Ishmaelite Stories

Ishmael’s Birth

Genesis 16:1–17:27: 1 Now Sarai Abram’s wife bare him no children: and she
had an handmaid, an Egyptian, whose name was Hagar. 2 And Sarai said unto
Abram, “Behold now, the LORD hath restrained me from bearing: I pray thee, go
in unto my maid; it may be that I may obtain children by her.” And Abram
hearkened to the voice of Sarai. 3 And Sarai Abram’s wife took Hagar her maid
the Egyptian, after Abram had dwelt ten years in the land of Canaan, and gave
her to her husband Abram to be his wife. 4 And he went in unto Hagar, and she
conceived: and when she saw that she had conceived, her mistress was
despised in her eyes. 5 And Sarai said unto Abram, “My wrong be upon thee: I
have given my maid into thy bosom; and when she saw that she had conceived, I
was despised in her eyes: the LORD judge between me and thee.” 6 But Abram
said unto Sarai, “Behold, thy maid is in thy hand; do to her as it pleaseth thee.”
And when Sarai dealt hardly with her, she fled from her face. 7 And the angel of
the LORD found her by a fountain of water in the wilderness, by the fountain in the
way to Shur. 8 And He said, “Hagar, Sarai’s maid, whence camest thou? and
whither wilt thou go?” And she said, “I flee from the face of my mistress Sarai.” 9
And the angel of the LORD said unto her, “Return to thy mistress, and submit
thyself under her hands.” 10 And the angel of the LORD said unto her, “I will
multiply thy seed exceedingly, that it shall not be numbered for multitude.” 11
And the angel of the LORD said unto her, “Behold, thou art with child, and shalt
bear a son, and shalt call his name Ishmael; because the LORD hath heard thy
affliction. 12 And he will be a wild man; his hand will be against every man, and
every man’s hand against him; and he shall dwell in the presence of all his
brethren.” 13 And she called the name of the LORD that spake unto her, Thou
GOD seest me: for she said, “Have I also here looked after Him That seeth me?”
14 Wherefore the well was called Beer-lahairoi; behold, it is between Kadesh and
Bered. 15 And Hagar bare Abram a son: and Abram called his son’s name,
which Hagar bare, Ishmael. 16 And Abram was fourscore and six years old,
when Hagar bare Ishmael to Abram. 1 And when Abram was ninety years old
and nine, the LORD appeared to Abram, and said unto him, I am the Almighty
GOD; walk before Me, and be thou perfect. 2 And I will make My covenant
between Me and thee, and will multiply thee exceedingly.” 3 And Abram fell on
his face: and God talked with him, saying, 4 “As for Me, behold, My covenant is
with thee, and thou shalt be a father of many nations. 5 Neither shall thy name
any more be called Abram, but thy name shall be Abraham; for a father of many
nations have I made thee. 6 And I will make thee exceeding fruitful, and I will
make nations of thee, and kings shall come out of thee. 7 And I will establish My
covenant between Me and thee and thy seed after thee in their generations for
an everlasting covenant, to be a God unto thee, and to thy seed after thee. 8 And
I will give unto thee, and to thy seed after thee, the land wherein thou art a
stranger, all the land of Canaan, for an everlasting possession; and I will be their
God.” 9 And God said unto Abraham, “Thou shalt keep My covenant therefore,
thou, and thy seed after thee in their generations. 10 This is My covenant, which
ye shall keep, between Me and you and thy seed after thee; Every man child
among you shall be circumcised. 11 And ye shall circumcise the flesh of your
foreskin; and it shall be a token of the covenant betwixt Me and you. 12 And he
that is eight days old shall be circumcised among you, every man child in your
generations, he that is born in the house, or bought with money of any stranger,
which is not of thy seed. 13 He that is born in thy house, and he that is bought
with thy money, must needs be circumcised: and My covenant shall be in your
flesh for an everlasting covenant. 14 And the uncircumcised man child whose
flesh of his foreskin is not circumcised, that soul shall be cut off from his people;
he hath broken My covenant.” 15 And God said unto Abraham, “As for Sarai thy
wife, thou shalt not call her name Sarai, but Sarah shall her name be. 16 And I
will bless her, and give thee a son also of her: yea, I will bless her, and she shall
be a mother of nations; kings of people shall be of her.” 17 Then Abraham fell
upon his face, and laughed, and said in his heart, “Shall a child be born unto him
that is an hundred years old? and shall Sarah, that is ninety years old, bear?” 18
And Abraham said unto God, “O that Ishmael might live before Thee!” 19 And
God said, Sarah thy wife shall bear thee a son indeed; and thou shalt call his
name Isaac: and I will establish My covenant with him for an everlasting
covenant, and with his seed after him. 20 And as for Ishmael, I have heard thee:
Behold, I have blessed him, and will make him fruitful, and will multiply him
exceedingly; twelve princes shall he beget, and I will make him a great nation. 21
But My covenant will I establish with Isaac, which Sarah shall bear unto thee at
this set time in the next year.” 22 And He left off talking with him, and God went
up from Abraham. 23 And Abraham took Ishmael his son, and all that were born
in his house, and all that were bought with his money, every male among the
men of Abraham’s house; and circumcised the flesh of their foreskin in the
selfsame day, as God had said unto him. 24 And Abraham was ninety years old
and nine, when he was circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin. 25 And Ishmael
his son was thirteen years old, when he was circumcised in the flesh of his
foreskin. 26 In the selfsame day was Abraham circumcised, and Ishmael his son.
27 And all the men of his house, born in the house, and bought with money of the
stranger, were circumcised with him.

Hagar, Ishmael’s Mother

Genesis 21:9–21: 9 And Sarah saw the son of Hagar the Egyptian, which she
had born unto Abraham, mocking. 10 Wherefore she said unto Abraham, “Cast
out this bondwoman and her son: for the son of this bondwoman shall not be heir
with my son, even with Isaac.” 11 And the thing was very grievous in Abraham’s
sight because of his son. 12 And God said unto Abraham, “Let it not be grievous
in thy sight because of the lad, and because of thy bondwoman; in all that Sarah
hath said unto thee, hearken unto her voice; for in Isaac shall thy seed be called.
13 And also of the son of the bondwoman will I make a nation, because he is thy
seed.” 14 And Abraham rose up early in the morning, and took bread, and a
bottle of water, and gave it unto Hagar, putting it on her shoulder, and the child,
and sent her away: and she departed, and wandered in the wilderness of Beer-
sheba. 15 And the water was spent in the bottle, and she cast the child under
one of the shrubs. 16 And she went, and sat her down over against him a good
way off, as it were a bowshot: for she said, “Let me not see the death of the
child.” And she sat over against him, and lift up her voice, and wept. 17 And God
heard the voice of the lad; and the angel of God called to Hagar out of heaven,
and said unto her, “What aileth thee, Hagar? fear not; for God hath heard the
voice of the lad where he is. 18 Arise, lift up the lad, and hold him in thine hand;
for I will make him a great nation.” 19 And God opened her eyes, and she saw a
well of water; and she went, and filled the bottle with water, and gave the lad
drink. 20 And God was with the lad; and he grew, and dwelt in the wilderness,
and became an archer. 21 And he dwelt in the wilderness of Paran: and his
mother took him a wife out of the land of Egypt.

Isaac and Ishmael Bury Abraham

Genesis 25:8–11: 8 Then Abraham gave up the ghost, and died in a good old
age, an old man, and full of years; and was gathered to his people. 9 And his
sons Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah, in the field of
Ephron the son of Zohar the Hittite, which is before Mamre; 10 The field which
Abraham purchased of the sons of Heth: there was Abraham buried, and Sarah
his wife. 11 And it came to pass after the death of Abraham, that God blessed his
son Isaac; and Isaac dwelt by the well Lahai-roi.

Esau Takes Ishmaelitish Wives

Genesis 28:8–9: 8 And Esau seeing that the daughters of Canaan pleased not
Isaac his father; 9 Then went Esau unto Ishmael, and took unto the wives which
he had Mahalath the daughter of Ishmael Abraham’s son, the sister of Nebajoth,
to be his wife.

Joseph’s Brothers Sell Him to Ishmeelites

Genesis 37:1–36; 39:1–2: 1 And Jacob dwelt in the land wherein his father was a
stranger, in the land of Canaan. 2 These are the generations of Jacob. Joseph,
being seventeen years old, was feeding the flock with his brethren; and the lad
was with the sons of Bilhah, and with the sons of Zilpah, his father’s wives: and
Joseph brought unto his father their evil report. 3 Now Israel loved Joseph more
than all his children, because he was the son of his old age: and he made him a
coat of many colours. 4 And when his brethren saw that their father loved him
more than all his brethren, they hated him, and could not speak peaceably unto
him. 5 And Joseph dreamed a dream, and he told it his brethren: and they hated
him yet the more. 6 And he said unto them, “Hear, I pray you, this dream which I
have dreamed: 7 For, behold, we were binding sheaves in the field, and, lo, my
sheaf arose, and also stood upright; and, behold, your sheaves stood round
about, and made obeisance to my sheaf.” 8 And his brethren said to him, “Shalt
thou indeed reign over us? or shalt thou indeed have dominion over us?” And
they hated him yet the more for his dreams, and for his words. 9 And he dreamed
yet another dream, and told it his brethren, and said, “Behold, I have dreamed a
dream more; and, behold, the sun and the moon and the eleven stars made
obeisance to me.” 10 And he told it to his father, and to his brethren: and his
father rebuked him, and said unto him, “What is this dream that thou hast
dreamed? Shall I and thy mother and thy brethren indeed come to bow down
ourselves to thee to the earth?” 11 And his brethren envied him; but his father
observed the saying. 12 And his brethren went to feed their father's flock in
Shechem. 13 And Israel said unto Joseph, “Do not thy brethren feed the flock in
Shechem? come, and I will send thee unto them.” And he said to him, “Here am
I.” 14 And he said to him, “Go, I pray thee, see whether it be well with thy
brethren, and well with the flocks; and bring me word again.” So he sent him out
of the vale of Hebron, and he came to Shechem. 15 And a certain man found
him, and, behold, he was wandering in the field: and the man asked him, saying,
“What seekest thou?” 16 And he said, “I seek my brethren: tell me, I pray thee,
where they feed their flocks.” 17 And the man said, “They are departed hence;
for I heard them say, ‘Let us go to Dothan.’” And Joseph went after his brethren,
and found them in Dothan. 18 And when they saw him afar off, even before he
came near unto them, they conspired against him to slay him. 19 And they said
one to another, “Behold, this dreamer cometh. 20 Come now therefore, and let
us slay him, and cast him into some pit, and we will say, ‘Some evil beast hath
devoured him:’ and we shall see what will become of his dreams.” 21 And
Reuben heard it, and he delivered him out of their hands; and said, “Let us not
kill him.” 22 And Reuben said unto them, “Shed no blood, but cast him into this
pit that is in the wilderness, and lay no hand upon him;” that he might rid him out
of their hands, to deliver him to his father again. 23 And it came to pass, when
Joseph was come unto his brethren, that they stript Joseph out of his coat, his
coat of many colours that was on him; 24 And they took him, and cast him into a
pit: and the pit was empty, there was no water in it. 25 And they sat down to eat
bread: and they lifted up their eyes and looked, and, behold, a company of
Ishmeelites came from Gilead with their camels bearing spicery and balm and
myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt. 26 And Judah said unto his brethren,
“What profit is it if we slay our brother, and conceal his blood? 27 Come, and let
us sell him to the Ishmeelites, and let not our hand be upon him; for he is our
brother and our flesh.” And his brethren were content. 28 Then there passed by
Midianites merchantmen; and they drew and lifted up Joseph out of the pit, and
sold Joseph to the Ishmeelites for twenty pieces of silver: and they brought
Joseph into Egypt. 29 And Reuben returned unto the pit; and, behold, Joseph
was not in the pit; and he rent his clothes. 30 And he returned unto his brethren,
and said, “The child is not; and I, whither shall I go?” 31 And they took Joseph’s
coat, and killed a kid of the goats, and dipped the coat in the blood; 32 And they
sent the coat of many colours, and they brought it to their father; and said, “This
have we found: know now whether it be thy son’s coat or no.” 33 And he knew it,
and said, “It is my son’s coat; an evil beast hath devoured him; Joseph is without
doubt rent in pieces.” 34 And Jacob rent his clothes, and put sackcloth upon his
loins, and mourned for his son many days. 35 And all his sons and all his
daughters rose up to comfort him; but he refused to be comforted; and he said,
“For I will go down into the grave unto my son mourning.” Thus his father wept for
him. 36 And the Midianites sold him into Egypt unto Potiphar, an officer of
Pharaoh’s, and captain of the guard. Genesis 39:1–2: 1 And Joseph was brought
down to Egypt; and Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh, captain of the guard, an
Egyptian, bought him of the hands of the Ishmeelites, which had brought him
down thither. 2 And the LORD was with Joseph, and he was a prosperous man;
and he was in the house of his master the Egyptian.

