knowledge and skills needed to perfonn his or her job. Socialization is a change process involving the transmission of important norms and values to employees. New employees have a strong desire to be accepted; they attempt to intemalize the way things are done in the organization. The basic objective of organizational socialization is to maintain control by ensuring the employees conform to and share the same norms and values as those of the organization. Through the socialization process, employees leam and perform the desired behaviour. It helps the organization meet its need for productive employees while enabling new employees to meet their needs. It is generally believed that effective socialization will help employees achieve maximum productivity in the shortest period of time, reduce anxiety level and thus reduce the tumover rate. Such effort can be best reflected by the level of job satisfaction, organizational commitment and expected organizational tenure. Socialization is a well-researched area and has attracted much attention (Bauer et al., 1998; Chao et al., 1994; Allen and Meyer, 1990; Morrison, 1993; Van Maanen and Schein, 1979; Vanous, 1992). There is considerable body of literature on this topic. The definition of organizational socialization generally refers to the process through which individuals change from outsiders to functioning members of an organization. Van Maanen and Schein defined the organizational socialization process as 'the process by which an individual acquires the social knowledge and skills necessary to assume an Irene Hau-Siu Chow, Department of Management, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, PRC (tel: +852 2609 7798; fax: +852 2603 6840; e-mail: irene@baf.msmail.cuhk.edu.hk).
The Intemationat Journat of Human Resource Managetnetit ISSN 0958-5192 print/ISSN 1466-4399 online 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals DOI: 10.1080/09585190210125877

Socialization; organizational support; developmental experience; career

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organization role' (1979: 211). It is a dual process, involving an organization that is seeking to influence and shape its members, and an employee who is attempting to define an acceptable role for himself within the organization (Fisher, 1986). Both job change and self change are possible means by which individuals progress in careers (Granrose, 1995). Based on the literature, a broad view of organizational socialization is adopted, not just as orientation to help newcomers to adjust or reduce the anxiety level. Socialization occurs whenever employees change roles or cross boundaries within an organization. The socialization process may take a much longer period of time; probably it will continue throughout a career in an organization. In fact, career is viewed as a long-term bundle of socialization experience, as one moves in, through and out of various work-related roles over the span of one work life (Van Maanen and Schein, 1979; Hall, 1987). A number of studies have examined the relationship between previous work experience, the task and outcomes of the socialization process using a longitudinal design (Adkins, 1995; Allen and Meyer, 1990; Ashforth and Saks, 1996; Jones, 1983; Morrison, 1993). Another focus of research has been to identify the critical elements in the socialization process that affect career success. Previous socialization research focused primarily on new entrants, particularly new college graduates or MBAs. No doubt, the first organizational experience during the initial stage of socialization has a disproportionate infiuence over one's subsequent response to the organization. The present study tries to explore the relationship between organizational socialization and career success of Asian managers. Individuals change several jobs during the different stages of their career. Socialization is not restricted to new entrants. This study extends the socialization process to include job change experience, the leaming and adjustment process as a person moves along his or her career path. Hall (1987) viewed careers as a long-term bundle of social experience. Therefore, job transition, coaching and mentoring, training and development are specific facets of socialization processes. Research finding also supports the proposition that, at the later stage of a career, socialization will explain more variance in personorganization (P-0) fit than person variable will (Chatman, 1989: 345). The major gaps identified in the literature are: (1) there is a lack of empirical studies evaluating socialization effectiveness based on critical socialization content and (2) the relationship between socialization process and career success has not been examined empirically across Asian countries. The present study will fill the gaps by exploring socialization and career progression in five Asian countries and societies. Review of relevant literature Organizational socialization can be viewed from two different approaches, namely the stages approach and the contextual factors approach. Socialization process The stages of socialization have been investigated by several scholars and researchers (Feldman, 1976; Buchanan, 1974; Porter et al., 1975; Schein, 1978). These models focus on the sequence and timing of change that occur when newcomers are transferred from outsiders to insiders. The stage model suggests three distinct phases. The first stage is 'anticipatory' socialization when newcomers prepare themselves for entry into the organization. This is followed by 'accommodation' when newcomers first join the organization and begin to master their job, develop relationships with co-workers and leam how the organization operates. The final stage is reached when newcomers become fully accepted members of the organization. Vanous (1992) synthesized the

