Sei sulla pagina 1di 23

DESIGNERS GUIDES TO THE EUROCODES

DESIGNERS GUIDE TO EN 1992-2 EUROCODE 2: DESIGN OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES PART 2: CONCRETE BRIDGES

Eurocode Designers Guide Series


Designers Guide to EN 1990. Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design. H. Gulvanessian, J.-A. Calgaro and M. Holicky 0 7277 3011 8. Published 2002. . Designers Guide to EN 1994-1-1. Eurocode 4: Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures. Part 1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings. R. P. Johnson and D. Anderson. 0 7277 3151 3. Published 2004. Designers Guide to EN 1997-1. Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design General Rules. R. Frank, C. Bauduin, R. Driscoll, M. Kavvadas, N. Krebs Ovesen, T. Orr and B. Schuppener. 0 7277 3154 8. Published 2004. Designers Guide to EN 1993-1-1. Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures. General Rules and Rules for Buildings. L. Gardner and D. Nethercot. 0 7277 3163 7. Published 2004. Designers Guide to EN 1992-1-1 and EN 1992-1-2. Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures. General Rules and Rules for Buildings and Structural Fire Design. A.W. Beeby and R. S. Narayanan. 0 7277 3105 X. Published 2005. Designers Guide to EN 1998-1 and EN 1998-5. Eurocode 8: Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance. General Rules, Seismic Actions, Design Rules for Buildings, Foundations and Retaining Structures. M. Fardis, E. Carvalho, A. Elnashai, E. Faccioli, P. Pinto and A. Plumier. 0 7277 3348 6. Published 2005. Designers Guide to EN 1995-1-1. Eurocode 5: Design of Timber Structures. Common Rules and for Rules and Buildings. C. Mettem. 0 7277 3162 9. Forthcoming: 2007 (provisional). Designers Guide to EN 1991-4. Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures. Wind Actions. N. Cook. 0 7277 3152 1. Forthcoming: 2007 (provisional). Designers Guide to EN 1996. Eurocode 6: Part 1.1: Design of Masonry Structures. J. Morton. 0 7277 3155 6. Forthcoming: 2007 (provisional). Designers Guide to EN 1991-1-2, 1992-1-2, 1993-1-2 and EN 1994-1-2. Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures. Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures. Eurocode 4: Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures. Fire Engineering (Actions on Steel and Composite Structures). Y. Wang, C. Bailey, T. Lennon and D. Moore. 0 7277 3157 2. Forthcoming: 2007 (provisional). Designers Guide to EN 1993-2. Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures. Bridges. C. R. Hendy and C. J. Murphy. 0 7277 3160 2. Forthcoming: 2007 (provisional). Designers Guide to EN 1991-2, 1991-1-1, 1991-1-3 and 1991-1-5 to 1-7. Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures. Trac Loads and Other Actions on Bridges. J.-A. Calgaro, M. Tschumi, H. Gulvanessian and N. Shetty. 0 7277 3156 4. Forthcoming: 2007 (provisional). Designers Guide to EN 1991-1-1, EN 1991-1-3 and 1991-1-5 to 1-7. Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures. General Rules and Actions on Buildings (not Wind). H. Gulvanessian, J.-A. Calgaro, P. Formichi and G. Harding. 0 7277 3158 0. Forthcoming: 2007 (provisional). Designers Guide to EN 1994-2. Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures. Bridges. D. Smith and C. Hendy. 0 7277 3159 9. Forthcoming: 2007 (provisional).

www.eurocodes.co.uk

DESIGNERS GUIDES TO THE EUROCODES

DESIGNERS GUIDE TO EN 1992-2 EUROCODE 2: DESIGN OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES PART 2: CONCRETE BRIDGES

C. R. HENDY and D. A. SMITH

Published by Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD URL: http://www.thomastelford.com

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are USA: ASCE Press, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4400 Japan: Maruzen Co. Ltd, Book Department, 310 Nihonbashi 2-chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103 Australia: DA Books and Journals, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132, Victoria

First published 2007

Eurocodes Expert Structural Eurocodes oer the opportunity of harmonized design standards for the European construction market and the rest of the world. To achieve this, the construction industry needs to become acquainted with the Eurocodes so that the maximum advantage can be taken of these opportunities Eurocodes Expert is a new ICE and Thomas Telford initiative set up to assist in creating a greater awareness of the impact and implementation of the Eurocodes within the UK construction industry Eurocodes Expert provides a range of products and services to aid and support the transition to Eurocodes. For comprehensive and useful information on the adoption of the Eurocodes and their implementation process please visit our website or email eurocodes@thomastelford.com

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-7277-3159-3

# The authors and Thomas Telford Limited 2007

All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publishing Director, Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD. This book is published on the understanding that the authors are solely responsible for the statements made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not necessarily imply that such statements and/or opinions are or reect the views or opinions of the publishers. While every eort has been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions expressed in this publication provide a safe and accurate guide, no liability or responsibility can be accepted in this respect by the authors or publishers.

Typeset by Academic Technical, Bristol Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books, Bodmin

Preface
Aims and objectives of this guide
The principal aim of this book is to provide the user with guidance on the interpretation and use of EN 1992-2 and to present worked examples. It covers topics that will be encountered in typical concrete bridge designs and explains the relationship between EN 1992-2 and the other Eurocodes. EN 1992-2 is not a stand alone document and refers extensively to other Eurocodes. Its format is based on EN 1992-1-1 and generally follows the same clause numbering. It identies which parts of EN 1992-1-1 are relevant for bridge design and adds further clauses that are specic to bridges. It is therefore not useful to produce guidance on EN 1992-2 in isolation and so this guide covers material in EN 1992-1-1 which will need to be used in bridge design. This book also provides background information and references to enable users of Eurocode 2 to understand the origin and objectives of its provisions.

Layout of this guide


EN 1992-2 has a foreword, 13 sections and 17 annexes. This guide has an introduction which corresponds to the foreword of EN 1992-2, Chapters 1 to 10, which correspond to Sections 1 to 10 of the Eurocode and Annexes A to Q which again correspond to Annexes A to Q of the Eurocode. The guide generally follows the section numbers and rst sub-headings in EN 1992-2 so that guidance can be sought on the code on a section by section basis. The guide also follows the format of EN 1992-2 to lower levels of sub-heading in cases where this can conveniently be done and where there is sucient material to merit this. The need to use several Eurocode parts can initially make it a daunting task to locate information in the order required for a real design. In some places, therefore, additional sub-sections are included in this guide to pull together relevant design rules for individual elements, such as pile caps. Additional sub-sections are identied as such in the sub-section heading. The following parts of the Eurocode are intended to be used in conjunction with Eurocode 2: EN 1990: EN 1991: EN 1997: EN 1998: hENs: EN 13670: Basis of structural design Actions on structures Geotechnical design Design of structures for earthquake resistance Construction products relevant for concrete structures Execution (construction) of concrete structures

These documents will generally be required for a typical concrete bridge design, but discussion on them is generally beyond the scope of this guide.