Ishmaelite Cities Are Among Judah’s Inheritances

Joshua: 15:51–52: 51 And Goshen, and Holon, and Giloh; eleven cities with their
villages: 52 Arab, and Dumah, and Eshean, 53 And Janum, and Beth-tappuah,
and Aphekah,

The Golden Earrings of the Ishmaelites

Judges 8:22–28: 22 Then the men of Israel said unto Gideon, “Rule thou over us,
both thou, and thy son, and thy son’s son also: for thou hast delivered us from
the hand of Midian.” 23 And Gideon said unto them, “I will not rule over you,
neither shall my son rule over you: the LORD shall rule over you.” 24 And Gideon
said unto them, “I would desire a request of you, that ye would give me every
man the earrings of his prey.” (For they had golden earrings, because they were
Ishmaelites.) 25 And they answered, “We will willingly give them.” And they
spread a garment, and did cast therein every man the earrings of his prey. 26
And the weight of the golden earrings that he requested was a thousand and
seven hundred shekels of gold; beside ornaments, and collars, and purple
raiment that was on the kings of Midian, and beside the chains that were about
their camels’ necks. 27 And Gideon made an ephod thereof, and put it in his city,
even in Ophrah: and all Israel went thither a whoring after it: which thing became
a snare unto Gideon, and to his house. 28 Thus was Midian subdued before the
children of Israel, so that they lifted up their heads no more. And the country was
in quietness forty years in the days of Gideon.

Solomon Receives Goods From the Kings of Arabia

I Kings 10:15: 14 Now the weight of gold that came to Solomon in one year was
six hundred threescore and six talents of gold, 15 Beside that he had of the
merchantmen, and of the traffick of the spice merchants, and of all the kings of
Arabia, and of the governors of the country.

II Chronicles 9:13–14: 13 Now the weight of gold that came to Solomon in one
year was six hundred and threescore and six talents of gold; 14 Beside that
which chapmen and merchants brought. And all the kings of Arabia and
governors of the country brought gold and silver to Solomon.
Ishmeelite Was the Father of Amasa

I Chronicles 2:17: 17 And Abigail bare Amasa: and the father of Amasa was
Jether the Ishmeelite.

Reubenites Make War with the Hagarites

I Chronicles 5:1–22: 1 Now the sons of Reuben the firstborn of Israel, (for he was
the firstborn; but, forasmuch as he defiled his father’s bed, his birthright was
given unto the sons of Joseph the son of Israel: and the genealogy is not to be
reckoned after the birthright. 2 For Judah prevailed above his brethren, and of
him came the chief ruler; but the birthright was Joseph’s:) 3 The sons, I say, of
Reuben the firstborn of Israel were, Hanoch, and Pallu, Hezron, and Carmi. 4
The sons of Joel; Shemaiah his son, Gog his son, Shimei his son, 5 Micah his
son, Reaia his son, Baal his son, 6 Beerah his son, whom Tilgath-pilneser king of
Assyria carried away captive: he was prince of the Reubenites. 7 And his
brethren by their families, when the genealogy of their generations was
reckoned, were the chief, Jeiel, and Zechariah, 8 And Bela the son of Azaz, the
son of Shema, the son of Joel, who dwelt in Aroer, even unto Nebo and Baal-
meon: 9 And eastward he inhabited unto the entering in of the wilderness from
the river Euphrates: because their cattle were multiplied in the land of Gilead. 10
And in the days of Saul they made war with the Hagarites, who fell by their hand:
and they dwelt in their tents throughout all the east land of Gilead. 11 And the
children of Gad dwelt over against them, in the land of Bashan unto Salchah: 12
Joel the chief, and Shapham the next, and Jaanai, and Shaphat in Bashan. 13
And their brethren of the house of their fathers were, Michael, and Meshullam,
and Sheba, and Jorai, and Jachan, and Zia, and Heber, seven. 14 These are the
children of Abihail the son of Huri, the son of Jaroah, the son of Gilead, the son
of Michael, the son of Jeshishai, the son of Jahdo, the son of Buz; 15 Ahi the son
of Abdiel, the son of Guni, chief of the house of their fathers. 16 And they dwelt in
Gilead in Bashan, and in her towns, and in all the suburbs of Sharon, upon their
borders. 17 All these were reckoned by genealogies in the days of Jotham king
of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam king of Israel.18 The sons of Reuben, and
the Gadites, and half the tribe of Manasseh, of valiant men, men able to bear
buckler and sword, and to shoot with bow, and skilful in war, were four and forty
thousand seven hundred and threescore, that went out to the war. 19 And they
made war with the Hagarites, with Jetur, and Nephish, and Nodab. 20 And they
were helped against them, and the Hagarites were delivered into their hand, and
all that were with them: for they cried to God in the battle, and He was intreated
of them; because they put their trust in Him. 21 And they took away their cattle;
of their camels fifty thousand, and of sheep two hundred and fifty thousand, and
of asses two thousand, and of men an hundred thousand. 22 For there fell down
many slain, because the war was of God. And they dwelt in their steads until the
captivity.
Obil the Ishmaelite Presides Over the Camels in David’s Reign

I Chronicles 27: 30: 30 Over the camels also was Obil the Ishmaelite: and over
the asses was Jehdeiah the Meronothite:

Arabians Bring Jehoshaphat Flocks

II Chronicles 17:10–11: 10 And the fear of the LORD fell upon all the kingdoms of
the lands that were round about Judah, so that they made no war against
Jehoshaphat. 11 Also some of the Philistines brought Jehoshaphat presents, and
tribute silver; and the Arabians brought him flocks, seven thousand and seven
hundred rams, and seven thousand and seven hundred he goats.

Arabians Come Against Jehoram

II Chronicles 21:16–22:1: 16 Moreover the LORD stirred up against Jehoram the

spirit of the Philistines, and of the Arabians, that were near the Ethiopians: 17
And they came up into Judah, and brake into it, and carried away all the
substance that was found in the king’s house, and his sons also, and his wives;
so that there was never a son left him, save Jehoahaz, the youngest of his sons.
18 And after all this the LORD smote him in his bowels with an incurable disease.
19 And it came to pass, that in process of time, after the end of two years, his
bowels fell out by reason of his sickness: so he died of sore diseases. And his
people made no burning for him, like the burning of his fathers. 20 Thirty and two
years old was he when he began to reign, and he reigned in Jerusalem eight
years, and departed without being desired. Howbeit they buried him in the city of
David, but not in the sepulchres of the kings. 1 And the inhabitants of Jerusalem
made Ahaziah his youngest son king in his stead: for the band of men that came
with the Arabians to the camp had slain all the eldest. So Ahaziah the son of
Jehoram king of Judah reigned.

God Helps Uzziah Against the Arabians

II Chronicles 26:3–7: 3 Sixteen years old was Uzziah when he began to reign,
and he reigned fifty and two years in Jerusalem. His mother’s name also was
Jecoliah of Jerusalem. 4 And he did that which was right in the sight of the LORD ,
according to all that his father Amaziah did. 5 And he sought God in the days of
Zechariah, who had understanding in the visions of God: and as long as he
sought the LORD , God made him to prosper. 6 And he went forth and warred
against the Philistines, and brake down the wall of Gath, and the wall of Jabneh,
and the wall of Ashdod, and built cities about Ashdod, and among the Philistines.
7 And God helped him against the Philistines, and against the Arabians that
dwelt in Gur-baal, and the Mehunims.
Geshem the Arabian, and Other Arabians, Try to Interfere With the
Rebuilding of the Temple

Nehemiah 2:18–20: 18 Then I told them of the hand of my God which was good
upon me; as also the king’s words that he had spoken unto me. And they said,
“Let us rise up and build.” So they strengthened their hands for this good work. 19
But when Sanballat the Horonite, and Tobiah the servant, the Ammonite, and
Geshem the Arabian, heard it, they laughed us to scorn, and despised us, and
said, “What is this thing that ye do? will ye rebel against the king?” 20 Then
answered I them, and said unto them, “The God of heaven, He will prosper us;
therefore we His servants will arise and build: but ye have no portion, nor right,
nor memorial, in Jerusalem.”

Nehemiah 4:7–15: 7 But it came to pass, that when Sanballat, and Tobiah, and
the Arabians, and the Ammonites, and the Ashdodites, heard that the walls of
Jerusalem were made up, and that the breaches began to be stopped, then they
were very wroth, 8 And conspired all of them together to come and to fight against
Jerusalem, and to hinder it. 9 Nevertheless we made our prayer unto our God,
and set a watch against them day and night, because of them. 10 And Judah said,
“The strength of the bearers of burdens is decayed, and there is much rubbish; so
that we are not able to build the wall.” 11 And our adversaries said, “They shall
not know, neither see, till we come in the midst among them, and slay them, and
cause the work to cease.” 12 And it came to pass, that when the Jews which
dwelt by them came, they said unto us ten times, “From all places whence ye
shall return unto us they will be upon you.” 13 Therefore set I in the lower places
behind the wall, and on the higher places, I even set the people after their families
with their swords, their spears, and their bows. 14 And I looked, and rose up, and
said unto the nobles, and to the rulers, and to the rest of the people, “Be not ye
afraid of them: remember the LORD , Which is great and terrible, and fight for your
brethren, your sons, and your daughters, your wives, and your houses.” 15 And it
came to pass, when our enemies heard that it was known unto us, and God had
brought their counsel to nought, that we returned all of us to the wall, every one
unto his work.