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studies and integrated these models into a single view of post-entry organizational socialization. The different stages include (1) confronting and accepting organizational reality, (2) achieving role clarity, (3) locating oneself in the organizational context and (4) detecting signposts of successful socialization. The faster a newcomer moves through these stages of socialization, the faster the individual will fit into the new organization. One criticism of the stage models is that they do not provide insight into how the changes occur (Morrison, 1993). Socialization content The contextual factors approach identifies personal and organizational factors which affect the outcomes of the socialization. Previous studies, such as Adkins (1995), Allen and Meyer (1990), Vanous (1992) and Schein (1978), have examined the relationship between organizational and individual variables and job change mode of adjustment. Others, such as, Meyer and Allen (1997), Ashforth and Saks (1996), Granrose (1995) and Chatman (1991), suggest that variables at the individual, job and organization level can have an impact on the individual's career success. Morrison's (1993) view of socialization process consists of four elements: 1 developing a sense of task competence (getting things done is an important element) 2 work role clarity (leaming one's role within the work group is another critical task) 3 realistic expectations (the extent to which a newcomer perceives aspects of the job and the work environment in the same way as experienced organizational members) 4 interpersonal relationships on the job. Van Maanen and Schein (1979) formulated a theory of socialization that depicts six dimensions that organizations can use to shape newcomers in a desired way. These tactics can be classified into three categories. In terms of context, it includes: 1 collective vs individual - provision of common learning experience as part of a group or single 2 formal vs informal - a set of training programmes; in terms of content, it can be described as 3 fixed vs variable - timetable for career progression 4 sequential vs random - structured career progression, and according to the social aspects, it can be classified along the: 5 serial vs disjunctive - trained by a predecessor or role model, and 6 investiture vs divestiture - deep or reject prior identity. The first two dimensions are self-explanatory. The next two dimensions refer to the progression of roles that the individual assumes. Sequential socialization provides individuals with a well-understood path for their career with the organization. The fixed choice indicates that there is a narrow range for the time the organization expects a person to be in any particular capacity. The serial/disjunctive dimension involves the extent that direct supervisors held the roles now occupied by incumbents. Serial arrangements provide an individual with a very knowledgeable role model. The last dimension, investiture/divestiture evaluates the degree to which previous values and

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identities must be dismantled and replaced by new ones in the socialization process. These measures have been used in several studies and the evidence indicates a link between perceived socialization experiences and outcomes such as commitment (Allen and Meyer, 1990; Ashforth and Saks, 1996). Jones (1986) further proposed that these six dimensions can be captured in a single continuum which he labeled 'institutionalized vs. individualized' socialization. The institutionalized tactics represent collective, fixed, sequential, serial and investiture tactics at one end of the continuum. These tactics suggest a systematic, planned set of activities designed by the organization to transmit the socialization content to the newcomers. The individualized tactics represent individual, informal, variable, random, disjunctive and divestiture tactics at the opposite end of the continuum; they place the onus for the acquisition of socialization content on the newcomer. The institutionalized approach aims mainly at providing newcomers with detailed knowledge about workrelated issues while the individualized approach depends largely on individuals to seek information. The 'institutionalized' approach tends to produce newcomers who strictly conform to organizational norms and values while the 'individualized' approach tends to produce newcomers who are creative individualists (Vanous, 1992). Orpen (1995) empirically tested the effects of institutionalized and individualized tactics with measures of career satisfaction and success. There was a strong negative relationship between perceptions of institutionalized tactics and career satisfaction. In contrast, a strongly positive relationship existed between initial perceived individualized tactics and later career satisfaction. Neither perceived institutionalized tactics nor individualized tactics was related to the two indicators of career success, that is, number of promotions received and annual salary growth three years later. Chao et al. (1994) developed a method of classifying organizational socialization content multi-dimensionally. They identified six content areas that are potentially subject to direct influence by organizations through their socialization practices: 1 performance proficiency - learning to perform the tasks 2 people - establishing successful and satisfying work relationships with organizational members 3 politics - gaining information regarding formal and informal work relationships and power structures within the organization 4 language - knowing the profession's technical language as well as knowing the acronyms, slang and jargon that are unique to the organization 5 organizational goals and values - understanding the rules or principles that maintain the integrity of the organization 6 history - including the organization's traditions, customs, myths, rituals, personal background of a particular organization's members and stories. Research in socialization has increased in both quantity and quality over the last two decades (Fisher, 1986; Bauer et al., 1998). However, most of the studies on socialization have been conducted mainly within US companies. Despite the rapid growth in the Asian countries, relatively little is known about the socialization process in Asia. This points to a clear need for more cross-cultural study on socialization. Taormina (1998) developed a measure of organizational socialization that included four dimensions: training, understanding company policies and operations, co-worker support and future prospects within the employing organization. The measuring instrument was developed and validated by using samples of Chinese in the People's Republic of China, Hong Kong and Singapore.