DESIGNERS GUIDE TO EN 1992-2

In this guide, references to Eurocode 2 are made by using the abbreviation EC2 for EN 1992, so EN 1992-1-1 is referred to as EC2-1-1. Where clause numbers are referred to in the text, they are prexed by the number of the relevant part of EC2. Hence:
. . . .

2-2/clause 6.3.2(6) means clause 6.3.2, paragraph (6), of EC2-2 2-1-1/clause 6.2.5(1) means clause 6.2.5, paragraph (1), of EC2-1-1 2-2/Expression (7.22) means equation (7.22) in EC2-2 2-1-1/Expression (7.8) means equation (7.8) in EC2-1-1.

Note that, unlike in other guides in this series, even clauses in EN 1992-2 itself are prexed with 2-2. There are so many references to other parts of Eurocode 2 required that to do otherwise would be confusing. Where additional equations are provided in the guide, they are numbered sequentially within each sub-section of a main section so that, for example, the third additional expression within sub-section 6.1 would be referenced equation (D6.1-3). Additional gures and tables follow the same system. For example, the second additional gure in section 6.4 would be referenced Figure 6.4-2.

Acknowledgements
Chris Hendy would like to thank his wife, Wendy, and two boys, Peter Edwin Hendy and Matthew Philip Hendy, for their patience and tolerance of his pleas to nish just one more section. David Smith would like to thank his wife, Emma, for her limitless patience during preparation of this guide. He also acknowledges the continued support of Brian and Rosalind Ruell-Ward from the very beginning. Both authors would also like to thank their employer, Atkins, for providing both facilities and time for the production of this guide. They also wish to thank Dr Paul Jackson and Dr Steve Denton for their helpful comments on the guide. Chris Hendy David A. Smith

vi

Contents
Preface Aims and objectives of this guide Layout of this guide Acknowledgements Introduction Additional information specic to EN 1992-2 Chapter 1. General 1.1. Scope 1.1.1. Scope of Eurocode 2 1.1.2. Scope of Part 2 of Eurocode 2 1.2. Normative references 1.3. Assumptions 1.4. Distinction between principles and application rules 1.5. Denitions 1.6. Symbols Basis of design 2.1. Requirements 2.2. Principles of limit state design 2.3. Basic variables 2.4. Verication by the partial factor method 2.4.1. General 2.4.2. Design values 2.4.3. Combinations of actions 2.5. Design assisted by testing 2.6. Supplementary requirements for foundations Materials 3.1. Concrete 3.1.1. General 3.1.2. Strength 3.1.3. Elastic deformation 3.1.4. Creep and shrinkage 3.1.5. Concrete stressstrain relation for non-linear structural analysis v v v vi 1 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 7 7 7 7 9 9 9 9 10 10 11 11 11 11 14 14 19

Chapter 2.

Chapter 3.

DESIGNERS GUIDE TO EN 1992-2

3.1.6. Design compressive and tensile strengths 3.1.7. Stressstrain relations for the design of sections 3.1.8. Flexural tensile strength 3.1.9. Conned concrete 3.2. Reinforcing steel 3.2.1. General 3.2.2. Properties 3.2.3. Strength 3.2.4. Ductility 3.2.5. Welding 3.2.6. Fatigue 3.2.7. Design assumptions 3.3. Prestressing steel 3.3.1. General 3.3.2. Properties 3.3.3. Strength 3.3.4. Ductility characteristics 3.3.5. Fatigue 3.3.6. Design assumptions 3.4. Prestressing devices 3.4.1. Anchorages and couplers 3.4.2. External non-bonded tendons Chapter 4. Durability and cover to reinforcement 4.1. General 4.2. Environmental conditions 4.3. Requirements for durability 4.4. Methods of verication 4.4.1. Concrete cover Structural analysis 5.1. General 5.2. Geometric imperfections 5.2.1. General (additional sub-section) 5.2.2. Arches (additional sub-section) 5.3 Idealization of the structure 5.3.1 Structural models for overall analysis 5.3.2. Geometric data 5.4. Linear elastic analysis 5.5. Linear elastic analysis with limited redistribution 5.6. Plastic analysis 5.6.1. General 5.6.2. Plastic analysis for beams, frames and slabs 5.6.3. Rotation capacity 5.6.4. Strut-and-tie models 5.7. Non-linear analysis 5.7.1. Method for ultimate limit states 5.7.2. Scalar combinations 5.7.3. Vector combinations 5.7.4. Method for serviceability limit states 5.8. Analysis of second-order eects with axial load 5.8.1. Denitions and introduction to second-order eects 5.8.2. General 5.8.3. Simplied criteria for second-order eects

20 21 22 23 23 23 23 23 24 25 25 25 25 25 26 27 27 28 28 29 29 29 31 31 32 35 36 36 39 39 40 40 43 44 44 44 48 49 52 52 52 53 56 58 58 60 61 62 62 62 63 64

Chapter 5.

viii

CONTENTS

5.8.4. Creep 5.8.5. Methods of analysis 5.8.6. General method second-order non-linear analysis 5.8.7. Second-order analysis based on nominal stiness 5.8.8. Method based on nominal curvature 5.8.9. Biaxial bending 5.9. Lateral instability of slender beams 5.10. Prestressed members and structures 5.10.1. General 5.10.2. Prestressing force during tensioning 5.10.3. Prestress force 5.10.4. Immediate losses of prestress for pre-tensioning 5.10.5. Immediate losses of prestress for post-tensioning 5.10.6. Time-dependent losses 5.10.7. Consideration of prestress in the analysis 5.10.8. Eects of prestressing at the ultimate limit state 5.10.9. Eects of prestressing at the serviceability and fatigue limit states 5.11. Analysis for some particular structural members

69 70 70 71 76 80 80 81 81 82 83 84 85 90 95 96 98 104

Chapter 6.