Nehemiah 6:1–9: 1 Now it came to pass, when Sanballat, and Tobiah, and
Geshem the Arabian, and the rest of our enemies, heard that I had builded the
wall, and that there was no breach left therein; (though at that time I had not set
up the doors upon the gates;) 2 That Sanballat and Geshem sent unto me,
saying, “Come, let us meet together in some one of the villages in the plain of
Ono.” But they thought to do me mischief. 3 And I sent messengers unto them,
saying, “I am doing a great work, so that I cannot come down: why should the
work cease, whilst I leave it, and come down to you?” 4 Yet they sent unto me
four times after this sort; and I answered them after the same manner. 5 Then
sent Sanballat his servant unto me in like manner the fifth time with an open letter
in his hand; 6 “Wherein was written, It is reported among the heathen, and
Gashmu saith it, that thou and the Jews think to rebel: for which cause thou
buildest the wall, that thou mayest be their king, according to these words. 7 And
thou hast also appointed prophets to preach of thee at Jerusalem, saying, ‘There
is a king in Judah: and now shall it be reported to the king according to these
words. Come now therefore, and let us take counsel together.’” 8 Then I sent unto
him, saying, “There are no such things done as thou sayest, but thou feignest
them out of thine own heart.” 9 For they all made us afraid, saying, “Their hands
shall be weakened from the work, that it be not done.” Now therefore, O God,
strengthen my hands.

Job Mentions Tema

Job 6:14–21: 14 To him that is afflicted pity should be shewed from his friend; but
he forsaketh the fear of the Almighty. 15 My brethren have dealt deceitfully as a
brook, and as the stream of brooks they pass away; 16 Which are blackish by
reason of the ice, and wherein the snow is hid: 17 What time they wax warm, they
vanish: when it is hot, they are consumed out of their place. 18 The paths of their
way are turned aside; they go to nothing, and perish. 19 The troops of Tema
looked, the companies of Sheba waited for them. 20 They were confounded
because they had hoped; they came thither, and were ashamed. 21 For now ye
are nothing; ye see my casting down, and are afraid.

Arabians Present at Pentecost in Acts

Acts 2:1–13: 1 And when the day of Pentecost was fully come, they were all with
one accord in one place. 2 And suddenly there came a sound from heaven as of a
rushing mighty wind, and it filled all the house where they were sitting. 3 And there
appeared unto them cloven tongues like as of fire, and it sat upon each of them. 4
And they were all filled with the Holy Ghost, and began to speak with other
tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance. 5 And there were dwelling at
Jerusalem Jews, devout men, out of every nation under heaven. 6 Now when this
was noised abroad, the multitude came together, and were confounded, because
that every man heard them speak in his own language. 7 And they were all
amazed and marvelled, saying one to another, “Behold, are not all these which
speak Galilaeans? 8 And how hear we every man in our own tongue, wherein we
were born? 9 Parthians, and Medes, and Elamites, and the dwellers in
Mesopotamia, and in Judaea, and Cappadocia, in Pontus, and Asia, 10 Phrygia,
and Pamphylia, in Egypt, and in the parts of Libya about Cyrene, and strangers of
Rome, Jews and proselytes, 11 Cretes and Arabians, we do hear them speak in
our tongues the wonderful works of God.” 12 And they were all amazed, and were
in doubt, saying one to another, “What meaneth this?” 13 Others mocking said,
“These men are full of new wine.”

Paul Went to Arabia

Galatians 1:15–18: 15 But when it pleased God, who separated me from my

mother’s womb, and called me by His grace, 16 To reveal His Son in me, that I
might preach him among the heathen; immediately I conferred not with flesh and
blood: 17 Neither went I up to Jerusalem to them which were apostles before me;
but I went into Arabia, and returned again unto Damascus. 18 Then after three
years I went up to Jerusalem to see Peter, and abode with him fifteen days. 19
But other of the apostles saw I none, save James the Lord’s brother.

Paul Mentions Isaac and Ishmael

Galatians 4:21–31: 21 Tell me, ye that desire to be under the law, do ye not hear
the law? 22 For it is written, that Abraham had two sons, the one by a bondmaid,
the other by a freewoman. 23 But he who was of the bondwoman was born after
the flesh; but he of the freewoman was by promise. 24 Which things are an
allegory: for these are the two covenants; the one from the mount Sinai, which
gendereth to bondage, which is Agar. 25 For this Agar is mount Sinai in Arabia,
and answereth to Jerusalem which now is, and is in bondage with her children. 26
But Jerusalem which is above is free, which is the mother of us all. 27 For it is
written, “Rejoice, thou barren that bearest not; break forth and cry, thou that
travailest not: for the desolate hath many more children than she which hath an
husband.” 28 Now we, brethren, as Isaac was, are the children of promise. 29 But
as then he that was born after the flesh persecuted him that was born after the
Spirit, even so it is now. 30 Nevertheless what saith the scripture? “Cast out the
bondwoman and her son: for the son of the bondwoman shall not be heir with the
son of the freewoman.” 31 So then, brethren, we are not children of the
bondwoman, but of the free.
 Ishmael in the Psalms and Song of Solomon

Psalm 83:1–18: 1 A Song or Psalm of Asaph. Keep not Thou silence, O God: hold
not Thy peace, and be not still, O GOD. 2 For, lo, Thine enemies make a tumult:
and they that hate Thee have lifted up the head. 3 They have taken crafty counsel
against thy people, and consulted against Thy hidden ones. 4 They have said,
“Come, and let us cut them off from being a nation; that the name of Israel may be
no more in remembrance”. 5 For they have consulted together with one consent:
they are confederate against Thee: 6 The tabernacles of Edom, and the
Ishmaelites; of Moab, and the Hagarenes; 7 Gebal, and Ammon, and Amalek; the
Philistines with the inhabitants of Tyre; 8 Assur also is joined with them: they have
holpen the children of Lot. Selah. 9 Do unto them as unto the Midianites; as to
Sisera, as to Jabin, at the brook of Kison: 10 Which perished at En-dor: they
became as dung for the earth. 11 Make their nobles like Oreb, and like Zeeb: yea,
all their princes as Zebah, and as Zalmunna: 12 Who said, “Let us take to
ourselves the houses of God in possession.” 13 O my God, make them like a
wheel; as the stubble before the wind. 14 As the fire burneth a wood, and as the
flame setteth the mountains on fire; 15 So persecute them with Thy tempest, and
make them afraid with Thy storm. 16 Fill their faces with shame; that they may
seek Thy name, O LORD . 17 Let them be confounded and troubled for ever; yea,
let them be put to shame, and perish: 18 That men may know that Thou, Wose
name alone is YAHVEH , art the Most High over all the earth. To the chief
musician upon Gittith.

Psalm 120:1–5: 1 A Song of degrees. In my distress I cried unto the LORD , And
He heard me. 2 Deliver my soul, O LORD , from lying lips, And from a deceitful
tongue. 3 What shall be given unto thee? or what shall be done unto thee, Thou
false tongue? 4 Sharp arrows of the mighty, With coals of juniper. 5 Woe is me,
that I sojourn in Mesech, That I dwell in the tents of Kedar! 6 My soul hath long
dwelt with him that hateth peace. 7 I am for peace: but when I speak, they are for
war.

Song of Solomon 1:1–6:1 The song of songs, which is Solomon’s. 2 Let him kiss
me with the kisses of his mouth: for thy love is better than wine. 3 Because of the
savour of thy good ointments thy name is as ointment poured forth, therefore do
the virgins love thee. 4 Draw me, we will run after thee: the king hath brought me
into his chambers: we will be glad and rejoice in thee, we will remember thy love
more than wine: the upright love thee. 5 I am black, but comely, O ye daughters of
Jerusalem, as the tents of Kedar, as the curtains of Solomon. 6 Look not upon
me, because I am black, because the sun hath looked upon me: my mother’s
children were angry with me; they made me the keeper of the vineyards; but mine
own vineyard have I not kept.
 Prophecies Concerning Ishmael

Isaiah 13:1–20: 1 The burden of Babylon, which Isaiah the son of Amoz did see. 2
Lift ye up a banner upon the high mountain, exalt the voice unto them, shake the
hand, that they may go into the gates of the nobles. 3 I have commanded My
sanctified ones, I have also called My mighty ones for Mine anger, even them that
rejoice in My highness. 4 The noise of a multitude in the mountains, like as of a
great people; a tumultuous noise of the kingdoms of nations gathered together:
the LORD of hosts mustereth the host of the battle. 5 They come from a far
country, from the end of heaven, even the LORD , and the weapons of His
indignation, to destroy the whole land. 6 Howl ye; for the day of the LORD is at
hand; it shall come as a destruction from the Almighty. 7 Therefore shall all hands
be faint, and every man’s heart shall melt: 8 And they shall be afraid: pangs and
sorrows shall take hold of them; they shall be in pain as a woman that travaileth:
they shall be amazed one at another; their faces shall be as flames. 9 Behold, the
day of the LORD cometh, cruel both with wrath and fierce anger, to lay the land
desolate: and He shall destroy the sinners thereof out of it. 10 For the stars of
heaven and the constellations thereof shall not give their light: the sun shall be
darkened in his going forth, and the moon shall not cause her light to shine. 11
And I will punish the world for their evil, and the wicked for their iniquity; and I will
cause the arrogancy of the proud to cease, and will lay low the haughtiness of the
terrible. 12 I will make a man more precious than fine gold; even a man than the
golden wedge of Ophir. 13 Therefore I will shake the heavens, and the earth shall
remove out of her place, in the wrath of the LORD of hosts, and in the day of His
fierce anger. 14 And it shall be as the chased roe, and as a sheep that no man
taketh up: they shall every man turn to his own people, and flee every one into his
own land. 15 Every one that is found shall be thrust through; and every one that is
joined unto them shall fall by the sword. 16 Their children also shall be dashed to
pieces before their eyes; their houses shall be spoiled, and their wives ravished.
17 Behold, I will stir up the Medes against them, which shall not regard silver; and
as for gold, they shall not delight in it. 18 Their bows also shall dash the young
men to pieces; and they shall have no pity on the fruit of the womb; their eye shall
not spare children. 19 And Babylon, the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the
Chaldees’ excellency, shall be as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. 20
It shall never be inhabited, neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to
generation: neither shall the Arabian pitch tent there; neither shall the shepherds
make their fold there. 21 But wild beasts of the desert shall lie there; and their
houses shall be full of doleful creatures; and owls shall dwell there, and satyrs
shall dance there. 22 And the wild beasts of the islands shall cry in their desolate
houses, and dragons in their pleasant palaces: and her time is near to come, and
her days shall not be prolonged.