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Outcomes of socialization process Researchers have tended to assess the outcomes of socialization with general attitudinal measures, such as job satisfaction, commitment, intention to quit, subjective performance, etc. Previous literature suggests that the socialization process may affect work outcomes in terms of organizational commitment, job satisfaction and turnover intention (Mobley et al., 1979; Meyer and Allen, 1997; Vanous, 1992). Chao et al. (1994) found the contents of organizational socialization were positively and significantly related to employee attitudes such as organizational commitment and job satisfaction. It is possible that socialization will be more effective in fostering commitment if the content is appropriate to different career stages (Ostroff and Kozlowski, 1992). At the entry level, new hires might be influenced most by information that helps them understand their role and become competent with their task, while more experienced employees might be more influenced by information of relevance to upward movement, such as politics. Therefore, different approaches to information-seeking strategy may be related to different outcome variables. Employees may experience anxieties within an organization because the organizational socialization practices affected their values. The perceived values congruence between person and organization results in a number of positive work outcomes. Employees perceiving more P - 0 fit with their organization will (1) experience greater organizational commitment, (2) experience greater job satisfaction and (3) report lower intention to quit. Wanous et aL (1992), based on a meta-analysis of thirty-one studies with 17,241 newcomers, found that met expectations were positively related to job satisfaction, organizational commitment, intent to remain, job performance and job survival. The P - 0 fit literature suggests that individuals will remain longer in an organization that they feel compatible with (Kristof, 1996). It is expected that higher levels of person-organization fit will be positively related to job attitudes and negatively related to turnover intention. Fisher (1986) characterized socialization as a learning and change process. The purpose of socialization is to facilitate learning about various aspects of the organizational environment, including history, goals, people, performance proficiency and politics. Learning or knowledge acquisition can be linked to some developmental activities. Socialization is affected by both organizational and individual initiatives. Employees take an active role in learning while organizations will provide the support to facilitate such learning. The present study does not focus on new entrants, but sees continued organizational support and development experiences as more crucial throughout the career of the individuals. Time on the job was a good predictor of jobrelated learning. Pinder and Schroeder (1987) found that time to gain proficiency following a job change varies depending upon perceived support and the similarity between old and new positions. Peers, supervisors and mentors are very important in facilitating adjustment. Ostroff and Kozlowski (1993) pointed out that newcomers with mentors learn more about their organization than newcomers without mentors. In the present study, organizational socialization is conceptualized as perceived organizational support and developmental experience. Based on the literature reviewed, the proposed framework of the study is given in Figure 1. Hypotheses Nelson and Quick (1991) examined socialization practices and found that formal orientation was rated as one of the most available social support resources. Heimann and Pittenger (1996) explored the impact of mentorship on socialization. Employees

Chow: Organizational socialization and career success SOCIALIZATION Perceived organizational support Development experience P - 0 fit ^ CAREERS OUTCOMES Career satisfaction Commitment Performance Expected org. tenure Prob. of success No. of promotions

725

Figure 1 The framework of socialization and career success with a close relationship with their mentors (spending more time with mentor and receiving more support from mentor) reported higher levels of socialization and organizational commitment. Jones (1986) found that institutional socialization tactics were related to greater job satisfaction and commitment, and lower role ambiguity, role conflict and intentions to quit, because such tactics provide information that reduces newcomers' anxiety. Wanous (1992) showed that an accurate understanding of job requirements will enhance a person's adjustment to a job and career progression. Thus, perceived organizational support will lead to performance outcomes (Eisenberger et al., 1990). HI: There is a positive relationship between perceived organizational support (coaching and mentoring, career planning workshop, career and organizational information) and outcome measures in terms of organizational commitment, performance, career satisfaction, number of promotions, probability of success and expected organizational tenure.