Ultimate limit states 6.1. ULS bending with or without axial force 6.1.1. General (additional sub-section) 6.1.2. Reinforced concrete beams (additional sub-section) 6.1.3. Prestressed concrete beams (additional sub-section) 6.1.4. Reinforced concrete columns (additional sub-section) 6.1.5. Brittle failure of members with prestress (additional sub-section) 6.2. Shear 6.2.1. General verication procedure rules 6.2.2. Members not requiring design shear reinforcement 6.2.3. Members requiring design shear reinforcement 6.2.4. Shear between web and anges of T-sections 6.2.5. Shear at the interface between concrete cast at dierent times 6.2.6. Shear and transverse bending 6.2.7. Shear in precast concrete and composite construction (additional sub-section) 6.3. Torsion 6.3.1. General 6.3.2. Design procedure 6.3.3. Warping torsion 6.3.4. Torsion in slabs (additional sub-section) 6.4. Punching 6.4.1. General 6.4.2. Load distribution and basic control perimeter 6.4.3. Punching shear calculation 6.4.4. Punching shear resistance of slabs and bases without shear reinforcement 6.4.5. Punching shear resistance of slabs and bases with shear reinforcement 6.4.6. Pile caps (additional sub-section) 6.5. Design with strut-and-ties models 6.5.1. General

105 105 105 105 118 121 126 131 132 133 140 154 158 160 160 166 166 167 171 172 175 175 176 177 179 183 185 193 193

ix

DESIGNERS GUIDE TO EN 1992-2

6.6. 6.7. 6.8.

6.9.

6.5.2. Struts 6.5.3. Ties 6.5.4. Nodes Anchorage and laps Partially loaded areas Fatigue 6.8.1. Verication conditions 6.8.2. Internal forces and stresses for fatigue verication 6.8.3. Combination of actions 6.8.4. Verication procedure for reinforcing and prestressing steel 6.8.5. Verication using damage equivalent stress range 6.8.6. Other verication methods 6.8.7. Verication of concrete under compression or shear Membrane elements

193 195 196 201 201 208 208 208 209 209 210 212 213 215

Chapter 7.

Serviceability limit states 7.1. General 7.2. Stress limitation 7.3. Crack control 7.3.1. General considerations 7.3.2. Minimum areas of reinforcement 7.3.3. Control of cracking without direct calculation 7.3.4. Control of crack widths by direct calculation 7.4. Deection control 7.5. Early thermal cracking (additional sub-section)

225 225 226 230 230 232 234 237 243 243

Chapter 8.

Detailing of reinforcement and prestressing steel 8.1. General 8.2. Spacing of bars 8.3. Permissible mandrel diameters for bent bars 8.4. Anchorage of longitudinal reinforcement 8.4.1. General 8.4.2. Ultimate bond stress 8.4.3. Basic anchorage length 8.4.4. Design anchorage length 8.5. Anchorage of links and shear reinforcement 8.6. Anchorage by welded bars 8.7. Laps and mechanical couplers 8.7.1. General 8.7.2. Laps 8.7.3. Lap length 8.7.4. Transverse reinforcement in the lap zone 8.7.5. Laps of welded mesh fabrics made of ribbed wires 8.7.6. Welding (additional sub-section) 8.8. Additional rules for large diameter bars 8.9. Bundled bars 8.10. Prestressing tendons 8.10.1. Tendon layouts 8.10.2. Anchorage of pre-tensioned tendons 8.10.3. Anchorage zones of post-tensioned members 8.10.4. Anchorages and couplers for prestressing tendons 8.10.5. Deviators

245 245 246 246 247 247 248 248 249 251 251 252 252 252 253 254 257 257 257 258 258 258 259 262 271 272

CONTENTS

Chapter 9.

Detailing of members and particular rules 9.1. General 9.2. Beams 9.2.1. Longitudinal reinforcement 9.2.2. Shear reinforcement 9.2.3. Torsion reinforcement 9.2.4. Surface reinforcement 9.2.5. Indirect supports 9.3. Solid slabs 9.3.1. Flexural reinforcement 9.3.2. Shear reinforcement 9.4. Flat slabs 9.5. Columns 9.5.1. General 9.5.2. Longitudinal reinforcement 9.5.3. Transverse reinforcement 9.6. Walls 9.7. Deep beams 9.8. Foundations 9.9. Regions with discontinuity in geometry or action Additional rules for precast concrete elements and structures 10.1. General 10.2. Basis of design, fundamental requirements 10.3. Materials 10.3.1. Concrete 10.3.2. Prestressing steel 10.4. Not used in EN 1992-2 10.5. Structural analysis 10.5.1. General 10.5.2. Losses of prestress 10.6. Not used in EN 1992-2 10.7. Not used in EN 1992-2 10.8. Not used in EN 1992-2 10.9. Particular rules for design and detailing 10.9.1. Restraining moments in slabs 10.9.2. Wall to oor connections 10.9.3. Floor systems 10.9.4. Connections and supports for precast elements 10.9.5. Bearings 10.9.6. Pocket foundations Lightweight aggregate concrete structures 11.1. General 11.2. Basis of design 11.3. Materials 11.3.1. Concrete 11.3.2. Elastic deformation 11.3.3. Creep and shrinkage 11.3.4. Stress strain relations for non-linear structural analysis 11.3.5 Design compressive and tensile strengths 11.3.6. Stress strain relations for the design of sections 11.3.7. Conned concrete 11.4. Durability and cover to reinforcement

275 275 275 275 278 279 279 279 281 281 282 282 282 282 283 283 284 284 285 288 289 289 289 290 290 290 290 290 290 291 291 291 291 291 291 291 291 291 292 293 295 295 296 296 296 296 297 298 298 298 298 298

Chapter 10.

Chapter 11.

xi

DESIGNERS GUIDE TO EN 1992-2

11.5. 11.6. 11.7. 11.8. 11.9. Chapter 12. Chapter 13.

Structural analysis Ultimate limit states Serviceability limit states Detailing of reinforcement general Detailing of members and particular rules

298 298 302 302 302 303 307 307 308 309 309 309 311 313 316

Plain and lightly reinforced concrete structures Design for the execution stages 13.1. General 13.2. Actions during execution 13.3. Verication criteria 13.3.1. Ultimate limit state 13.3.2. Serviceability limit states Modication of partial factors for materials (informative) Creep and shrinkage strain (informative) Reinforcement properties (normative) Detailed calculation method for prestressing steel relaxation losses (informative) Indicative strength classes for durability (informative) Tension reinforcement expressions for in-plane stress conditions (informative) Soil-structure interaction Not used in EN 1992-2 Analysis of at slabs (informative) Detailing rules for particular situations (informative) Structural eects of time-dependent behaviour (informative) Concrete shell elements (informative) Shear and transverse bending (informative) Damage equivalent stresses for fatigue verication (informative) Typical bridge discontinuity regions (informative) Safety format for non-linear analysis (informative) Control of shear cracks within webs (informative)

Annex A. Annex B. Annex C. Annex D.