Isaiah 21:11–17: 11 The burden of Dumah. He calleth to me out of Seir,

“Watchman, what of the night? Watchman, what of the night?” 12 The watchman
said, “The morning cometh, and also the night: if ye will enquire, enquire ye:
return, come.” 13 The burden upon Arabia. In the forest in Arabia shall ye lodge,
O ye travelling companies of Dedanim. 14 The inhabitants of the land of Tema
brought water to him that was thirsty, they prevented with their bread him that fled.
15 For they fled from the swords, from the drawn sword, and from the bent bow,
and from the grievousness of war. 16 For thus hath the LORD said unto me,
“Within a year, according to the years of an hireling, and all the glory of Kedar
shall fail: 17 And the residue of the number of archers, the mighty men of the
children of Kedar, shall be diminished: for the LORD God of Israel hath spoken it.”

Isaiah 42:5–12: 5 Thus saith God the LORD , He That created the heavens, and
stretched them out; He That spread forth the earth, and that which cometh out of
it; He That giveth breath unto the people upon it, and spirit to them that walk
therein: 6 “I the LORD have called thee in righteousness, and will hold thine hand,
and will keep thee, and give thee for a covenant of the people, for a light of the
Gentiles; 7 To open the blind eyes, to bring out the prisoners from the prison, and
them that sit in darkness out of the prison house. 8 I am the LORD : that is My
name: and My glory will I not give to another, neither My praise to graven images.
9 Behold, the former things are come to pass, and new things do I declare: before
they spring forth I tell you of them. 10 Sing unto the LORD a new song, and His
praise from the end of the earth, ye that go down to the sea, and all that is therein;
the isles, and the inhabitants thereof. 11 Let the wilderness and the cities thereof
lift up their voice, the villages that Kedar doth inhabit: let the inhabitants of the
rock sing, let them shout from the top of the mountains. 12 Let them give glory
unto the LORD , and declare His praise in the islands.

Isaiah 60:1–7: 1 Arise, shine; for thy light is come, and the glory of the LORD is
risen upon thee. 2 For, behold, the darkness shall cover the earth, and gross
darkness the people: but the LORD shall arise upon thee, and His glory shall be
seen upon thee. 3 And the Gentiles shall come to thy light, and kings to the
brightness of thy rising. 4 Lift up thine eyes round about, and see: all they gather
themselves together, they come to thee: thy sons shall come from far, and thy
daughters shall be nursed at thy side. 5 Then thou shalt see, and flow together,
and thine heart shall fear, and be enlarged; because the abundance of the sea
shall be converted unto thee, the forces of the Gentiles shall come unto thee. 6
The multitude of camels shall cover thee, the dromedaries of Midian and Ephah;
all they from Sheba shall come: they shall bring gold and incense; and they shall
shew forth the praises of the LORD . 7 All the flocks of Kedar shall be gathered
together unto thee, the rams of Nebaioth shall minister unto thee: they shall come
up with acceptance on Mine altar, and I will glorify the house of My glory. 8 Who
are these that fly as a cloud, and as the doves to their windows?

Jeremiah 2:1–13: 1 Moreover the word of the LORD came to me, saying, 2 “Go
and cry in the ears of Jerusalem, saying, ‘Thus saith the LORD ; I remember thee,
the kindness of thy youth, the love of thine espousals, when thou wentest after Me
in the wilderness, in a land that was not sown. 3 Israel was holiness unto the
LORD , and the firstfruits of His increase: all that devour him shall offend; evil shall
come upon them, saith the LORD . 4 Hear ye the word of the LORD , O house of
Jacob, and all the families of the house of Israel: 5 Thus saith the LORD , What
iniquity have your fathers found in Me, that they are gone far from Me, and have
walked after vanity, and are become vain? 6 Neither said they, ‘Where is the LORD
That brought us up out of the land of Egypt, that led us through the wilderness,
through a land of deserts and of pits, through a land of drought, and of the
shadow of death, through a land that no man passed through, and where no man
dwelt? 7 And I brought you into a plentiful country, to eat the fruit thereof and the
goodness thereof; but when ye entered, ye defiled My land, and made Mine
heritage an abomination. 8 The priests said not, ‘Where is the LORD ?’ and they
that handle the law knew Me not: the pastors also transgressed against Me, and
the prophets prophesied by Baal, and walked after things that do not profit. 9
Wherefore I will yet plead with you, saith the LORD , and with your children’s
children will I plead. 10 For pass over the isles of Chittim, and see; and send unto
Kedar, and consider diligently, and see if there be such a thing. 11 Hath a nation
changed their gods, which are yet no gods? but My people have changed their
glory for that which doth not profit. 12 Be astonished, O ye heavens, at this, and
be horribly afraid, be ye very desolate, saith the LORD . 13 For My people have
committed two evils; they have forsaken me the fountain of living waters, and
hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water.

Jeremiah 3:1–5: 1 They say, ‘If a man put away his wife, and she go from him,
and become another man’s, shall he return unto her again? shall not that land be
greatly polluted?’ but thou hast played the harlot with many lovers; yet return
again to me, saith the LORD . 2 Lift up thine eyes unto the high places, and see
where thou hast not been lien with. In the ways hast thou sat for them, as the
Arabian in the wilderness; and thou hast polluted the land with thy whoredoms
and with thy wickedness. 3 Therefore the showers have been withholden, and
there hath been no latter rain; and thou hadst a whore’s forehead, thou refusedst
to be ashamed. 4 Wilt thou not from this time cry unto Me, ‘My father, Thou art the
Guide of my youth?’ 5 Will He reserve His anger for ever? will He keep it to the
end? Behold, thou hast spoken and done evil things as thou couldest.’”

Jeremiah 25:15–29: 15 For thus saith the LORD God of Israel unto me; ‘Take the
wine cup of this fury at My hand, and cause all the nations, to whom I send thee,
to drink it. 16 And they shall drink, and be moved, and be mad, because of the
sword that I will send among them.’ 17 Then took I the cup at the LORD ’s hand,
and made all the nations to drink, unto whom the LORD had sent me: 18 To wit,
Jerusalem, and the cities of Judah, and the kings thereof, and the princes thereof,
to make them a desolation, an astonishment, an hissing, and a curse; as it is this
day; 19 Pharaoh king of Egypt, and his servants, and his princes, and all his
people; 20 And all the mingled people, and all the kings of the land of Uz, and all
the kings of the land of the Philistines, and Ashkelon, and Azzah, and Ekron, and
the remnant of Ashdod, 21 Edom, and Moab, and the children of Ammon, 22 And
all the kings of Tyrus, and all the kings of Zidon, and the kings of the isles which
are beyond the sea, 23 Dedan, and Tema, and Buz, and all that are in the utmost
corners, 24 And all the kings of Arabia, and all the kings of the mingled people
that dwell in the desert, 25 And all the kings of Zimri, and all the kings of Elam,
and all the kings of the Medes, 26 And all the kings of the north, far and near, one
with another, and all the kingdoms of the world, which are upon the face of the
earth: and the king of Sheshach shall drink after them. 27 Therefore thou shalt
say unto them, Thus saith the LORD of hosts, the God of Israel; ‘Drink ye, and be
drunken, and spue, and fall, and rise no more, because of the sword which I will
send among you.’” 28 And it shall be, if they refuse to take the cup at thine hand
to drink, then shalt thou say unto them, ‘Thus saith the LORD of hosts; ‘Ye shall
certainly drink. 29 For, lo, I begin to bring evil on the city which is called by My
name, and should ye be utterly unpunished? Ye shall not be unpunished: for I will
call for a sword upon all the inhabitants of the earth, saith the LORD of hosts.’ ’

Jeremiah 47:28–33: 28 Concerning Kedar, and concerning the kingdoms of

Hazor, which Nebuchadrezzar king of Babylon shall smite, thus saith the LORD ;
“Arise ye, go up to Kedar, and spoil the men of the east. 29 Their tents and their
flocks shall they take away: they shall take to themselves their curtains, and all
their vessels, and their camels; and they shall cry unto them, ‘Fear is on every
side.’ 30 Flee, get you far off, dwell deep, O ye inhabitants of Hazor, saith the
LORD ; for Nebuchadrezzar king of Babylon hath taken counsel against you, and
hath conceived a purpose against you. 31 Arise, get you up unto the wealthy
nation, that dwelleth without care, saith the LORD , which have neither gates nor
bars, which dwell alone. 32 And their camels shall be a booty, and the multitude of
their cattle a spoil: and I will scatter into all winds them that are in the utmost
corners; and I will bring their calamity from all sides thereof, saith the LORD . 33
And Hazor shall be a dwelling for dragons, and a desolation for ever: there shall
no man abide there, nor any son of man dwell in it.”