One major function of socialization is to provide the information needed to adjust better to organization (Van Maanen, 1978; Miller and Jablin, 1991). Training is one of the most formal and planned socialization procedures (Louis et al., 1983). Training plays a critical role during socialization by providing newcomers with important information about the organization as well as their jobs and roles. Saks (1996) examined the relationship between the amount and helpfulness of entry training and work outcomes for newcomers during organizational socialization. The results revealed that the amount of training received by newcomers was significantly related to job satisfaction, commitment, intention to quit, ability to cope and several measures of job performance. Sherman et al. (1986) found a significant impact of network on organizational socialization. H2: There is a positive relationship between developmental experience provided (training, education, access to information, career guidance, networking, growth and learning new things) and socialization outcomes.

Perceived organizational support includes discretionary practices available to employees within the organization. It is perceived as an institutionalized investment in employees. Development experience is more like individualized socialization because individuals actively seek career guidance, opportunity for growth and learning new things, getting more education/training and building networks. Based on the finding that employees are likely to be more satisfied with their careers if they have been provided with unique individualized socialization experience, it is hypothesized that:

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The International Journal of Human Resource Management Employees value developmental experience more highly than perceived organizational support.

Sample Included in the present study are five high-growth economies in Asia, namely, Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Thailand. Japan is the engine for growth in Asia. Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan are three of the little dragons. Thailand was considered to be the fifth little dragon following the Asian Newly Industrialized Countries. The selected economic indicators of these most rapidly developed economies are presented in Table I. Despite the meltdown of the economy after the Asian financial crisis, demand for executives in the Asia Pacific region has bounced up. Asia was the first choice of 1997 Wharton MB As who took jobs outside the US (The Asia Wall Street Journal, 3 March 1998). It offers good opportunities for middle managers to progress in the region. In addition to the variation in economic development, these five economies also vary on different cultural dimensions. It is believed that these five countries and regions share certain Oriental values, such as Confucianism. Table 2 depicts the different societal culture of the five countries/regions. It should be noted that Singapore is very high in future orientation whereas Thailand is very low in this dimension. Collectivism Table 1 Selected economic indicators GDP growth (%) Japan Singapore Taiwan Hong Kong Thailand 10 . 10.1 69 . 57 . 06 . GDP per capita 23440 24610 15370 24085 8165 Population (million) 126.1 31 . 21.9 66 . 61.4

Source: Asiaweek (20 February, 1998: 56)

Table 2 Societal culture Hong Kong Singapore Performance orientation Future orientation Assertiveness Societal emphasis on collectivism Family collectivism Gender egalitarianism* Humane orientation Power distance Uncertainty avoidance 4.80 4.03 4.67 4.13 5.32 3.47 3.90 4.96 4.32 4.90 5.07 4.17 4.90 5.64 3.70 3.49 4.99 5.31 Taiwan 4.56 3.96 3.92 4.59 5.59 3.18 4.11 5.18 4.34 Japan 4.22 4.29 3.59 5.19 4.63 3.19 4.30 5.11 4.07 Thailand 3.93 3.43 3.64 4.03 5.70 3.35 4.81 5.63 3.93

Notes In general the higher score indicates greater impact in a particular dimension. * Higher scores indicate greater female orientation and lower scores indicate greater male orientation. Source: House et al. (1999): GLOBE project database

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is further divided into two dimensions, at the societal level and towards family (ingroup). Japan is distinctively different from the other Asian societies in collectivism. Japan is very collective at the societal level but not collective towards the family, in contrast to other Asian countries. That explains why employees in Japanese organizations make a lot of personal sacrifice for their organizations at the expense of their family (Durlabhji and Ramachandram, 1993). Furthermore, Singapore is not very humane but strikingly high in uncertainty avoidance compared with their Asian counterparts. This can be reflected in the government's heavy involvement in every aspect of the Singapore society, such as the control of mass media, housing, even the marriage and number of children of Singapore citizens. The government-dependent and welfare state environment reduces the risk-taking propensity of the Singaporean. It is also worth noting that Thailand is very low in uncertainty avoidance but high in power distance. It is also true that national culture permeates the boundaries of organizations. The present study is part of a larger study on career projects in Asia. Data were obtained from interviews with line managers and human resource managers in four industrial sectors in five Asia countries/societies, namely, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan and Thailand. To ensure comparability over the different countries, respondents were selected according to several criteria. The types of industries included manufacturing, financial services, petrochemical and public sectors. Ten to twenty managers were drawn from each organization in all departments and at all levels. The selected individuals had to be working for a company employing at least 200 employees and to have worked for the same organization for at least one year. Data were collected through structured interviews. The sample consisted of 374 managers from five different Asian countries and societies. The distribution of respondents and sample characteristics is given in Table 3. The mean age for the total sample was 47 years old, 81.7 per cent were male and 81 per cent were married. There were higher percentages of male managers for the Japan and Taiwan groups, 95 and 90 per cent respectively. The respondents were well educated, with 91.6 per cent having attained the level of junior college education and above. Participants had been in the labour force for an average of 15.8 years. On the average, they had 4.8 jobs, 2.7 promotions and worked for 2.7 organizations. The Japanese had noticeably longer years of experience in the labour force (20.6 years) and had worked for fewer organizations (1.5 against the average of 2.7). The sample reflected a wide range of jobs, industries and cultural diversity. Measures The present study utilizes a broad array of activities to capture many aspects of socialization. The perceived organizational support was measured by checking out the
Table 3 Classification of the sample by industrial sectors Petrochemical 4 21 3 9 1 38 Government 0 0 0 19 33 52