317 322

Annex E. Annex F.

324 325

Annex G. Annex H. Annex I. Annex J. Annex K. Annex L. Annex M. Annex N. Annex O. Annex P. Annex Q. References Index

326 327 331 344 346 356 362 363 364 369 371

xii

CHAPTER 7

Serviceability limit states


This chapter deals with the design at service limit states of members as covered in section 7 of EN 1992-2 in the following clauses:
. . . .

General Stress limitation Crack control Deection control An additional section 7.5 is included to discuss early thermal cracking.

Clause 7.1 Clause 7.2 Clause 7.3 Clause 7.4

7.1. General
EN 1992-2 section 7 covers only the three serviceability limit states relating to clause 7.2 to 7.4 above. 2-1-1/clause 7.1(1)P notes that other serviceability limit states may be of importance. EN 1990/A2.4 is relevant in this respect. It covers partial factors, serviceability criteria, design situations, comfort criteria, deformations of railway bridges and criteria for the safety of rail trac. Most of its provisions are qualitative but some recommended values are given in various Notes, as guidance for National Annexes. EN 1990 is of general relevance. From clause 6.5.3 of EN 1990, the relevant combination of actions for serviceability limit states is normally either the characteristic, frequent, or quasi-permanent combination. These are all used in EC2-2 and the general forms of these combinations, together with examples of use, are given in Table 7.1, but reference to section 2 and Annex A2 of EN 1990 is recommended for a detailed explanation of the expressions and terms. Specic rules for the combinations of actions (e.g. actions that need not be considered together), recommended combination factors and partial safety factors for bridge design are also specied in Annex A2 of EN 1990. Section 2 of this guide gives further commentary on the basis of design and the use of partial factors and combinations of actions. The general expressions in Table 7.1 have been simplied assuming that partial factors of 1.0 are used throughout for all actions at the serviceability limit state, as recommended in Annex A2 of EN 1990, but they may be varied in the National Annex. Appropriate methods of global analysis for determining design action eects are discussed in detail in section 5. For serviceability limit state verication, the global analysis may be either elastic without redistribution (clause 5.4) or non-linear (clause 5.7). Elastic global analysis is most commonly used and it is not normally then necessary to consider the eects of cracking within it section 5.4 refers. 2-1-1/clause 7.1(2) permits an un-cracked concrete cross-section to be assumed for stress and deection calculation provided that the exural tensile stress under the relevant combination of actions considered does not exceed fct;eff . fct;eff may be taken as either fctm

2-1-1/clause 7.1(1)P

2-1-1/clause 7.1(2)

DESIGNERS GUIDE TO EN 1992-2

Table 7.1. Combinations of actions for serviceability limit states


Combination Characteristic Notes Combination of actions with a xed (small) probability of being exceeded during normal operation within the structures design life, e.g. combination appropriate to checks on stress in reinforcement as it is undesirable for inelastic deformation of reinforcement to occur at any time during the service life. Combination of actions with a xed probability of being exceeded during a reference period of a few weeks, e.g. combination used for checks of cracking and decompression in prestressed bridges with bonded tendons. Combination of actions expected to be exceeded approximately 50% of the time, i.e. a time-based mean. For example, combination appropriate to crack width checks in reinforced concrete members on the basis that durability is inuenced by average crack widths, not the worst crack width ever experienced. General expression P Gk;j P Qk;1 P
0;i Qk;i

Frequent

Gk;j P

1;1 Qk;1

1;i Qk;i

Quasipermanent

Gk;j P

2;1 Qk;1

2;i Qk;i

or fctm;fl but should be consistent with the value used in the calculation of minimum tension reinforcement (see section 7.3). For the purpose of calculating crack widths and tension stiffening eects, fctm should be used.

7.2. Stress limitation


Stresses in bridges are limited to ensure that under normal conditions of use, assumptions made in design models (e.g. linear-elastic behaviour) remain valid, and to avoid deterioration such as the spalling of concrete or excessive cracking leading to a reduction of durability. For persistent design situations, it is usual to check stresses soon after the opening of the bridge to trac, when little creep has occurred, and also at a later time when creep and shrinkage are substantially complete. This aects the loss of prestress in prestressed structures and the modular ratio for stress and crack width calculation in reinforced concrete structures. It may be necessary to include part of the long-term shrinkage eects in the rst check, because up to half of the long-term shrinkage can occur in the rst 3 months after the end of curing of the concrete. Calculation of an eective concrete modulus allowing for creep is discussed below. 2-1-1/clause 7.2(1)P requires compressive stresses in the concrete to be limited to avoid longitudinal cracking, micro-cracking or excessive creep. The rst two can lead to a reduction of durability. 2-2/clause 7.2(102) addresses longitudinal cracking by requiring the stress level under the characteristic combination of actions to not exceed a limiting value of k1 fck (for areas with exposure classes of XD, XF or XS), where k1 is a nationally determined parameter with recommended value of 0.6. The clause identies that the limit can be increased where specic measures are taken, such as increasing the cover to reinforcement (from the minimum values discussed in section 4) or by providing connement by transverse reinforcement. The improvement from conning reinforcement is quantied as an increase in allowable stress of 10%, but this may be varied in the National Annex. The design of this reinforcement is not covered by EC2-2, but the strut-and-tie rules in 2-2/clause 6.5 and discussions in section 6.5 of this guide are relevant. Such reinforcement would need to operate at low stresses to have any signicant eect in limiting the width of compression-induced cracks. Micro-cracking typically begins to develop in concrete where the compressive stress exceeds approximately 70% of the compressive strength. Given the limits above to control longitudinal cracking, no further criteria are given to control micro-cracking.