Ezekiel 27:1–36: 1 The word of the LORD came again unto me, saying, 2 “Now,
thou son of man, take up a lamentation for Tyrus; 3 And say unto Tyrus, ‘O thou
that art situate at the entry of the sea, which art a merchant of the people for
many isles, Thus saith the LORD GOD; ‘O Tyrus, thou hast said, ‘I am of perfect
beauty.’ 4 Thy borders are in the midst of the seas, thy builders have perfected
thy beauty. 5 They have made all thy ship boards of fir trees of Senir: they have
taken cedars from Lebanon to make masts for thee. 6 Of the oaks of Bashan
have they made thine oars; the company of the Ashurites have made thy benches
of ivory, brought out of the isles of Chittim. 7 Fine linen with broidered work from
Egypt was that which thou spreadest forth to be thy sail; blue and purple from the
isles of Elishah was that which covered thee. 8 The inhabitants of Zidon and
Arvad were thy mariners: thy wise men, O Tyrus, that were in thee, were thy
pilots. 9 The ancients of Gebal and the wise men thereof were in thee thy calkers:
all the ships of the sea with their mariners were in thee to occupy thy
merchandise. 10 They of Persia and of Lud and of Phut were in thine army, thy
men of war: they hanged the shield and helmet in thee; they set forth thy
comeliness. 11 The men of Arvad with thine army were upon thy walls round
about, and the Gammadims were in thy towers: they hanged their shields upon
thy walls round about; they have made thy beauty perfect. 12 Tarshish was thy
merchant by reason of the multitude of all kind of riches; with silver, iron, tin, and
lead, they traded in thy fairs. 13 Javan, Tubal, and Meshech, they were thy
merchants: they traded the persons of men and vessels of brass in thy market. 14
They of the house of Togarmah traded in thy fairs with horses and horsemen and
mules. 15 The men of Dedan were thy merchants; many isles were the
merchandise of thine hand: they brought thee for a present horns of ivory and
ebony. 16 Syria was thy merchant by reason of the multitude of the wares of thy
making: they occupied in thy fairs with emeralds, purple, and broidered work, and
fine linen, and coral, and agate. 17 Judah, and the land of Israel, they were thy
merchants: they traded in thy market wheat of Minnith, and Pannag, and honey,
and oil, and balm. 18 Damascus was thy merchant in the multitude of the wares of
thy making, for the multitude of all riches; in the wine of Helbon, and white wool.
19 Dan also and Javan going to and fro occupied in thy fairs: bright iron, cassia,
and calamus, were in thy market. 20 Dedan was thy merchant in precious clothes
for chariots. 21 Arabia, and all the princes of Kedar, they occupied with thee in
lambs, and rams, and goats: in these were they thy merchants. 22 The merchants
of Sheba and Raamah, they were thy merchants: they occupied in thy fairs with
chief of all spices, and with all precious stones, and gold. 23 Haran, and Canneh,
and Eden, the merchants of Sheba, Asshur, and Chilmad, were thy merchants. 24
These were thy merchants in all sorts of things, in blue clothes, and broidered
work, and in chests of rich apparel, bound with cords, and made of cedar, among
thy merchandise. 25 The ships of Tarshish did sing of thee in thy market: and thou
wast replenished, and made very glorious in the midst of the seas. 26 Thy rowers
have brought thee into great waters: the east wind hath broken thee in the midst
of the seas. 27 Thy riches, and thy fairs, thy merchandise, thy mariners, and thy
pilots, thy calkers, and the occupiers of thy merchandise, and all thy men of war,
that are in thee, and in all thy company which is in the midst of thee, shall fall into
the midst of the seas in the day of thy ruin. 28 The suburbs shall shake at the
sound of the cry of thy pilots. 29 And all that handle the oar, the mariners, and all
the pilots of the sea, shall come down from their ships, they shall stand upon the
land; 30 And shall cause their voice to be heard against thee, and shall cry
bitterly, and shall cast up dust upon their heads, they shall wallow themselves in
the ashes: 31 And they shall make themselves utterly bald for thee, and gird them
with sackcloth, and they shall weep for thee with bitterness of heart and bitter
wailing. 32 And in their wailing they shall take up a lamentation for thee, and
lament over thee, saying, ‘What city is like Tyrus, like the destroyed in the midst of
the sea?’ 33 When thy wares went forth out of the seas, thou filledst many people;
thou didst enrich the kings of the earth with the multitude of thy riches and of thy
merchandise. 34 In the time when thou shalt be broken by the seas in the depths
of the waters thy merchandise and all thy company in the midst of thee shall fall.
35 All the inhabitants of the isles shall be astonished at thee, and their kings shall
be sore afraid, they shall be troubled in their countenance. 36 The merchants
among the people shall hiss at thee; thou shalt be a terror, and never shalt be any
more.’ ’ ’
 Ishmael’s Genealogies

Genesis 25:12–18: 12 Now these are THE GENERATIONS OF ISHMAEL,

Abraham’s son, whom Hagar the Egyptian, Sarah’s handmaid, bare unto
Abraham: 13 And these are the names of the sons of Ishmael, by their names,
according to their generations: the firstborn of Ishmael, Nebajoth; and Kedar, and
Adbeel, and Mibsam, 14 And Mishma, and Dumah, and Massa, 15 Hadar, and
Tema, Jetur, Naphish, and Kedemah: 16 These are the sons of Ishmael, and
these are their names, by their towns, and by their castles; twelve princes
according to their nations. 17 And these are the years of the life of Ishmael, an
hundred and thirty and seven years: and he gave up the ghost and died; and was
gathered unto his people. 18 And they dwelt from Havilah unto Shur, that is before
Egypt, as thou goest toward Assyria: and he died in the presence of all his
brethren.

I Chronicles 1:28–31: 28 The sons of Abraham; Isaac, and Ishmael. 29 These are
their generations: The firstborn of Ishmael, Nebaioth; then Kedar, and Adbeel, and
Mibsam, 30 Mishma, and Dumah, Massa, Hadad, and Tema, 31 Jetur, Naphish,
and Kedemah. These are the sons of Ishmael.
 From Smith’s Bible Dictionary

ISH’MAEL (whom God hears). Son of Abraham and Hagar (Gen. xvi. 15, 16).
First-born of the patriarch. Born at Mamre, he was sent into the wilderness south
of Beersheba, Paran, when he was 16 years old. He had a wife from Egypt (xxi.
21), who was mother of his 12 sons, besides a daughter. Esau married his
daughter. His sons were Nebajoth, Kedar, Abdeel, Mibsam, Mishma, Dumah,
Massa, Hadar, Tema, Jetur, Naphish, and Kedema. The Arabic historians divide
the Arabs into two races: 1. Pure Arabs, descendants of Joktan; and 2. Mixed
Arabs, descendants of Ishmael. Like the sons of Isaac his brother, or rather
Jacob, Ishmael’s sons were founders of tribes, some of which are known in
history by their names; and “they dwelt from Havilah unto Shur that is before
Egypt” (Gen. xxv. 18). Their language is spoken all over Arabia, with very few
exceptions, and is the same in all rules and idioms now as in most ancient times;
and the poetical, or rhyming, and the current language, are one and the same,
with a different arrangement of words only. The prophesy, “He shall be a wild ass
of a man, his hand against every man, and every man’s hand against him,” is now
and ever has been true; and also the other saying, Ishmael “shall dwell in the
presence of all his brethren,” for they have always been free. The desert is called
in Arabic Bedu, and the genuine Arab calls himself Bedawee (desert-man),
Bedawin (desert-men). 4000 years have not changed their disposition, manners,
habits, occupation, government, or dress.

NEBAI’OTH. NEBA ’JOTH . Ishmael’s first-born (Genesis xxv.13). Esau married

Mahalath, the sister of Nebajoth (xxvii.9). The country from the Euphrates to the
Red Sea was called in Josephus’ time Nabatene (Ant. i. 13, 4; Gen. xxv.18). They
were called by the Arabs Nabat (or Nabeet) and were celebrated for their
agriculture, astronomy, magic and medicine, accounts of which have been
recently discovered in some ancient books of theirs, written from 2500 to 600 B .C .,
consisting of a book of agriculture, one of poisons, the work of Tenkeloosha, the
Babylonian, and the Book of the Secrets of the Sun and Moon; all of which were
translated in a.d. 904 by Ibn Washiyeh (Keysee). The rock-temples of Petra, in
Edom, were the works of this people, who are thus proved to have been a highly
cultivated race many ages before the Greeks.

K’DAR (black). Second son of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 13). Settled his tribe in the N.
W. of Medina, in Arabia, bordering Palestine. The glory of the sons of Kedar is
mentioned by Isaiah (xxi. 13–17), their villages (xlii. 11), and their princes by
Ezekiel (xxvii. 21), who supplied Tyre with sheep and goats; and in Canticles (i. 5)
their tents are noticed as “black, but comely.” Mohammed traces his lineage to
Abraham through the celebrated Koreish tribe, which sprang from Kedar. The
Arabs in the Hejaz are called Beni Harb (men of war), and are Ishmaelites as of
old, from their beginning. Palgrave says their language is as pure now as when
the Koran was written (A .D . 610), having remained unchanged more than 1200
years; a fine proof of the permanency of Eastern institutions.
DU’MAH (silence). Son of Ishmael, founder of a tribe of Ishmaelites. The district
was in the N. of Arabia, near Edom (Gen. xxv. 15; Is. xxi. 11), where there is now
a city called Doomah el Jendel, 240 miles E. of Petra, in a circular valley,
surrounded by very fine gardens and orchards. An ancient castle, of massive
masonry, is in ruins. Another Dumah is in Judah, 17 miles from Eleutheropolis, 6
miles S. W. of Hebron.

HADAD, Chadad (mighty). 1. Son of Ishmael (Genesis xxv.15). —2. A king of

Edom (Gen. xxxvi.35). —3. The last king of Edom at Pai (1 Chr. i. 50). —4.
Member of the royal house of Edom (1 K. xi.14). He married the sister-in-law of
the Pharaoah of Egypt. After David died, he attempted to recover his lost
dominion from Solomon.

HA’DAR (chamber). Hadad, in 1 Chr. i. 30. Eighth son of Ishmael. The Mt. Hadad
on the borders of the Syrian desert north of El Medineh, is supposed to mark the
locality of this branch of Ishmael’s family.

TEMA (desert), (Gen. xxv. 15; Is. xxi. 14.) A small town on the border of Syria, on
the pilgrim route from Damascus to Mecca. It was once a stronghold.

NA’PHISH (refreshment). (I Chr. v. 19). A tribe descended from the last but one of
the sons of Ishmael; settled in the Hauran and Gilead; allies of Jetur (who was in
Ituræa). Traces of this tribe may be looked for in Arabia, for they were driven out
by Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh. They were wealthy when dispossessed, having
lost to the Israelites 50,000 camels, 250,000 sheep, and 2,000 asses. Ptolemy
says the Agræi were a people of N. Arabia.

J’TUR (camp). Son of Ishmael (Genesis xxv.15). Iturea.

ITURE’A (from Jetur, the son of Ishmael). (Gen. xxv.15). N. E. of Palestine, along
the base of Hermon (Luke iii.1). Philip was “tetrarch of Iturea and the region of
Trachonitis.” Now Jedur. It is table-land, with conical hills at intervals, well
watered, rich soil, and excellent pasture. The rock is basalt, and the houses are
built of it. Its ancient cities are deserted, but standing. Bedawins still pitch their
tents there.
 Interesting Reading (Not From Smith’s)

ITUREA (The Bekaa Valley) A region in southern Lebanon, near the current
border with Israel. The capital of the region was the city of Chalcis; historically
Chalcis was very Hellenized, even when under the rule of Jewish kings. The
Itureans were a people of uncertain origin. They were probably Aramean in origin
but may have been Canaanites or even a northern branch of the Nabataeans.
They were expert archers and were frequently incorporated as auxiliaries in
Roman armies. The region of Iturea is centered on what is today called the Bekaa
valley, a region well known for being the birthplace of several Shi'ite terrorist
groups as well as one of the most prolific heroin-poppy production areas in the
world. See also, Amurru, an important city located in this region.
The Nabataeans
An excerpt from E. Raymond Capt’s Petra.

While the Edomites were moving down into Judea after the fall of Jerusalem and
the people were taken to Babylon, another migration was slowly picking up pace.
A people known as “Nabateans” were moving into the old Edomite kingdom. They
were a Bedouin people of ancient Arabia who sprang from Ishmael, one of the
sons of Abraham by Sarah’s handmaiden, Hagar. The Nabateans’ original home
appears to have been the area of Saudi Arabia where they lived a pastoral,
nomadic lifestyle. For reasons, yet unknown, their lifestyle changed dramatically
as they made their way northward entering the southern regions of the former
Edomite kingdom. Their pastoral nomadism gave way to commercial enterprise
and experimentation in piracy.

The arrival of the Nabateans was most likely a protracted affair. Instead of driving
out the remaining Edomites, whose kingdom had been weakened by continuous
warfare with the Israelite kings of Judah, they simply integrated with them. In time,
so many Nabateans had arrived, the positions became reversed and it was the
Edomites who were integrating with the Nabateans. No doubt, many of the former
Edomite fortresses and strongholds were at this time manned in part of or even
completely by Nabataenized Edomites, just as in later days, when the throne of
Judaea would be occupied by Judaized Idumeans.