Country/society Singapore Thailand Japan Hong Kong Taiwan TOTAL

Sample size Services 21 84 96 71 102 374 12 24 66 27 4 133

Manufacturing 5 36 27 16 64 148

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Table 4 Sample characteristics

Singapore Average age % married % attaining BA/BSc & above % male Years in labour force No organizations worked No. of jobs/positions 41.6 90 48 52.4 12.9 3.1 4.95 Thailand 47.9 62.6 Japan 43.4 88.3 Hong Kong 46.3 76 54.3 78.9 14.4 2.8 4.94 Taiwan 51.3 91 79.2 90 14.0 2.6 4.55 Total 47 81 77.8 81.7 15.8 2.7 4.55

88
66.3 12.9 4.2 4.84

93
94.7 20.6 1.5 4.56

career management activities available to employees within the organization. Perceived organizational support refers to discretionary practices that the organization provides for their employees. These activities include career information, coaching and mentoring, job/organization information, career planning and guidance, etc. The response categories are: don't know (0), not available (1), available informally (2) and available formally (3). Developmental experience was measured by these items: seek help from co-workers or friends, get more education or training, gain access to important information, build a network of contacts, seek career guidance, career opportunity, growth and learning new things, with a measurement scale of 1 to 5. Person-organization fit Various methods, both direct and indirect, can be used to measure P - 0 fit in organization studies (Kristof, 1996). In the present study, direct, subjective measure of P - 0 fit is used. The respondents' perceptions of the P - 0 fit was measured with three items, 'your career goals match your organization's goals for you', 'your career timetable matches your organization's timetable for you' and 'your career strategy matches the organization's career strategy for your future'. Responses were anchored on a 5-point scale ranging from I (very unlikely) to 5 (very likely). The internal consistency estimate for the three-item scale was .86. Outcomes of socialization Socialization processes lead directly to various desirable organizational outcomes. The outcomes of socialization from both the individual and organization perspectives will be reflected in effectiveness, satisfaction and commitment. In the present study, both attitudinal and objective measures of socialization are included. Several socialization outcomes, such as self-evaluated job performance, career satisfaction, career success, number of promotions, organizational commitment and expected organizational tenure, were recorded. These self-reported work outcomes were measured on a 5-point Likerttype scale. Career success was assessed by self-reported data: 'How likely are you to achieve success in your career?' The responses ranged from 1 to 5, representing five categories, from 0-20 per cent chance to 80-100 per cent chance. Organizational commitment was measured by three items: 'This organization means a lot to me', 'I am not part of this organizational family (R)', and 'I do not belong to