2-1-1/clause 7.2(1)P 2-2/clause 7.2(102)

226

CHAPTER 7. SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES

c
dc

d d dc

As

Stresses

Strains

Fig. 7.1. Notation for a rectangular beam

2-1-1/clause 7.2(3) addresses non-linear creep as covered by 2-2/clause 3.1.4(4). It requires non-linear creep to be considered where the stress under the quasi-permanent combination of actions exceeds k2 fck , where k2 is a nationally determined parameter with recommended value of 0.45. 2-2/clause 3.1.4(4) gives the same limiting stress, but it is not subject to national variation in that clause so must be deemed to take precedence. 2-1-1/clause 7.2(4)P requires stresses in reinforcement and prestressing steel to be limited to ensure inelastic deformations of the steel are avoided under serviceability loads, which could result in excessive concrete crack widths and invalidate the assumptions on which the calculations within EC2 for cracking and deections are based. 2-1-1/clause 7.2(5) requires that the tensile stress in reinforcement under the characteristic combination of actions does not exceed k3 fyk . Where the stress is caused by imposed deformations, the tensile stress should not exceed k4 fyk , although it will be rare for tensile stress to exist solely from imposed deformations. The mean value of stress in prestressing tendons should not exceed k5 fpk . The values of k3 , k4 and k5 are nationally determined parameters and are recommended to be taken as 0.8, 1.0 and 0.75 respectively. The higher stress limit for reinforcement tension under indirect actions reects the ability for stresses to be shed upon concrete cracking. The following method can be used to determine stresses in cracked reinforced concrete beams and slabs. The concrete modulus to use for section analysis depends on the ratio of permanent (long-term) actions to variable (short-term) actions. The short-term modulus is Ecm and the long-term modulus is Ecm =1 . The eective concrete modulus for a combination of long-term and short-term actions can be taken as: Ec;eff Mqp Mst Ecm Mst 1 Mqp (D7-1)

2-1-1/clause 7.2(3)

2-1-1/clause 7.2(4)P 2-1-1/clause 7.2(5)

where Mst is the moment due to short-term actions and Mqp is the moment from quasipermanent actions. The neutral axis depth and steel strain can be derived from a cracked elastic analysis, assuming plane sections remain plane. For a rectangular beam, from Fig. 7.1: Strains "s Forces Fs Fc so As Es "s 0:5bdc "c Ec;eff Putting equation (D7-2) into equation (D7-3) gives: q As Es As Es 2 2bAs Es Ec;eff d dc bEc;eff (D7-3) d dc "c dc (D7-2)

(D7-4)

227

Index
Page numbers in italics denote gures accelerated relaxation, 290 actions, 910, 288, 308309 actions combinations, 209, 226 additional longitudinal reinforcement, 143145 aggregate concrete structures, 295302 allowable maximum strain, 107 alternative methods, 349350 amplication factors, 357 analysis, 9597, 326, 363 see also structural analysis anchorage, 29, 245, 247251, 247248, 251, 272 bottom reinforcement, 2778 force calculation model, 286 prestressing, 87, 8990, 271 pretensioned tendons, 259262, 262 support reinforcement, 292 tension, 261262, 286 ultimate limit state, 201, 261262 zones, 262270, 262, 265267, 270, 330 angular imperfections, 43 application rules, 5 arches, 43 assumptions, 45, 25, 2829 autogenous shrinkage, 18 axial forces, 78, 304 axial loads, 6280, 123, 125126 balanced sections, 78 bars, 246247, 250258, 254 bases, 179185, 184185 beams, 275281 bearings, 47 composite, 337339, 338339 creep, 337339, 338339 doubly reinforced rectangular, 112114, 113 eective spans, 47, 48 end stress transfer, 99100 idealization for space frame analysis, 172 K values, 251 lateral instability, 8081 midspan stress transfer, 100 monolithic with supports, 47 plastic analysis, 52, 53 precast pretensioned, 160164 rectangular, notation, 227 shear, 136, 137, 278279 slender, 8081 time-dependent losses, 91 with uniform loads, 51 see also slabs bearings, 47, 204, 205207, 292293, 329330 bending, 105131, 299, 304, 350 biaxial bending, 80, 125126 biaxial compression, 218 biaxial shear, 218 bilinear diagrams, 21 bonds, 96, 99103, 100, 102, 245, 250 bottom reinforcement, 277278 box girders, 280281, 280, 362 discontinuity regions, 362 eective ange widths, 4647, 47 losses, 87, 9495 post-tensioned, 129131, 139140, 148151 shear cracks, 365367, 366 tendon proles, 151 three span, losses, 87 time-dependent losses, 9495 torsion, 172173 without tendon drape, 149151 worked examples, 8790, 9495, 172173, 280281, 280 braced columns, 74 braced members, 63 bridge piers see piers brittle failure, 126131 buckling, 43, 63, 65, 305 bundled bars, 258 bursting, 203205, 204, 262263 cables, 126127 cantilevering piers, 67, 70, 7576, 7980 carbonation corrosion, 34

DESIGNERS GUIDE TO EN 1992-2

CCC nodes, 197 CCT nodes, 198 centreline distances, 260 chemical attack corrosion, 35 chloride corrosion, 34 CIRIA Guide 1 method, 264, 265 classes, 24, 3435, 37, 322323 classication, 37 climatic actions, 309 close to slab edges/corners, 176 close to supports, 135136, 145 coecients of friction, 86 columns, 185, 282284 see also piers combinations, 157158, 169170, 350 composite beams, 161, 337341, 33839, 341 composite construction, 93, 160165 composite deck slabs, 162164 composite members, 342343 compressive strengths, 1112, 2021, 298, 360361 compressive stresses, 115 concrete, 1123 cast at dierent times, 158160 conned, 298 cover verication methods, 3638 creep, 1417, 333 damage, 322 deformation characteristics, 13 elastic deformation, 14 fatigue verication, 213215 exural tensile strengths, 2223 heat curing eects, 290 indicative strength classes, 322 lightweight aggregate structures, 295302 shear, 213215 shell elements, 344345 shrinkage, 14, 1819 strengths, 1114, 2021, 296, 360361 stress characteristics, 13 stress limitation, 8283 stress/strain relationships, 19, 1920, 2122 worked examples, 1617 contraexure points, 147 control, cracks, 230242, 237, 240, 364367 control perimeters, 176177, 176, 184 corbels, 328329, 329 corner piles, 185, 189, 191 corrosion, 3235, 126127, 322 couplers, 29, 252257, 271 cover, 3138, 261, 298 cracks cables, 126127 checks, 236237, 241242 control, 230242, 364367 early thermal, 243 exure, 140, 148149 prediction, 240241 sections, 228 strains, 237, 240