The fact that both the Edomites and the Nabataens claimed descent from Ishmael
would have provided at least some common ground for integration. One of Esau’s
three wives was a woman called “Bashemath,” who had a sister called “Nabaioth,”
both being daughters of Ishmael; the Edomites claimed descent from Bashemath
and the Nabataens from Nabaioth. A classic example of such integration is the
marriage of Herod Antipas, the son of Herod the Great (himself of Idumaean-
Nabataen origin) to the daughter of the Nabataen King Aretas IV.

By the late 4th century B .C ., the Nabataeans had established themselves as the
dominant power in the impregnable valley of Wadi Mousa. For more than 500
years they were to control the desert trade routes and carry on the world’s trade
through many a by-pass, while the normal roads were more or less insecure
through the warlike activities of the great river Powers. Not only did they control
the north to south trade routes through Damascus, they also held the key to the
east to west routes. The famous Frankincense route from Yemen to Gaza passed
through the kingdom of Petra. Also the equally important caravan route between
Maan and Busra, in Mesopotamia, crossed Petra.
Not only did the Nabataeans control the trade routes, they also largely controlled
the sale of those commodities that were then in great demand. This made them
one of the wealthiest nations of the time. Frankincense and myrrh were needed
for the temples of the pagan world; precious stones were in demand as luxuries
for the adornment of wealthy Roman and Egyptian ladies, as well as stone for the
statutes and monuments of the west. Bitumen was also needed for the mummies
of Egypt.

Around 312 B .C . the great Greek historian, Diodorous, relates that the Nabataeans
were already sedentary and fast becoming commerically orientated. When one
considers all the trade frequently passing through Petra, it is not surprising that
the city became wealthy. Such wealth became the envy of her neighboring states
and it took the genius of the Nabataeans to protect the trade routes and draw the
maximum benefit in terms of revenue from the traffic passing along them.

It was also about 312 B .C . that Antigonus Cyclops, a Macedonian king (son of
Philip who was one of Alexander the Great’s generals) sent two armies against
the Nabataens. The first army was destroyed by the defenders and the
commander of the second army was bought off. But, the two invasions made the
Nabataens realize how vulnerable they were. They chose to make the natural
fortress of Petra, with its narrow entrance, their capital. Using the natural defenses
of Petra’s main valley, they fortified both its southern and northern approaches,
thus sealing the valley on the two vulnerable sides not protected by high cliffs.

Being of nomadic origin, it is unlikely that the Nabataeans embarked upon the
building of a city during the early occupation of Petra. Diodorus Siculus wrote of
Petra as “no city worth mention” and “a rock . . . extrememly strong but without
walls.” This undoubtedly refers to Umm el Deyerah, the rocky acropolis of the
Edomites, being used by the Nabataeans as a refuge and base camp. Diodorus
also commented that the Nabataeans had a law “ . . . neither to sow corn nor to
plant any fruit-bearing tree nor to use wine nor build houses . . .” This would
suggest that the Nabataeans still had a strong nomadic nature. It should be
pointed out that Diodorus often wrote from second-hand reports. However we do
know that in time the Nabataeans did lay out a city which had a population of
about 30,000 inhabitants.

The first known Nabataen king was Aretas I (the Hellenized form of the Arabic
name Harith or Harithat) in 169 B .C . Aretas I was known as the “Tyrant of the
Arabs.” In his reign the Nabataean territory was extended to the Arnon. King
Aretas refused to give protection to Jason (the brother of Onias) when he fled
Jerusalem. (II Macc. 5:8) Under King Aretas II (Erotimus 110–96 B .C .) the
kingdom was enlarged but failed to link up with Gaza, as he had wished. (Antiq.
13,360)

The wars (Dioclatian) between the great Hellenestic powers of Ptolemaic Egypt
and Seleucid Syria, contesting the inheritance of Alexander the Great, played a
major role in the commercial development of Petra. Merchants moved from the
troubled areas to the safer and calmer waters of the Nabataean sphere. Under
Obodas I (Obidath) the Nabataean kingdom expanded far to the north and east of
the Dead Sea. During the reign of Aretas III (84–56 B .C .) the Edomite-Nabataean
kingdom reached its zenith, at which time Damascus invited them to rule their city.

The Nabataean influence in the Near and Middle East obviously caused the
Romans some anxiety. As a result, in 63 B .C . Pompey sent an expeditionary force,
under Scaurus, against Petra. The idea was to smash the city which was the
nerve center of the nation. According to Josephus, the Roman army was outwitted
by the Nabataeans, who cut their supply lines and the Roman army went hungry
to such an extent that Scaurus was forced to sue for peace. Once again, the
Nabataeans did exactly what they had done with the Macedonian army, they
bought off Scaurus with costly gifts and he “ceased to make war any longer . . .”

The reign of Malchus (56–30 B .C .) saw international political reverses for the
Nabataeans as they were forced to relinquish control of some of their outlying
areas. However, Petra continued to grow richer and magnificent. The
machinations of the local warlords were of little concern to the merchants as long
as they did not interfere with the smooth running of business. In fact, most of the
history of the Nabataeans is a succession of political intrigues which took place on
the wide international stage rather than in Petra itself.

Obodas (30–9 B .C .) was the Nabataean king who had to face an expeditionary
force sent by Rome. Augustus had his eye on the profits of the trade passing
through Petra as well as the expansion of the Roman Empire. Augustus
underestimated the guile of the Nabataeans. Obodas’ minister, Syllacus,
maneuvered the Roman army into a situation that completely rendered them unfit
for battle. As soon as Syllacus heard that Augustus was mounting the expedition,
he hurried with a body of soldiers to meet the Romans, and offered to guide them
safely through the desert to Petra. He maintained there was no through road to
the city and that is was necessary to follow a particular route. The route on which
Syllacus took the Romans led through the most arid and desolate land Syllacus
could find. The result was that many of Roman soldiers died and those who came
through were in no condition to fight by the time they reached Petra. It is one of
the mysteries of history—how the Romans came to fall for this trap. Most likely,
the Roman general was bought off in typical Nabataean style to compensate for
the loss of his army and once again Petra came through unscathed.

The long line of Nabataean kings came to an end in A .D . 106, when Petra was
made a Roman province. The Roman conquest of Petra started off casually
enough when Pompey visited the city on 65 B .C . to establish friendly relations with
the Nabataeans. To him, Petra was just a buffer state between the Roman Empire
and the untamed desert inhabitants. For the next 170 years, the Nabataeans
managed to maintain a balance of power between Rome, Egypt, and the
Seleucids who then ruled Syria. During the first century B .C ., Petra reached its
greatest heights and the Nabataean civilization continued to flower until the death
of King Rabbil II in 105 A .D . During the reign of this king, Petra began its slow
decline as one by one, all of the caravan cities fell to the Romans who eventually
controlled the trade routes to the East.

In 106 A .D . the Nabataeans were forced to yield to Roman power and Petra
became the capital of the Roman colony “Arabia Petraea.” (Rocky Arabia) Though
Nabataean independence was at an end, the Romans fully expected Petra to
continue as a profitable business center. In some ways, the conquest of Petra
was a mutual agreement between the Nabataeans and the Romans. The Romans
embellished old structures in the city and built new ones. It was during this period
that the larger facades appeared in the city and in the reign of Trajan (98–117
a.d.) the great Colonnade Road was built.

When Petra became a Roman province, Rome did not take over a culturally
backward or impoverished people. All the evidence we have points to quite the
opposite as being the case. The inhabitants of Petra spoke Arabic as well as their
everyday language but many of them knew Latin and Greek as well. They lived in
a democratic society which knew neither poverty nor taxes. Public services were
considered a community responsibility - to be performed by everyone, high and
low. Wealth and prosperity were virtues that carried with them the civic
responsibilities of cleaning streets, guarding water supplies, and performing police
duties.

The people of Petra clearly valued property, both public and private. They levied
fines against anyone who did not maintain his own property and honored those
who increased their property values. Class distinctions were unknown. Slaves
were few and there were fewer servants. Nabataean custom called upon
everyone to serve himself, even the king. Furthermore, the king’s financial
accounts and even his royal conduct were always subject to civil examination.
The Nabataeans wore girdles, (loincloths) slippers and usually without tunics. The
king’s dress was similar except his garments were purple, the color reserved for
royalty.

Although Strabo never visited Petra he recorded what Athenodorus (a tutor to

Augustus - who spent time in the capital of the Nabataeans during the first century
b.c.) had reported to him. Strabo’s notes give us an insight into everyday life in
Petra. Strabo wrote:

“The Nabataeans are temperate and industrious so that the public penalty is
imposed on those who diminish their substance, but to them that increase it
honors are given, and, having few slaves, they are served for the most part by
relations or by each other, or they serve themselves, and the custom extends
even to the kings. They form ‘companies’ of thirteen men each and two musicians
to each company. The king in his great house holds many companies. No one
drinks more than eleven cups in one and then another golden beaker - full. Thus
the king is democratic, so that in addition to serving himself serves others. He also
often submits his personal accounts to the people, and sometimes also the
conduct of his own personal life is enquired into. Their dwellings are extensive
constructions of stone, and their cities were unwalled on account of peace. Most
of it abounds in fruit except the olive: they use oil of sesame. Their sheep are
white-haired, their oxen large; their country does not produce horses, camels
render service in their place . . . They think dead bodies no better than manure; as
Heraclitus says, corpses are more to be thrown away than dung heaps.
Wherefore they bury even their kings beside their privies. They honor the sun,
setting up an altar in the house, making libations on it daily and using
frankincense . . . The capital of the Nabataeans is the so-called Petra, for it lies on
ground in general even and level, but guarded all around by rock, outside
precipitous and abrupt but inside having abundant springs for drawing water and
for gardening. . .”

Archaeological research has not corroborated everything Strabo wrote. The

“democracy” of the king is a notable feature which is difficult to account for. One
theory is that the king, in early times was little more than a sheikh—hence the
simplicity of his life and his democratic manners of not only waiting on himself but
sometimes waiting on his guests. This is not unlike modern bedouin sheikhs who
perpetuate a spirit of fellowship between the king and his
people.

Strabo tells us that their houses were “extensive

constructions of stone” and this is confirmed by excavations
on the south side of Petra city. The foundations of a large complex of stone
buildings, dating around the birth of Christ (2 b.c.), were found. It is difficult to
accept Strabo’s statement that the city had no walls. All the city walls have been
uncovered. Some scholars have suggested that Strabo’s informant (Athenodorus)
was blind which would have put a
certain limit to his abilities of
observation.

Although merchandising was their

main source of revenue, the
Nabataeans developed a number
of other industries. Perhaps their
most important achievement lay in
irrigating wastelands. From their
sedentary Syro-Palestinian
neighbors, the Nabataeans
adopted agricultural expertise,
involving advanced hydraulic
technology to a level
unsurpassed until modern
times. From the perennial spring
of Ain Musa, some two miles
away, they constructed a
pressure pipe system bringing
water to large plaster-lined
cisterns, as well as individual
cisterns. Another project was a
huge rock-cut tunnel that
diverted flood waters around the
mountain to flow less turbulently
through the Wadi which
bisected the settlement areas.