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this organization (R)'. The measurement scale ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The alpha coefficient was .65. The expected organizational tenure was measured by 'How long do you expect to continue working for this organization?' coded in years. Career satisfaction was measured by 'In general, how satisfied are you with meeting your career goals so far in your life?' The response ranged from (1) very dissatisfied to (5) very satisfied. Performance was measured by the self-reported statement 'my job performance is excellent' and the number of promotions the respondents reported in their career history. It is expected that socialization, in terms of perceived organizational support and developmental experience, would be significantly and positively related to these criteria of career effectiveness. Income is not a good measure of success because of the different income levels and cost of living standards. It is difficult to compare across different countries. Results Table 5 reports the means of all variables of the sample groups. Results from outcome measures indicated that, on the average, the respondents estimated a 75 per cent chance of achieving success in their career. The average scores for self-reported performance and career satisfaction were 3.5 and 3.2 respectively on a five-point scale. The expected organizational tenure on average was 8.6 years. A significant difference was noted between the Japanese and Singaporean managers' expected organizational tenure, 11.4 years compared with 4.9 years. In terms of perceived organizational support, the Japanese organizations provided more network support but less career guidance. This is in line with the Japanese group-oriented culture and progressive career path based on seniority. The Japanese were less inclined to get more education. The Hong Kong managers perceived relatively slow company growth comparing with their counterparts in the regions. In terms of developmental experience, Singapore and Hong Kong respondents were less likely to seek help from friends. It is interesting to note that Hong Kong respondents were less likely to share information, while their Singapore counterparts were given more career training and share of information. Singaporean and Taiwanese were less likely to get access to information, but the Taiwanese were more likely to seek career guidance. To a certain extent, this reflects the different socialization tactics used in different Asian organizations. Table 6 presents the correlations among the outcome variables and socialization dimensions. Looking at the correlations among the six performance and career success indicators, it is quite surprising to find that expected organization tenure was not related to any of these indicators. It was also negatively related to other outcome variables except commitment. Career satisfaction was significantly correlated with self-reported performance, probability of success and commitment. Probability of success was significantly correlated with organizational commitment and self-reported performance. And self-reported performance was correlated with number of promotions. Subjective P - 0 fit judgement correlated with four out of the six outcome measures, i.e. probability of success, expected organizational tenure, career satisfaction and commitment. Expected organizational tenure and number of promotions were not correlated with any of the perceived organizational support activities and developmental experience. The result confirms the earlier finding by Orpen (1995) that career success.

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Table 5 Means of variables

Singapore Career success and performance Expected org. tenure 4.9 Self-reported 4 performance Prob. of career success 4.5 Career satisfaction 3.8 Org. commitment 3.25 No. of promotions 2.95 Person-org. fit Goals match Time match Strategy match Thailand Japan Hong Kong Taiwan Total

indicators 7.6 3.5 3.9 2.9 2.65 2.73

11.4 3.3 3.1 3.4 3.36 2.74

7.9 3.8 3.6 3.6 2.99 2.95

8.6
3.5 3.7 3 3.4 2.37

8.6
3.5 3.5 3.2 3.1 2.74

2.9 2.7 2.7

2.9
3.1 3.0

2.8 2.9 2.9

2.9 2.6 2.8

2.8 2.7 2.7

2.8 2.8 2.9

Perceived org. support Set up a network 0.86 Provide career guidance 0.14 Coaching and mentor 1.6 Career information 1.2 Career planning 1.2 workshop Co. growth 1.8 Developmental experience Career opportunities 3.7 Help from friends 2.3 Get more education 4.4 Access to information 2.6 Build a network 3.5 Seek career guidance 2.6 Growth & learning 2.5 new things Career training 3.7 Share information 4.2

0.42 0.36 1.9 2.0 2.0 1.6

1.03 0.09 1.4 0.9 0.91 1.8

0.26 0.14 1.5 1.6 1.3 0.34

0.72 0.17 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.0

0.65 0.18 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3

3.6 2.9 4.4 3.9 3.7 2.8 2.6 3.5 3.5

3.0 3.0 3.8 3.8 3.6 2.4 3.1 3.1 3.4

3.2 2.0 4.4 3.2 3.7 2.6 2.7 3.2 2.3

2.8 3.1 4.3 2.0 3.4 3.1 2.5 3.0 3.2

3.2 3.0 4.2 3.4 3.6 2.7 2.7 3.2 3.3

judged by promotions received and salary growth, was unaffected by how socialization tactics were used. Regarding perceived organizational support, career satisfaction was significantly correlated with job/organization information and sharing information, but negatively related to coaching, career planning workshop, career information, growth and learning new things. Organizational commitment was negatively correlated with career information. Growth and learning new things was negatively correlated with organizational commitment and probability of success. Sharing information was significantly correlated with organizational commitment, career satisfaction and probability of success. On the other hand, developmental experience was not related to job satisfaction. Sharing information, career training, career opportunity, getting more education and building a network were significantly correlated with perceived probability of success. Education, company growth and building a network were significantly correlated with self-reported performance. Getting more education was significantly correlated with