widths, 237242, 237, 240 worked examples, 236237, 241242 creep, 6970, 313315, 332, 333341, 333, 338339, 341 concrete, 1417, 297, 313314, 333 time-dependent losses, 9294 worked examples, 336337, 339341, 341 cross sections see sections crushing, 169170, 201203, 202 CTT nodes, 198199 curvature forces, 259 curvature methods, 7680 damage, 210212, 322, 356361 dead load moments, 332 deck slabs, 228230, 300301 cover example, 38 crack control, 236237, 241242 shear, 134 ultimate limit states, 110111 voided reinforced concrete, 146147 deep beams, 284 denitions, 5, 155, 167, 265 deection, 70, 243 deformation, 13, 297 design, 2021, 298 anchorage lengths, 249251 assumptions, 25, 2829 basis, 710, 289290, 296 execution stages, 307309 particular rules, 291 shear reinforcement, 133153, 140141, 145, 153 torsion, 167171 detailed calculation method, 317321 detailing rules, 245273, 275288, 291293, 302, 327330 deviation allowances, 38 deviators, 272273 diaphragms, 199201, 200201, 280281, 280, 362 dierential creep, 337339, 338339 dierential shrinkage, 102, 341342, 342 discontinuity, 195196, 196, 288, 362 dispersion, 267 doubly reinforced concrete beams/slabs, 112114, 113 D-regions, 57, 288 see also strut-and-tie model drying shrinkage, 18 ductility, 24, 2728 ducts, 147148, 148, 258261, 259 durability, 3138, 298, 322323 early thermal cracking, 243 EC2-2 Annex J method, 263264 eccentricity, 42, 304, 348 edge sliding reinforcement, 206207 eective lengths, 6567, 65 eective thickness, 169

372

INDEX

eective widths, 4446, 47, 147148 elastic deformation, 14, 8586, 296297 end moments, 74 end supports, 277278 environmental conditions, 3235 equivalent time method, 318321, 318 examples see worked examples execution stages, 307309 expansion joints, 357 exposure, 3235, 37 external non-bonded tendons, 29 external tendons, 29, 98 external vs. internal post-tensioning, 9596 failure, 54, 123, 126127, 248, 304 fatigue, 25, 28, 9899, 208215, 209, 356361 worked examples, 211212, 214215 nite element models, 344 anged reinforced beams, 115117, 115, 117 anges, 4447, 47, 107, 156, 157158 at slabs, 104, 282, 326 exural reinforcement, 281 exural shear, 187, 189 exural tensile strengths, 2223 oor systems, 291 footings, 285286 see also pad footings force calculation model, 286 foundations, 10, 285288, 285, 287, 293 frames, 52, 328 free body diagrams, 144 freeze/thaw corrosion, 3435 friction, 8687, 89 general method, 332333 geometric data, 8, 4448 geometric imperfections, 4044, 4144, 74 geometry, discontinuity regions, 288 half joints, 292 heat curing, 290 heavy vehicles, 358 high-strength concrete, 313314 hollow piers, 204 I beams, 154 idealization, 170, 172 imperfections see geometric imperfections imposed curvature, 55 indicative strength classes, 322323 indirect supports, 279280 in-plane buckling, 43, 43 in-plane stress conditions, 324 in situ concrete structures, 311 in situ deck slabs, 160164 interaction diagrams, 122 intermediate supports, 278 internal vs. external post-tensioning, 9596 isolated members, 41, 6467, 65 ISO standard 3898: 1997 symbols, 5

joints, 153, 357 K values, anchorage, 249, 251 laps, 201, 252257, 252, 254, 256 large diameter bars, 257258 lateral instability, 8081 layer centres, 348 layer stresses, 347 layouts, tendons, 258259 leaf piers, 205207, 207 lightly reinforced structures, 303305 lightweight aggregate concrete structures, 295302 analysis, 298 cover, 298 deformation, 297 design, 296, 298 elastic deformation, 296297 materials, 296298 non-linear analysis, 298 shear/torsion, 299 shrinkage, 297 stress, 297298 strut-and-tie models, 300 ultimate limit states, 298300 worked examples, 300301 limited redistribution, 4951 limiting slenderness checks, 6869 limit states, 7, 5860, 62, 8283, 98103 see also ultimate limit states linear elastic analysis, 4851, 51 links, 251 loads close to slab edges/corners, 176 close to supports, 145 dispersal, 207 distribution, 176177, 176, 202 factors, 125 models, 359 spread, 285 longitudinal reinforcement, 143145, 275278, 283 anchorage, 247251, 247248, 251, 272 longitudinal shear, 154158, 349350, 355 longitudinal tension reinforcement, 277 losses anchorage, 87 elastic deformation, 8586 post-tensioning, 8590 prestress, 8490, 89, 291, 317321, 318 pretensioning, 8485 steel relaxation, 317321, 318 worked examples, 8790 low-relaxation prestressing tendons, 318321 mandrels, 246247 materials, 8, 1029, 290, 296298, 303304 partial factor modication, 311312 maximum moments, 4243

373

DESIGNERS GUIDE TO EN 1992-2

maximum punching shear stress, 185 M beams, 162165, 173175, 175 members, 140153, 140141, 145 detailing, 275288, 302 not requiring design shear reinforcement, 133140 in tension, 198199 membrane elements, 215223, 216, 222 membrane rules, 216, 218222, 222 minimum cover, 3638 minimum reinforcement, 127128 minimum shear reinforcement, 137 modication, partial factors, 311312 Mohrs circles, 222, 352353 moments, 4243, 70, 74, 332, 342 monitoring facility provision, 128 nodes, 196201, 197198 nominal curvature methods, 7680 nominal stiness, 7176 non-linear analysis, 19, 19, 5862, 61, 7071, 298, 363 normative references, 4 notation, rectangular beams, 227 open sections, 170171 out-of-plane buckling, 43 overlapping, 292 pad footings, 180182, 180, 287288, 287 parabolic-rectangular diagrams, 21 parameters, creep/shrinkage, 314 Part 2 scope, 4 partial factor method, 910 partial factor modication, 311312 partially loaded areas, 201207, 202, 204, 207, 300, 329330 partial sheared truss models, 141 particular rules, 275288, 291, 302 particular situations, 327330 piers, 43, 63, 6869, 68, 207 worked examples, 1617, 17 see also cantilevering piers; columns pile caps, 185193, 186193, 285 piles see corner piles pin-ended struts, 42 placement of reinforcement, 158 plain reinforced concrete structures, 303305 plastic analysis, 5258, 53, 55 plastic hinges, 55 pocket foundations, 293 post-tensioning, 8590 box girders, 129131, 139140, 148153 cables, 272273 construction, 336 ducts, 258259 members, 262270, 265, 270, 330 precast concrete, 153, 160165, 289293, 312 prestress dispersion, 267 prestressed beams, 118131, 119

