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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the position of women in society as advocated by religious texts in Hinduism. For the actual position of women in India, see Women in India
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The role of women in Hinduism is often disputed, and positions range from equal status with men to restrictive.[1] Hinduism is based on numerous texts, some of which date back to 2000 BCE or earlier. They are varied in authority, authenticity, content and theme, with the most authoritative being the Vedas. The position of women in Hinduism is widely dependent on the specific text and the context. Positive references are made to the ideal woman in texts such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, while some texts such as the Manu Smriti advocate a restriction of women's rights. In modern times the Hindu wife has traditionally been regarded as someone who must at all costs remain chaste or pure.[2] This is in contrast with the very different traditions that have prevailed at
earlier times in 'Hindu' kingdoms, which included highly respected professional courtesans (such as Amrapali of Vesali), sacred devadasis, mathematicians and female magicians (the basavis, the Tantric kulikas). Some European scholars observed in the nineteenth century Hindu women were "naturally chaste" and "more virtuous" than other women, although what exactly they meant by that is open to dispute. In any case, as male foreigners they would have been denied access to the secret and sacred spaces that women often inhabited.[3] Mahabharata and Manusmriti asserts that gods are delighted only when women are worshiped or honoured, otherwise all spiritual actions become futile.[4]
Contents
[hide]1 Gender of God 2 Women in Rig Vedic hymns 3 Status of Mother s in Hindu Scriptur e 4 Propert y rights 5 Study of scriptur es 6 Educati on 7 Marriag e 7 . 1 D o w r y 7.1.
"All other sins are expiable but he who is cursed the mother never liberated." "An outcast father may be forsaken, but not the mother, she is never an outcast to the son". "One conquers this world through respect for the mother, the middle religion (the firmament) through respect for the father, and through service to the preceptor one gains the region of Brahman." "Janani Janmabhumischa Svargadapi Gariasi" i.e. The mother and the motherland are superior to heaven
[edit] Education
Katyayana's Varttika 125, 2477 mentions that there were female teachers of grammar. Patanjali wrote in his comments to Ashtadhyayi 3.3.21 and 4.1.14, that women undergo the thread ceremony before beginning their education, and says that women studied grammar[citation needed].
[edit] Marriage
The most sacred part of the Hindu wedding ceremony involves circumambulating the sacred fire in seven steps to a Vedic mantra where the groom addresses his wife. In the Manu Smriti, on the other hand, 8 types of marriage are specified: two involve bedecking the bride with costly garments and ornaments before giving her away, two involve the groom's family giving a gift to the family of the bride, and the other four do not involve an exchange of gifts. According to Manusmriti there are eight different types of Hindu marriages. Among the eight types all didn't have religious sanction. The last four were not religiously defined and were condemned. These are: Brahma Marriage, Daiva Marriage, Arsha Marriage, Prajapatya Marriage, Gandharva Marriage, Asura Marriage, Rakshasa Marriage, Paishacha Marriage. In Brahma marriage, once the boy completes his Brahmacharya Ashram (religious student hood), he is eligible to get married. His parents then approach the parents or guardian of a girl belonging to a good family and ask them for the hand of their daughter for their son. The father of the girl also carefully chooses the bridegroom who is well versed in Vedas and of a noble character. This is how a Brahma marriage was arranged. The bride came with only two garments and few ornaments. According to Dharmashastras "Brahma Vivah" is the best marriage among all.``The son born of the Brahma marriage sanctifies 21 GENERATION.-(that of the Daiva marriage 14 generations that of Arsha marriage and Kayah marriage six each.') The Manusmriti enjoins, "'Let mutual fidelity continue until death.' This may be considered the summation of the highest law for husband and wife. (Manu Smriti IX 101) Rigvedic verses suggest that the women married at a mature age and were probably free to select their husband.[11] The wedding hymn in the Rigveda (RV 10.85.37-38) speaks of "husbands" (plural) for a single wife, but this may have a mythological character.[11]
[edit] Dowry
The practice of dowry is not endorsed by orthodox Hinduism and "may be a perversion of Sanskritic marriage prescriptions."[12] Dowries are linked to caste status: among higher castes a dowry is expected from the girl's family; among lower caste families the dowry is paid to the girl's family.[13] As a result, the prevalence of dowry increases with the processes known as "Sanskritisation" and urbanization; abuse of the practice has thus increased in recent years.[12] [edit] Polygamy Thus certain mantras in Vedas describe demerits of Polygamy. - Rig Veda 10.105.8 compares existence of multiple wives with multiple worldly miseries.[14] - Rig Veda 10.101.11 states that a man with two wives is pressed from both sides and weeps like a horse that neighs when pressed from both sides by spokes while driving a chariot. - Rig Veda 10.101.11 state that two wives make life aimless. - Atharva Veda 3.18.2 prays that may a woman never face threat of another co-wife.