Chow: Organizational socialization and career success

731

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The International Journal of Human Resource Management

organizational commitment. One general observation: there are more positive relationships between developmental experience and socialization outcome measures, in contrast to more negative relationships between perceived organizational support and outcome measures. Thus H3 was supported. Table 7 depicts the results of the analysis concerning the relationships between the socialization process and career success, which are tested with ordinary least-squares regression. Regression analysis using perceived organizational support revealed that organizational commitment and career satisfaction were significant. Organization information was a significant predictor of commitment and satisfaction. Career information and organization information were predictors of career satisfaction. Organization information was also a predictor of organizational commitment. Contrary to what might be expected, career planning, coaching, mentoring were not significant predictors of organizational commitment and career satisfaction. Perhaps the respondents were not aware of the availability of such programmes in their organizations. Results from the regression analysis using developmental experience showed that four out of six outcome measures were significant. This is consistent with the correlation analysis. Career opportunity, career training (negative), getting more education and access to information were significant predictors of career satisfaction. Career training and building a network were significant predictors of performance. Growth and career opportunities were significant predictors of probability of career success and organizational commitment.

Table 7a support

Regression analysis predicting outcomes using perceived organizational Commitment Career satisfaction .05415 .0005 -.0679 -.0815 -.1313* .2438**

Adjusted R^ Signif. F Coaching and mentoring Career-planning workshop Career information Organization information

.0502 .0047 -.0935 .1184 -.1978 -.2087*

Table 7b Regression analysis predicting outcomes using developmental experience Career sat. Adjusted R^ Signif. F o p Growth Career opport. Career training Get education Access to info. Build a network Career guidance Note * p < .05; ** p < .01.
.08 .00

Preform.
.03 .02

Psuccess
.09 .00

Commitment
.12 .00

-1.4 3.6** -2.2* 2.0* 2.3* -.91 -1.21

-.05
.05

-.06 .13*
.00

-.12* .20* -.14

1.9

-3.5** 1.78
.22

.15*
.41

-.35 1.68 -.09

1.13 2.15* -1.71

.95

Chow: Organizational socialization and career success Discussion and conclusions

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This study investigates the effects of developmental experience and perceived organizational support on employee socialization outcomes. There is partial support for the predicted relationships in the present study. A significant regression coefficient indicated that developmental experience was positive associated with performance, probability of success, career satisfaction and organizational commitment. Conversely, perceived low support for organizational support would lessen the effectiveness of these programmes. Organizations should put more effort into arousing awareness of these programmes in order to utilize the available resources fully. The results from the correlation analysis and regression coefficients were not significant for two out of the six outcome measures, that is, expected organizational tenure and number of promotions. This is consistent with the previous study by Orpen (1995), which found that socialization tactics were not related to either salary growth or number of promotions. Organizational tenure and promotion received depend much more on factors like chance, competence and reputation. Overall, the results of this study suggest that effective socialization can result in productive and committed employees. Findings from the correlation and multiple regression analyses suggest that socialization tactics, such as access to information, career opportunity and getting more education, play the most prominent role in predicting effective socialization. We emphasize the learning dimensions and outcomes of socialization as identified in Fisher (1986) and Bauer et al. (1998). Training and education are highly valued in Asian countries. The developmental experience helps an individual to acquire skill and competence and better adjust to changes in the workplace. It is an important tool and individuals are inclined to seek information that will increase their knowledge. Orpen's (1995) study found that perceived individualized tactics were significantly positively related to career satisfaction, while perceived institutionalized tactics were significantly negatively related. From the employees' point of view, organizational support or institutionalized support is perceived as less important. No organization has the sole responsibility for an individual's career planning. It is the individual's responsibility. Employees should take a more proactive role in seeking developmental experience. Individuals should be proactive in initiating interaction opportunities with one another and engage in more useful information seeking. Employees enter an organization with a set of expectations about their future and career. Positive work outcomes develop when one's expectations are confirmed. People also differ in their needs, values and personalities. Research from the person-job fit literature points out that an experience that is congruent with one's value or meets one's needs will be rewarding and thus enhance positive work outcomes (Jones, 1983; Cable and Judge, 1996). Results from the present study showed four out of the six outcomes measures are significantly correlated with P-O fit. P - 0 fit (met expectations) was significantly and positively related to organizational commitment, expected organizational tenure, probability of success and career satisfaction. The present study confirms a highly consistent positive relationship between P-O fit and socialization outcomes. The pattern of the socialization process can also be explained by cultural differences. Differences associated with national culture may also create cross-cultural variation in socialization process. Organizations in different cultures may utilize different socialization tactics. Thus, successful socialization differs across culture. As indicated in Table 5, the types of organizational support and developmental activities will be heavily influenced by national culture. There are undeniable variations in socialization among