prestressed members, 137, 140, 147153, 148 prestressed steel, 2529, 28 prestressed structures, 81103 bonded tendons, 99103, 100, 102103 creep, 9294 fatigue limit states, 9899 limit states, 9799 losses, 8495, 89, 291 post-tensioning, 9596 prestress considerations, 9597 prestressing forces, 8284 primary/secondary eects, 9697 serviceability limit states, 98103 unbonded prestress, 96 worked examples, 99103, 100, 102103 prestressing devices, 29 prestressing forces, 8290 prestressing steel, 209210, 245273, 290, 317321, 318, 359360 prestressing systems, 3235, 38 prestress transfer, 260261 pretensioning, 8485 beams, 131, 160164 composite members, 337339, 342343 concrete M beams, 162165, 173175, 175 strands, 259 tendons, 258262, 262 primary prestress eects, 9697, 96 primary regularization prism, 263264, 264265 principles, 5, 7, 40 properties of materials, 8, 23, 2627, 316 provision of monitoring facilities, 128 proximity to expansion joints, 357 punching, 175193 control perimeters, 176177, 176, 184 corner piles, 189, 191 load distribution, 176177, 176 pile caps, 185193 shear, 177179, 185, 192193, 300 shear resistance, 179185, 184 worked examples, 180182, 180, 186193, 186193 railway bridges, 359361 rectangular beam notation, 227 rectangular stress blocks, 117 redistribution, 332, 338339, 339341 regions with discontinuity, 288, 362 reinforced concrete, 105117, 108, 121126, 122123, 133147, 303305 see also lightly reinforced . . . reinforcement, 222223, 222, 245273, 247248, 251, 270, 272, 277, 3002 corrosion potentials, 3235 cover, 3138, 298 crack control, 232234 durability, 3138 eccentric, 348 edge sliding, 206207

374

INDEX

fatigue verication, 209 foundations, 287288, 287 in-plane stress conditions, 324 loop overlapping, 292 minimum, 37, 127128, 137 normative properties, 316 pad footings, 287288, 287 piers, 68, 207 properties, 316 punching, 184 shear, 133153, 251 surfaces, 327328 suspension, 280 tension, 277, 324 torsion, 167169, 167 transverse, 254255, 254 webs, 366 worked examples, 255257, 256, 300301 reinforcing steel, 2325, 2425, 209210, 209, 359360 relaxation, 27, 92, 94, 317321, 318 resultant conversions, stress, 347 return periods, 309 ribbed wires, 257 road bridges, 211212, 214215, 356358 rotation capacity, 5356, 5455 rules see detailing rules safety format, 6162, 363 St Venant torsion, 166 sandwich model, 346349, 347348, 353355 scalar combinations, 6061, 61 scope, Eurocode 2, 34 sea water corrosion, 34 secondary moments, 342 secondary prestress eects, 9697, 96 second-order analysis, 6280 biaxial bending, 80 braced columns, 74 creep, 6970 denitions, 6263 methods, 7071, 7680 nominal stiness, 7176 simplied criteria, 6469 soil-structure interaction, 64 stiness, 6364, 7176 unbraced columns, 73 sections, 2122, 78, 154158, 169, 170, 170, 298 see also prestressed sections segmental construction, 153, 153, 171 serviceability limit states, 225243 actions combinations, 226 crack control, 230243 deck slabs, 228230, 302 execution stages, 309 prestressed structures, 98103 reinforced concrete deck slabs, 228230 stress limitation, 226230 worked examples, 228230 shear, 131165

alternative methods, 349350 beam enhancement comparisons, 136 bending, 160, 346355, 347348, 350 between web/anges, 154158 composite construction, 160165 concrete cast at dierent times, 158160 contraexure points, 147 cracking, 364367, 366 deck slabs, 134 exure failures, 137 ow calculation denitions, 155 lightweight structures, 299 members not requiring reinforcement, 133140 members requiring reinforcement, 140153 post-tensioned box girders with tendon drape, 151153 precast concrete, 160165 reinforced concrete, 133140, 304305 reinforcement, 145, 190, 192193, 251, 278279, 282 tension, 137139 torsion, 169170 total transverse reinforcement, 157 T-sections, 154158 verication procedure rules, 132133 wall analysis, 104 worked examples bending, 351355 box girders, 139140, 148153 deck slabs, 134, 146147 exure, 139140 tendon drape, 151153 without tendon drape, 149151 see also longitudinal shear; punching shear resistance, 179185, 184 shear stress, 161, 185 shell elements, 344345 shift method, 143145 short spans, 145 shrinkage, 313315 concrete, 14, 1819 dierential, 102, 341342, 342 lightweight structures, 297 time-dependent losses, 92, 94 sign convention, 216 simplied criteria, 6469 simplied methods, 333336 simplied rectangular diagrams, 21 singly reinforced concrete, 107112, 108 sinusoidal imperfections, 43 skew reinforcement, 222223, 222 slabs edges/corners, 176 K values, 251 plastic analysis, 52 punching, 176, 179185, 184 shear resistance, 179185, 184 shear stress distribution, 161 torsion, 172175, 175

375

DESIGNERS GUIDE TO EN 1992-2

slabs (continued ) see also beams; at slabs; solid slabs slenderness, 6467, 65, 6869, 8081, 305 see also lightweight . . . sliding wedge mechanism, 329 SLS see serviceability limit states soil structure interactions, 64, 325 solid sections, 169170, 281282 space frame analysis, 172 spacing, 246, 259 spalling, 201203, 202, 262, 265 spans, beams, 47, 48 square sections, 170, 170 staged construction, 93 static values see characteristic values steel, 259, 28, 228, 359360 see also prestressing steel stiness, 6364, 7176 strain compatibility, 106107, 118, 122123 cracks, 237, 240241, 240 creep, 313315, 333 distributions, 117 external tendons, 98 strength classes, 296, 322323 concrete, 1114 curve, 209 prestressed steel, 27 reinforcing steel, 2324 see also individual strengths stress anchorage zones, 262 block idealization comparisons, 22 concentrated loads, 202 concrete characteristics, 13 damage equivalent, 356361 dierential shrinkage, 102 distances, uniformity, 261 fatigue verication, 356361 anged beams, 117 lightweight structures, 297298 limitation, 226230 Mohrs circles, 222 non-linear structural analysis, 298 prestressed steel, 28 redistribution, creep, 338339 reinforced concrete deck slabs, 228230 reinforcement fatigue verication, 209 resultant conversions, 347 section design, 298 serviceability limit states, 226230 strain relations, 298 temperature dierentials, 230 transfer in beams, 99100, 100 transverse, 262 stressstrain diagrams, 2425, 28 stressstrain proles, 119 stressstrain relationships, 19, 1920, 2122 structural analysis, 39104