As the population of the

Nabataeans increased, other
settlements sprang up along the
major north-south and east-west
trade routes of southern Syro-
Palestine. The hydraulic and
related agricultural technology
developed at Petra was
modified to fit each new
location. Even in the most improbable parts of the surrounding desert, where
nothing but wire grass and shiah herb now grow, can be found the remains of
terraced fields still holding back the remnants of fertile soil from final erosion.
Of all the Nabataean products their pottery is the most singular and outstanding.
Its fineness and thinness is usually found only in porcelain. In whatever part of the
ancient world it is found it is easily recognized by its astonishing hardness, as well
as thinness. The Nabataean pottery must of have been produced in prodigious
quantities, as small pieces of it lie scattered literally over all the site of Petra and
surrounding valleys. It was all thrown on a wheel and turned, possibly being
rubbed down afterwards to the satin-textured finish which made it unique.

The most common shape of Nabataean pottery was a shallow bowl which is
notoriously difficult to shape or throw on a wheel. Most of the Nabataean pottery is
of a terra-cotta, pinkish peach color with floralized leaf patterns delicately painted.
(free hand) Other colors range from a light reddish-brown, through pale coffee to
almost black, depending on the strength of the solution of manganese used.

In 1968 pottery of the Late Edomite Period was found in the excavations at
Tawilan. It was so remarkably akin to the Nabataean pottery that it was quite likely
the forerunner to the beautiful craftsmanship of the Nabataeans. If this is so, then
it would mean that the new arrivals were taught this pottery craft by the Edomites
and in turn perfected the thinness technique.

Very early the Nabataeans adopted the Hellenistic idea of coins in place of the
more cumbersome barter system. As the advantage of this monetary system
became obvious, the kings began to strike their own coins. Locally minted coins of
the first century b.c. were found in Petra. The designs show a strong reliance on
Greek prototypes though local symbols were
used. Small copper coins of Petra are found
frequently but only very rarely do the silver
pieces turn up. This indicates that the desertion
of Petra was a gradual process in which the
merchants and other inhabitants of the city had
ample time to remove all their belongings before
moving on to wherever it was they settled.
This may be one of the reasons why so little in the way of Nabataean script has
been found in Petra, either ostraca or papyri. One can assume that the written

records of the Nabataeans were removed when the inhabitants of the city left for
good. The Nabataeans had their own script and language; the former bears some
resemblance to the Hebrew script of the time, but is curiously elongated vertically.
Their habit of connecting some of the letters, combined with the close packing of
them due to their elongated form, makes reading of the inscription very difficult.
Unfortunately, few Nabataean inscriptions have been found at Petra, apart from
casual graffiti scratched on rock faces. From what has been found and studied, it
appears the Nabataean language was a form of Aramaic with strong Arabic
influence in it; most of their personal names are Arabic. One long Nabataean
inscription can be seen in Petra, on the Turkamaniya tomb. It is believed that
Kubic and consequently Arabic, eventually derived from the Nabataean language.

Little is know of the nature of the Nabataean religion. We can be sure that they
had two principal gods in their pantheon, to which they would have added a whole
range of personal gods and spirits. (djins) The two chief deities were Dusares and
Al Uzza. The Nabataeans probably adopted Dusares from the Edomites; for his
name is derived from Dhu-esh-Shera, which means “He (Lord) of Shera,” a name
that denotes a localized deity. The mountains of Edom are still known as the
Shara Range. Also Shara is the same word as “Seir” by which the district was
known in the Old Testament.

Dusares was usually symbolized as a block of stone, frequently squared in some

way. In some way the “stone” symbolism may have derived from “Jacob’s Pillar”
known as “Beth El,” the “House of God.” Such symbolism is frequent in Biblical
references to stone; e.g. “The Lord is my rock, and my fortress, and my deliverer;”
“The God of my rock; in Him will I trust.” (II Sam. 22:2–3)

The Roman annexation of Petra gave a new stimulus to the cultural life of the city
as well as increasing civic consciousness. This, in consequence, led the city to
experience something of a renaissance which lasted until the end of the reign of
Emperor Septimus Severus. The Roman administrators realized that with the
enormously extended line of communication with Rome, it was prudent that their
presence should be as welcome and beneficial as possible. To this end, they
trained their highly efficient propaganda machine on their new subjects to show
that Roman rule brought greater benefits than it did disadvantages.

Perhaps it was in order to demonstrate their good intentions and to reassure the
Nabataean citizens about the future of their city that the Romans embarked on a
lavish program of reconstruction and civic planning. It is believed the Romans
went so far as to completely reorganize the whole of the city layout. The main city
was reduced in size, probably for defense purposes. Local traditions and cultural
background were respected and taken as points of departure for new
improvements. These included the creation of the Colonnade Street out of the
street running beside the Wadi Mousa. They were careful to preserve Nabataean
architecture by combining it with the Roman style.
 At this time ornate
features,
characteristic of
Roman temples
and royal
buildings, were
introduced into the
facades of the cliff
structures. A
theater capable of
seating three
thousand persons
was constructed
and Roman statuary was introduced. The one free-standing building remaining in
Petra is from this period. During the Roman period, Petra became a true city with
monumental public buildings and one of the most unique funereal architectural
styles of the ancient world. Tomb facades, ranking in degrees of architectural
sumptuousness, began to appear from one end of the valley to the other.

Most prominent of the royal tombs are the ones known as the “Kasna-el-Faroun”
(the treasury of the Pharaoah)—the “Royal tomb Group” and “El Deir” or the
monastery. While over 800 facades have been recorded, and many are less
spectacular than the royal examples, all are architectural achievements in stone-
carving techniques. Behind the facades are huge rock-cut rooms with grave sites
cut into the floors or placed in the arched recesses cut into the walls. Only a
relatively few of these tombs have been excavated, but all those examined so far
appear to have been robbed in antiquity.

It was the inexorable expansion of the Roman Empire, rather than anything the
Nabataeans had done that ultimately brought about their downfall. When the area
of Petra was incorporated into the vast frame of the whole Empire, local
advantages ceased to have any relevance. In time, the trade routes were
changed so as to serve the greater good of the Empire as a whole, rather than the
interests of the Nabataean nation only. When this became evident, it was taken by
a good many Nabataeans as the writing on the wall for Petra. Merchants, loyal in
the final analysis only to their own pockets, moved away to the naw pastures of
wealth opening up in the growing trade cities of Jerash and Palmyra.

The role of taxes also contributed to the loss of trade for the Nabataeans. It was
the taxes imposed on all trade goods through Petra, in any direction, that provided
the wealth that sustained the city on a grandiose scale. It is a fact, even in modern
times, that when a government finds out how easy it is to raise money by taxes
whenever they need more revenue, they just raise the taxes. This the Nabataeans
did. Then, in the guise of saving caravan owners taxes, they would buy his goods
and then resell them to traders coming from the opposite direction, with whom
they would make the same transaction.

Faced with ever-increasing taxes, the caravan trade from Egypt northward to
Damascus and the Euphrates was diverted to the coast line trade routes. Petra
gradually lost both trade and merchants who were faced with dwindling profits.
After hundreds of years of depending on food and taxes coming in from the
outside, the population could not exist on what they could grow, so an exodus
began. After all, most of the inhabitants of Petra were business men, not farmers.
It could be said, the Nabataeans “taxed themselves out of business!”

It is apparent that the Romans tried to stem the tide of gradual decline for the city
of Petra. The Emperor Hadrian visited the city in a.d. 130 as a prestige and
morale-boosting gesture. If, on the other hand, it was a well-deserved
acknowledgement of prosperity, later visits by other Roman dignitaries were
definitely designed to give a new stimulus to the cultural life of the city. Much
commemorative civic building usually accompanied such visits. Such could have
been the case when African-born Septimus Severus, along with his Syrian wife, is
believed to have visited Petra (in a.d. 199) while touring the eastern Provinces.

As late as the fourth century a.d., the Roman Emperors Maximian and Diocletian
visited Petra,
thus indicating
that Petra was
still considered
important in
the world of
trade. The
Imperial
celebrations
that they
brought to
Petra were
meaningless and contributed nothing to the future of the city. Petra had even then
passed its zenith and was on the downward path to oblivion. When trade had
dwindled to the extent that the Roman Legions were no longer needed to guard
the trade routes and as more and more merchants departed, it became obvious
that Petra had no future.

The establishment of the Byzantine Empire by the Emperor Theodosius (in a.d.
395) did little to change the fortunes of Petra. A bishopric was established in the
fourth century and a number of Christian anchorites settled in the hills around the
city. The limited number of archaeological excavations indicate the city
boundaries contracted still further; once dignified and gracious buildings in the
center of Petra degenerated into hovels, their fine rooms being subdivided into
squalid small apartments. It is possible that most of the true Nabataean population
moved out long before. This left only the polyglot, alien population who are the
inevitable parasites of any wealthy trading nation with international ramifications
and connections.

The great Moslem expansion in a.d. 636 brought about a state of abject poverty to
the once proud Petra. However, it was a violent earthquake, about the middle of
the sixth century, that wrought the final destruction of the city. Civic life came to an
end and the survivors departed for places unknown. The ancient records of the
world make little mention of Petra after the fanatical hordes of Islam moved into
the lands of Transjordan.

The Crusaders, under Baldwin I, came to Petra (in the eleventh century) and built
a small fort on top of El Habis, using stone from the deserted city of Petra. The
fort was perhaps designed as an early warning station in advance of the great
Crusader fortress of Shobak. Baldwin wanted to control the north-south caravan
route and within a few years established another garrison at Karak. Baldwin’s
Christian knights penetrated farther into the interior of Saracen territory here, than
at any other point in their narrow Bible-Lands empire.