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different countries. These variations stem from radical differences in cultural environments. This study makes a unique contribution to the socialization literature by developing an alternative view of effective socialization and testing empirically the relationship between socialization tactics and effectiveness in terms of career success. Results from the present study will add to the literature and increase our understanding of how individuals adjust to their organization throughout their career and achieve career success. It is the first cross-sectional, multi-country design with heterogeneous samples to explore the effects of socialization and career success. Jt provides meaningful insights into individuals' adjustment to organizations in Asia. Socialization appears to be an important component of the process that can make a difference for career success. Results from the present study generally support the prediction that amount of support and training would be positive related to job attitudes and performance. The results of the research point to research as well as to practical implications. Research implications The results failed to support some of the hypotheses. The lack of relationship between expected organization tenure, number of promotions and socialization should be interpreted with caution. Expected organizational tenure and number of promotions depend on some external factors, such as chance, growth rate of the organization and the economy, the attractiveness of getting a job elsewhere, etc. A sample-specific explanation for this finding of lack of relationship may be one possibility. Another explanation may be due to the heterogeneity of the sample. Future research should continue exploring this issue. This study has explored a line of research that will contribute to greater understanding of the socialization and adjustment throughout the individual's career in Asian countries. It lays the groundwork for future research. By focusing on the socialization process and examining its effectiveness, the study highlights relevant variables that have been linked to socialization in terms of organizational support and developmental experience of individual's career success. The amount and nature of formal orientation vary widely between organizations depending on size and the socialcultural context in which they are embedded. Future research should extend the present study by incorporating the intensity and complementary of these socialization programmes in order to achieve maximum benefit. Managerial implications In terms of practical implementation, understanding the relationship between socialization experiences and organizational outcomes in these Asian countries should help human resource managers to gain a better understanding of the content and components that need to be included in their training and socialization programmes for employees. Such a knowledge base would enable HR managers to design more successful socialization programmes, which, in turn, would provide organizations with a more dedicated workforce. They are then in a better position to anticipate the impact of a particular policy or practice. Gaertner and Nollen (1989) found that perceptions of the organization's adherence to career-oriented employment practices, including internal promotion, training and development and employment security, were related to commitment among employees in Fortune 100 manufacturing firms. Socialization tactics can have long-lasting, beneficial consequences, extending beyond the early organization entry stage. Based on the findings reported in the present

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study, it appears that organizations can do several things to foster a stronger sense of commitment and career development for their employees. Career training, getting more education, building a network and sharing information are among the most important tactics. In other words, cultivating networks and gaining access to other people's knowledge and resource are fundamental steps in socialization and career success. The socialization process and content include skill training and career planning workshops. Training should be an important and integral part of the socialization process. In the present study, training does not show any significant impact on outcome measures except probability of success. Probably organizations are not doing enough to provide sufficient training to make it have a significant impact on socialization outcomes. Organizations can benefit from providing accurate information to employees during the recruitment and selection process, using socialization strategies designed to bolster employees' sense of self-worth, and offering training programmes to provide employees with the knowledge and skills they expect to do their jobs effectively. These are some of the suggestions for managing successfully the transition and effective socialization of an individual's career. No doubt, well-designed socialization programmes contribute to successful organizational experience, which in turn have been attributed to long-term career success. Limitations and suggestions for future research The present study relies on self-reported data and retrospective information provided by the respondents. Such a method was used by Feldman (1976). The retrospective nature of reporting objective life events is more reliable than retrospective reporting of subjective interpretation (Jones, 1983). The common method variance problem may also provide the basis for cautious interpretation of the results. To overcome potential problems of common method variance of inflated bias, additional data concerning career and human resource activities should be collected. In the present study, interviews were also conducted with human resource managers to verify the accuracy of information provided in order to reduce the probability of common method variance posing a substantial threat to the validity of this study. In view of these limitations, multiple methods of assessing socialization variables are recommended in future studies. It is suggested that, in future studies, in addition to self-reported subjective measures of performance, primary outcomes of socialization, such as role innovation, learning and acculturation, should be assessed by superiors and peers. Using more advanced statistical techniques, such as causal modelling, procedures in future research will permit greater confidence in causal inference about the changes in the socialization process. Acknowledgements This study is part of a larger international project on career. The author would like to thank C.S. Granrose, T.K. Peng and Baba Maseo for their data collection in different locations. References
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