geometric imperfections, 4044, 4144 global, 39, 4546 lateral instability, 8081 lightweight structures, 298 linear elastic analysis, 4851 local, 3940 non-linear analysis, 5862, 298 plastic analysis, 5258 post-tensioning, 9596 precast structures, 290291 prestressed members/structures, 81103 principles, 40 reinforced structures, 303304 second-order eects analysis, 6280 structure idealization, 4448 time-dependent behaviour, 331343, 332 worked examples, 6769, 7576, 7980 structural classication, 37 structure idealization, 4448 strut-and-tie models, 5658, 57, 195196, 196 anchorage zones, 266 corbels, 329 ducts, 148 hollow piers, 204 lightweight structures, 300 nodes, 196201, 197198 struts, 193195 ultimate limit states, 193201 worked examples, 199201, 200201 struts tensile stress, 194195 transverse stress, 193195 see also pin-ended struts; strut-and-tie models summary procedure, 342343 supports, 135136, 145, 187, 291292 surface reinforcement, 279, 327328 suspension reinforcement, 280 symbols, 5 temperature dierentials, 230 tendons, 149151, 151 external non-bonded, 29 low-relaxation prestressing, 318321 post-tensioned, 86 prestressing, 258273, 291 strain, 98 vertical proles, 87 tensile forces, 8283, 261262 tensile reinforcement, 286, 324 tensile strength, 1214, 2021 testing, 10 thin walled sections, 170 three-span bridges, 87, 336337 ties, 195196, 196 time-dependent behaviour, 9095, 91, 331343, 332 time-dependent losses, 91, 9295 torsion combined shear/torsion, 169170 denitions, 167

376

INDEX

design procedure, 167171, 170 lightweight structures, 299 M beam bridges, 173175, 175 open sections, 170 punching, 175193 reinforced structures, 167169, 167, 279, 304305 St Venant torsion, 166 segmental construction, 171 slabs, 172175, 175 ultimate limit state, 166175 warping torsion, 171172 worked examples, 172175 pad footings, 180182, 180 pile caps, 186193, 186193 slabs, 173175, 175 total transverse reinforcement, 157 transfer, prestress, 260261 transverse bending, 157158, 157, 160, 346355, 347348 transverse forces, 4243 transverse reinforcement, 158, 254255, 254, 283284 transverse stress, 193195, 262 truss models, 140141, 144, 154 T-sections, 154158 two-span beams, 51 ULS see ultimate limit states ultimate bond strength, 248 ultimate limit states (ULS), 105223 anchorage, 201, 261262 beams, 105117, 108, 112117, 113 bending, 105131, 122123 brittle failure, 126131 columns, 121126, 122123 deck slabs, 110111 doubly reinforced rectangular beams, 112114, 113 execution stages, 309 fatigue, 208215 anged beams, 115117 laps, 201 lightweight structures, 298300 membrane elements, 215223 methods, 5860 partially loaded areas, 201207, 202, 204 prestressed concrete beams, 118121 prestressed structures, 9798 shear, 131165 singly reinforced concrete beams/slabs, 107112, 108 strain compatibility, 106107 strut-and-tie models, 193201 torsion, 166175 voided reinforced concrete slabs, 111112 worked examples, 110111, 113117, 129131 unbonded prestress, 96 unbonded tendons, 121

unbraced columns, 73 unbraced members, 63 un-cracked in exure, 137140 uniaxial bending, 123 uniaxial compression, 218220 uniaxial shear, 218220 uniaxial tension, 220222 uniformity, stresses, 261 uniform loads, 51 unreinforced concrete, 204 unrestrained concrete, 333 values drying shrinkage, 18 material factors, 10 vertical loads, 359 variables, basic, 78 vector combinations, 6162 vehicle expected numbers, 358 verication execution stage criteria, 309 fatigue, 208215, 356361 methods, 3638 partial factor method, 910 procedure rules, 132133 vertical proles, 87 voided reinforced concrete slabs, 111112, 146147 walls, 284, 291, 304 warping torsion, 166, 171172 webs bending/shear combinations, 350 box girders, 280281, 280 control of shear cracks, 364367, 366 diaphragm region, 280281, 280 longitudinal shear rules, 355 reinforcement, 365367, 366 widths, 147148 welding, 25, 251, 257 worked examples anchorage zones, 267270, 270 bonded tendons, 99103, 100, 102103 box girders, 8790, 9495, 139140, 280281, 280, 365366 bridge piers, 1617, 17 brittle failure, 129131 cantilevered piers, 67, 7576, 7980 composite beams/slabs, 162164, 339341, 341 crack control, 236237, 241242 creep, 339341, 341 damage equivalent stress range, 211212 deck slabs, 38, 255257, 256 diaphragm design, 199201, 200201 doubly reinforced concrete slabs, 113114 eective ange widths, 4647, 47 equivalent time method, 318321 fatigue, 211212, 214215 anged beams, 115117

377

DESIGNERS GUIDE TO EN 1992-2

worked examples (continued ) foundations, 287288, 287 lap lengths, 255257, 256 leaf piers, 205207, 207 lightweight structures, 300301 linear elastic analysis, 51, 51 losses, 8790 low-relaxation prestressing tendons, 318321 membrane elements, 218222, 222 partially loaded areas, 205207, 207 post-tensioned members, 139140, 267270, 270 prestressed beams, 118121, 129131 prestressed steel, 27 prestressed structures, 99103, 100, 102103 pretensioned concrete M beams, 162165 punching, 180182, 180, 186193, 186193 reinforced concrete columns, 124125 slabs, 110112, 228230, 241242 relaxation losses, 27, 318321

sandwich model, 353355 serviceability limit states, 228230 shear cracking, 365366 post-tensioned box girders, 149153 reinforced concrete, 134135 transverse bending combinations, 351355 structural analysis, 6769, 7576, 7980 structure idealization, 4647 strut-and-tie models, 199201, 200201 three-span bridges, 336337 time-dependent losses, 9495 torsion, 172175 transverse bending, 351355 ultimate limit states, 110112, 115117 voided reinforced concrete slabs, 111112, 146147 web reinforcement, 366 zones for shear reinforcement, 190

378

Potrebbero piacerti anche