Baldwin’s network of strongholds across the Jordan was not long in Christian
hands. The Saracen chieftain,
Saladin, recaptured them in
1188–89. From that time until the
nineteenth century, Petra
disappears from history just as it
had before the Crusaders briefly
lifted the curtain of time. Again,
Petra became “lost to
civilization.”
Nabataean King List

312 B .C . First mention of the Nabataeans in the

war with Antigonus of Seleucid Syria

c. 168 B .C . Aretas (known as the ‘tyrant of the

Arabs’ and ‘King of the Nabatu’)

Rabbel I

c. 100 B .C . Aretas II (concerned with the siege of

Gaza)

c. 93 B .C . Obodas I (defeated Alexander Jannaeus)

84–56 B .C . Aretas III Philhellen

56–30 B .C . Malchus I

30–9 B .C . Obodas II

8 B .C . –A .D . 40 Aretas IV Philopatris

A .D . 40–70 Malchus II (lost control of Damascus)

A .D . 71–106 Rabbell II (last king of the Nabataeans)

The King list with its dates is based on information given in ‘Pétra et la Nabatène’
by the Abbé Starcky, published in 1966 in Supplément au Dictionnaire de la Bible,
Vol. VII.
 Names and Places Associated With Ishmael
Ishmaelites
Adbeel (110) disciplined of God
Amasa (6021) burden
Arabian (6163) patrial from 6152, which is
from 6150 in the fig. sense of
sterility; 6150 a prim. root [rather
identical with 6148 through the
idea of covering with a texture]; to
grow dusky at sundow n
Dumah (1746) silence; fig. death
Gesham/Gashmu (1654) a shower
Hadar/Hadad (2316/2301) chamber/
fierce
Ishmael/Ishmaelite(s)/Ishmeelite(s)
(3458/3459) God will hear
Jether (3500) prop. an overhanging, i.e.
(by
impl.) an excess, superiority,
remainder; also a small rope (as
hanging free)
Jetur (3195) encircled (i.e. inclosed)
Kedar (6938) dusky (of the skin or the
tent)
Kedemah (6929) precedence
Mahalath (4258) sickness
Massa (4854) burden
Mibsam (4017) fragrant
Mishma (4927) a report
Naphish/Nephish (5305) refreshed
Nebaioth/Nebajoth (5032) fruitfulness
Obil (179) mournful
Tema (8485) prob. of for. der.
Non-Ishmaelites
Abdiel (5661) servant of God
Abigail (26) father (i.e. source) of joy
Abihail (32) father (i.e. possessor) of
might
Abram (87) high father
Abraham (85) father of a multitude
Ahaziah (274) Yah has seized
Ahi (277) brotherly
Amalek (6003) prob. of for. or.
Amaziah (558) strength of Yah
Ammon/Ammonite (5983) tribal, i.e.
inbred
Asaph (623) collector
Ashdodites (796) ravager
Ashurites (805) from a patrial word of the
same form as 804; 804 appar.
from 833 (in the sense of
successful); 833 a prim. root; to
be straight (used in the w idest
sense, espec. to be level, right,
happy); fig. to go forward, be
honest, prosper
Azaz (5811) strong
Baal (1168) a master; hence a husband,
or
fig. owner (often used with
another noun in modifications of
this latter sense)
Beerah (880) a well
Belah (1106) a gulp; fig. destruction
Bilhah (1090) timid
Buz (938) disrespect
Carmi (3756) gardener
Chaldees (3778) an astrologer (as
proverbial of that people)
Cretes (2912 Greek) of uncert. der.
David (1732) loving
Dedanim (1720) of uncert. der.
Edom (123) red
Egyptian (4713/4714) (4714) dual of 4693,
the same as 4692 in the sense of
a limit; 4692, from 6696;
something hemming in, i.e. (obj.)
a mound (of besiegers), (abstr.) a
siege (fig.) distress; or (subj.) a
fastness
Elamites (5962 Hebrew/1639 Greek)
hidden, i.e. distant
Ephron (6085) fawn-like
Ethiopians (3569) prob. of for. or.
Galileans (1551 Hebrew /1057 Greek) a
circle (w ith the art.)
Gammadims (1575) a warrior (as grasping
w eapons)
Gebal (1381) a mountain
Gideon (1439) feller (i.e. warrior)
Gog (1463) of uncert. der.
Guni (1476) protected
Hagar/Hagarites/Hagarenes/Agar
(1904/1905/28 Greek) of uncert.
(perh. for.) der.
Hanoch (2585) initiated
Hazor (2674) village
Heber (2268) community
Hezron (2696) court-yard
Hittite (2850) terror
Horonite (2772) double cave-town
Huri (2359) linen-w orker
Isaac (3327) laughter (i.e. mockery)
Jaanai (3285) responsive
Jabin (2985) intelligent
Jachan (3275) troublesome
James (3290 Hebrew/2385 Greek) heel-
catcher (i.e. supplanter)
Jaroah (3386) (born at the) new moon
Javan (3120) effervescing (i.e. hot and
active)
Jehoahaz (3059) Yahveh-seized
Jehoram (3088) Yahveh-raised
Jehoshaphat (3092) Yahveh-judged
Jeiel (3273) carried away of God
Jeroboam (3379) (the) people will
contend
Jews (3062/3064 Hebrew/2453 Greek)
celebrated
Joel (3100) Yahveh (is his) God
Jorai (3140) rainy
Joseph (3130) let him add (or perh.
simply act. part. adding)
Jotham (3147) Yahveh (is) perfect
Judah (3063) celebrated
Lot (3876) a veil
Medes (4074/4076 Hebrew/3370 Greek) of
for. der.
Mehunims (4586) a residence
Meshech (4902) the same in form as 4901,
but prob. of for. der.; 4901 a
sowing; also a possession
Meshullam (4918) allied
Micah (4318) who (is) like Yah?
Michael (4317) who (is) like God?
Midianites (4080) a contest or quarrel
Moab (4125) from (her [the mother’s])
father
Nebuchadnezzar/Nebuchadrezzar
(5019) of for. der.
Nehemiah (5166) consolation of Yah
Nodab (5114) noble
Ophrah (6084) female fawn
Oreb (6159) a raven (from its dusky hue)
Pallu (6396) distinguished
Parthians (3934) a buffoon; also a
foreigner
Peter (4074 Greek) a (piece of) rock
(larger than 3037); 3037 a stone
(lit. or fig.)
Pharaoh (6547) a gen. title of Eg. kings
Philistines (6430) rolling, i.e. migratory
Potiphar (6318) of Eg. der.
Reaia (7211) Yah has seen
Reuben (7205) see ye a son
Sanballat (5571) of for. or.
Sarah (8283) a mistress, i.e. female noble
Sarai (8297) dominative
Shapham (8223) baldly
Shaphat (8202) judge
Sheba (7652) seven
Shema (8087) something heard, i.e. a
sound rumor, announcement;
abstr. audience
Shemaiah (8098) Yah has heard
Shimei (8096) famous
Sisera (5516) of uncert. der.
Solomon (8010) peaceful
Tilgath-pilneser (8407) of for. der.
Tobiah (2900) goodness of Yahveh
Togarmah (8425) prob. of for. der.
Tubal (8422) prob. of for. der.
Uzziah (5818) strength of Yah
Zalmunna (6759) shade has been denied
Zebah (2078) sacrifice
Zechariah (2148) Yah has remembered
Zeeb (2062) a wolf
Zia (2127) agitation
Zilpah (2153) from an unused root appar.
mean. to trickle, as myrrh;
fragrant dropping
Zohar (6714) whiteness
Places
Ammon (5983) tribal; i.e. inbred
Arabia (6152/6153 Hebrew/688 Greek)
from 6150 in the fig. sense of
sterility; 6150 a prim. root
[rather identical with 6148
through the idea of covering with
a texture]; to grow dusky at
sundown
Aroer (6177) nudity of situation
Arvad (719) a refuge for the roving
Ashdod (795) ravager
Asia (773/775 Greek) of uncert. der.
Assur/Assyria (804) appar. from 833 (in
the sense of successful); 833 a
prim. root; to be straight (used in
the w idest sense, espec. to be
level, right, happy); fig. to go
forward, be honest, prosper
Azzah (5804) strong
Baal-meon (1186) Baal of (the) habitation
(of)
Babylon (894) confusion
Bashan (1316) of uncert. der.
Beer-lahai-roi (883) well of a living (One)
my seer
Beer-sheba (884) well of an oath
Buz (938) disrespect
Canaan (3667) humiliated
Canneh (3656) of for. der.
Cappadocea (2587 Greek) of for. or.
Chilmad (3638) of for. der.
Chittim (3794) patrial from an unused
name denoting Cyprus (only in
the plur.); a Kittite or Cypriote;
hence an islander in gen. i.e. the
Greeks or Romans on the shores
opposite Pal.
Cyrene (2956 Greek) from 2957; 2957 of
uncert. der.; Cyrenè, a region of
Africa
Damascus (1834 Hebrew/1154 Greek) of
for. or.
Dan (1835) judge
Dedan (1719) of uncert. der.
Dothan (1886) of uncert. der.
Dumah (1746) silence; fig. death
Edom (123) red
Egypt (4714) dual of 4693, the same as
4692 in the sense of a limit; 4692,
from 6696; something hemming
in, i.e. (obj.) a mound (of
besiegers), (abstr.) a siege (fig.)
distress; or (subj.) a fastness
Ekron (6138) eradication
Elam (5867) hidden, i.e. distant
Elishah (473) prob. of for. der.
En-dor (5874) fountain of dwelling
Ephah (5891) obscurity (as if from
covering)
Euphrates (6578) rushing
Gath (1661) a w ine-press (or vat for
holding the grapes in pressing
them)
Gebal (1381) a mountain
Gilead (1568), prob. from 1567, which
means heap of testimony
Gittith (1665) a Gittite harp
Gomorrah (6017) a (ruined) heap
Gur-baal (1485) dwelling of Baal
Haran (2039) mountaineer
Havilah (2341) circular
Helbon (2463) fruitful
Jabneh (2996) a building
Javan (3120) effervescing (i.e. hot and
active)
Jerusalem (3389) founded peaceful
Judea/Judaea (3061 Hebrew/2449 Greek)
celebrated
Judah (3063) celebrated
Kison (7028) winding
Lahai-roi (883) living (One) my seer
Lebanon (3844) (the) white mountain
(from its snow )
Libya (6316 Hebrew/3033 Greek) prob.
from 3047; Libye, a region of
Africa; 3047 the south (-w est)
w ind (as bringing rain), i.e. (by
extens.) the south quarter
Lud (3865) prob. of for. der.
Machpelah (4375) a fold
Mamre (4471) lusty
Mesech/Meshech (4902) the same in form
as 4901, but prob. of for. der.;
4901 a sowing
Mesopotamia (763 Hebrew/3318 Greek)
Aram of (the) two rivers
Midian (4080) a contest or quarrel
Minnith (4511) enumeration
Moab (4124) from (her [the mother’s])
father
Nebo (5015) prob. of. for. der.
Ophir (211) of uncert. der.
Pamphylia (3828 Greek) every-tribal, i.e
heterogeneous
Pannag (6436) of uncert. der.; prob.
pastry
Paran (6290) ornamental
Persia (6539) of for. or.
Phrygia (5435 Greek) prob. of for. or.
Phut (6316) of for. or.
Pontus (4193/4195 Greek) a sea
Rome (4516 Greek) strength
Salcah (5548) walking
Seir (8165) rough
Senir (8149) peak
Sheba (7652) seven
Shechem (7927) ridge
Sheshach (8347) of for. der.
Shur (7793) a wall (as going about)
Sinai (5514) of uncert. der.
Sodom (5467) burnt (i.e. volcanic or
bituminous) district
Tarshish (8659) a gem, perh. the topaz
Tema (8485) prob. of for. der.
Togarmah (8425) prob. of for. der.
Tubal (8422) prob. of for. der.
Tyre/Tyrus (6865/6876) a rock
Uz (5780) consultation
Zidon (6721) fishery
Zimri (2174) musical