However, other mantras in the Vedas seem to support polygamy. - Rig Veda 1.62.11 states that "As yearning wives cleave to their yearning husband, so cleave our hymns to thee, O Lord most potent." [15]
[edit] Divorce
Hinduism in general disapproves of divorce. A divorced woman is generally forced to live as a widow. However in theological terms, both the Manusamhita and the Arthashastra state that if a husband is impotent, a traitor, an ascetic or an outcast, or missing for a prescribed number of years, the wife may leave him without blame and marry again. The Arthashastra also declares that in other circumstances, divorce can take place only by mutual consent. Manu discusses situations where the wife wishes to return to her first husband, whether she has simply deserted him or married another.
[edit] Sati
Main article: Sati (practice) "A Hindu Suttee" Sati (as verb) is the act of immolation of a woman on her husband's funeral pyre. Sati (as noun) refers to one who either immolated herself willingly or through societal inducement and compulsion. Sati was ideally performed as an act of immortal love, and was believed to purge the couple of all accumulated sin. (Sati was practiced by the ancient peoples of Scythia, Egypt, Scandinavia and China).[citation needed] Though no scripture mandates sati, the Puranas, part of the Hindu Smriti, mention sati as highly meritorious in several instances. A few examples of sati are recorded in the Hindu epics, which are otherwise replete with influential widows. Some examples from the Mahabharata include:
Several of Vasudeva's wives (Rohini, Devaki, Bhadraa and Madira) [M.Bh. Mausalaparvan 7.18]. Madri, second wife of Pandu, who held herself responsible for his death, performed sati. His first wife Kunti did not. [M.Bh. Adiparvan 95.65] Moreover, Kunti in the Mahabharata even had a son before marriage (Karna,given as boon by Sun God), but went on to become a queen by marrying another man (king Pandu). This tale shows that society valued women more for their qualities of intelligence, determination, loyalty and leadership over personal and private issues like pre-marital virginity. Needless to say, Kunti, in spite of her pre-marital indiscretion, not only married a king, but also remained highly respected and loved by all (family and others) throughout her entire long life, and did not choose to commit sati at the time of her husband's death.
[edit] Notes
1. ^ Jayapalan (2001). Indian society and social institutions. Atlantic Publishers & Distri.. p. 145,146. ISBN 9788171569250. http://books.google.co.in/books? id=gVo1I4SIqOwC&pg=PA145. 2. ^ Sarkar, Tanika (2001). Hindu Wife, Hindu Nation: Community, Religion and Cultural Nationalism. New Delhi: Permanent Black. .[page needed] 3. ^ Abbe Jean Antoine Dubois, Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies, translated from the French by Henry King Beauchamp, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1897) 4. ^ (ManuSmriti 3.56) (Mahabharata 13-45.5), Mcave, Prabhkara (1979). Hinduism, its contribution to science and civilisation. ISBN 9780706908053. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=BzggAAAAMAAJ. "In Manu Smriti 3.56 and Mahabharata 13-45.5 it was said: Yatra ... Where women are worshipped, there the Gods are delighted. But where they are not worshipped, all religious ceremonies become futile" 5. ^ ARGALA STOTRUM 6. ^ R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker, editors, The History and Culture of the Indian People. Volume I: The Vedic age, (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1951), p.424 7. ^ "Rig Veda, Book 10. HYMN CLIX. Saci Paulomi". http://www.sacredtexts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10159.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-24. 8. ^ "Rig Veda, Book 8. HYMN XXXIII. Verse 17. Saci Paulomi". http://www.sacredtexts.com/hin/rigveda/rv08033.htm. 9. ^ Bhag-P 1.4.25 10. ^ Vasuda Narayanan, Women of Power in the Hindu tradition 11. ^ a b R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.394. 12. ^ a b Miller, Barbara Stoler (1993). Sex and gender hierarchies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 3834. ISBN 0-521-42368-6. 13. ^ Jeaneane Fowler. Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices (The Sussex Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices). Brighton: Sussex Academic Press. p. 54. ISBN 1-89872360-5. 14. ^ http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_10/Hymn_105 15. ^ http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_1/Hymn_62 16. ^ a b Bowker, John H.; Holm, Jean (1994). Women in religion. London: Continuum. p. 79. ISBN 0-8264-5304-X. 17. ^ C. J. Fuller (2004). The Camphor Flame: popular Hinduism and society in India. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-691-12048-X. 18. ^ "Aid plan for India's 33m widows". BBC News. 2007-12-22. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7157979.stm.
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